Geographic Overview.

Occupying the southwest part of South America, Chile is normally divided into three geographic areas:  The latitudinal width of the country, which spans over 39° (over 72° if the Chilean Antarctic Territory is included) its elevation and influence of the Pacific Ocean are the main factors behind the climatic variety and landscape of Chile, which determines the development of the formation of different ecosystems in the country.  The main Chilean attractions are the 6,435 km long coast, the Andean ski resorts, the mountains and volcanoes, and the islands and archipelagos, including Easter Island. The country has 14 natural monuments, 36 National Parks, 10 biosphere reserves, 52 natural reserves, 39 sanctuaries of Nature, and 12 Ramsar wetlands, mainly in the extreme parts of the country.  Souvenirs one can buy in Chile include wines, copper etches, wood carvings, and textiles.

Norte Grande.

The Atacama Desert, the driest desert in the world was picked in October 2014 by Lonely Planet to be among the 10 top travel regions of 2015. The desert, which has been inhabited for several thousand years, makes up the main portion of the Norte Grande. A myriad of geoglyphs, petroglyphs and pictographs attest the presence of ancient cultures in the area. Among the most remarkable are those of Azapa Valley, Lluta Valley, the Atacama Giant and Pintados Geoglyphs, these latter are protected within the Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve. R. P. Gustavo Le Paige Archaeological Museum and the Archaeological Museum of San Miguel de Azapa are home to the most important collections of artifacts and mummies in Chile, including the famous Chinchorro mummies, the oldest mummies in the world, of the Chinchorro culture buried between 5000 and 1700. C. The extreme aridity of the Atacama has been a key factor in the preservation of such archaeological remains.  The Chuquicamata copper deposit boasts the largest open pit mine in the world and the remains of extractions made from 12,000 and 10,000 years ago in an iron oxide mine, the oldest mine in the continent.  Arica is a coastal city with beautiful beaches and is also a starting point for travelers heading east to Putre for enjoying the majestic Puna landscape of Lauca National Park. Southward from Lauca, Volcán Isluga National Park includes ceremonial sites for the Aymara people.  Inland from Iquique, the desolate pampas are home to a few scattered towns and villages. Among those, the most interesting is the ghost town of Humberstone, declared World Heritage by UNESCO in 2005. In this area the tamarugo forests of the Pampa del Tamarugal break the barren monotony of the landscape.  The altiplano of Norte Grande has a wide variety of natural scenery including salt flats, volcanoes, lakes and geysers. San Pedro de Atacama and surrounding area offer one of the most spectacular combinations of archeology and awe-inspiring natural sights. San Pedro was the cradle of the Atacameño Culture. Villages with interesting cultural past are Caspana, Toconao, Socaire and Chiu Chiu. Notable are also the pre-Hispanic fortresses of Quitor, Lasana and Turi. Antofagasta is the largest city in Norte Grande. La Portada, a stunning natural arch, is located a short drive from Antofagasta.  Pan de Azúcar National Park is a park where sea and desert meet.  Also, there more than a dozen of astronomical facilities, including optical observatories and radio observatories. Among others, the most important are: Paranal (VLT), at an altitude of 2635 meters above sea level, is the world's most advanced and powerful astronomical observatory. the ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter Array), to date the largest astronomical project in the world; and La Silla, all dependent of ESO (European Southern Observatory).  In this area can be seen the flowering desert, a phenomenon that occurs between September and November with normal range rainfall in the desert. In the end of the Norte Grande, near Putre, is the Lake Chungará, one of the highest lakes in the world at 4500 m above sea level, and Parinacota volcano. San Pedro de Atacama is frequently visited by foreign tourists who go to appreciate the architecture of the town, the highland lakes, and the Moon Valley, so named because its landscape resembles the moon.  The coastal resorts of the Norte Grande, like Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, see an increase in national tourism during the summer months.

Norte Chico.

The Andes of Norte Chico are home to many of the highest volcanoes in the world, the highlight being the Ojos del Salado, the highest active volcano in the world at 6,891.3 meters tall and the highest peak in Chile. It is also the second highest peak in the Southern and Western hemispheres. Apart from Ojos del Salado and other volcanoes, attractions in this portion of the Andes include Nevado Tres Cruces National Park and Laguna Verde.  Norte Chico boasts some of the best beaches and exclusive coastal resorts in the country, such as Bahía Inglesa and those of La Serena, and Coquimbo. These also see an increase in national tourism during the summer months.  The clear skies of Norte Chico and its world-renowned infrastructure have made it ideal for astronomical tourism.  Elqui Valley is a very popular destination. In January 2015, the travel section of "The New York Times" said the Elqui Valley as the 5th of the 52 places it had to visit in 2015. Here, the dazzling green of the valley floor contrasts nicely with the barren brown slopes of the mountains that flank it.  Also found within Norte Chico is El Tatio Geyser Field, the largest geyser fields in the Southern Hemisphere and the third largest in the world.  The syncretism between Aymara tradition and Catholicism has produced festivals and religious traditions, such as those dedicated to Virgen del Carmen in La Tirana and to Virgin of Andacollo, and carnivals. The Baile chino, one of the manifestations of religious fervor, was declared Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2014.

Zona Central.

This area is home to the main ski resorts in Chile, which attract a significant number of tourists from the northern hemisphere because the reversed alpine skiing season. They are Chapa Verde, Portillo, Valle Nevado and Termas de Chillán. Furthermore, Wine tourism is common in Zona Central, and the Wine Routes of the Casablanca, Cachapoal and Colchagua valleys are some of the finest in Chile.  Apart from the national capital itself and its many attractions, the metropolitan region surrounding Santiago includes several attractions such as the Cajón del Maipo, Pomaire, and some of the oldest vineyards in the country, as well as various archaeological sites.  Due to its proximity to the capital, the coast of the Valparaiso Region has the largest number of tourists during the summer months, primarily on the central coast and in Viña del Mar. The latter city is considered the "tourist capital of Chile" thanks to its thirteen beaches, its various entertainment centers, one of major casinos in the country, and the International Song Festival of Viña del Mar, the largest and best-known festival of Latin America.  Valparaíso is a wonderful, amphitheater-shaped city, whose historic quarter has been recognized as a World Heritage Site.  Santiago, the capital and main urban center of Chile, home to many historic sites and heritage. Within the Greater Santiago, there are 174 heritage sites under the custody of National Monuments Council (CMN), among which are archaeological, architectural and historical monuments, in addition to typical or picturesque areas. Of these, 93 are located within the commune of Santiago, considered the "historic center" of the city Although no Santiagan monument was even declared World Heritage by UNESCO, three have already been proposed by the Chilean government: the Incan sanctuary cerro El Plomo, the church and convent of San Francisco and Palace of La Moneda Meanwhile, in June 2012, the magazine "National Geographic" listed the Central Market of Santiago as fifth out of the ten best in the world. In January 2011, the travel section of "The New York Times" listed the city of Santiago as the first of the 41 places it had to visit that year, while TripAdvisor considered it the sixth best destination of South America in 2012.  The O'Higgins Region, south of Santiago, is known as "Huaso country" for its rural "criollo" culture. Pichilemu, in the O'Higgins Region, is reputed to have the best beaches for Surfing in Chile, if not the world. Other tourist sites in the O'Higgins region include the historically significant city of Rancagua, and the Rio de los Cipreses nature reserve.  Furthermore, in this area of the country are El Teniente, the most underground mine of copper in the world, and the mining town of Sewell, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2006.  Further south in the Maule and Bio Bio regions are the Radal Siete Tazas National Reserve and Laguna del Laja National Park.

Zona Sur.

Araucanía Region is the heartland of the Mapuche people. This area exhibits an incipient development of Indigenous tourism, in different sectors. in the coastal area of Araucania Ethnological tourism is developed on the banks Mapuche Budi Lake.  The Chilean Patagonia, the circuit of the Seven Lakes and various national parks like Conguillío, Vicente Pérez Rosales, the oldest in Chile and most visited of the country in 2011; Puyehue National Park between others.  The Andean sector of Araucania, highlight the great national parks, such as Conguillio National Park the forest of araucarias, Villarrica National Park, huerquehue National Park, Tolhuaca National Park besides the national reserves as Alto Biobio National Reserve, Malalcahuello National Reserve, Nalcas National Reserve, Malleco National Reserve, China Muerta National Reserve.  The capital of Araucania is Temuco, city of different service, hotels, tourist circuits, airport, markets, and the symbolic and historic sectors, the Cerro Ñielol Natural Monument is an icon of this city, and the most important tourist point.  Valdivia is one of Chile's most beautiful cities, recognition received mainly because of its lush natural surrounding. South from the city lies the colonial Valdivian Fort System.  Also in this area of the country are the Lake O'Higgins, the deepest lake of the Americas and fifth in the world with 836 meters; On the other hand, several studies have located the oldest archaeological remains of the current Chilean continental territory in Monte Verde, Los Lagos Region, about 14,800 B.C., at the end of Upper Paleolithic, making it the first known human settlement in the Americas.  The Lake District is characterized by piedmont lakes crowned by snowcapped volcanoes, whose lower flanks are covered with lush forests of native trees. Lovely lake-resort towns and villages dot the lakesides, chiefly Pucón, Villarrica, Frutillar and Puerto Varas. Puerto Montt is the tourist hub of the region; two of them, were considered among the best destinations in South America in 2012 by the specialized tourism site TripAdvisor.  The almost perfect cone of Osorno Volcano is an iconic landmark in the region, as is Villarrica Volcano, which is one of the few volcanoes in the world that has an active Lava lake.  As an added bonus, this zone includes the granite domes of the Cochamó Valley.

Zona Austral.

Zona Austral is a premier destination for Ecotourism and Adventure travel. It features countless islands and islets, a maze of steep-sided fjords and channels, large glaciers and icefields and exuberant unspoilt temperate rainforests. Turbulent rivers descend from the Andes, chief of those being the Futaleufú River, which is widely considered one of the world's most challenging rivers for whitewater kayaking and rafting. Other opportunities for outdoor recreation, include hiking, cycling, sea kayaking and flyfishing.  Chiloé is characterized by having a rolling green countryside, but is better known for its peculiar wooden architecture and for its culture, which is full of myths and traditions. Also is remarkable its temperate rainforests.  The scenic Carretera Austral crosses or is nearby to many of the most popular destinations in this portion of Chile. Those include Pumalín Park, Yelcho Lake, Queulat National Park, Cerro Castillo National Reserve, General Carrera Lake and Caleta Tortel.  Laguna San Rafael National Park is the only park where visitors can contemplate at the same time the huge glaciers of Patagonia and the rich diversity of plants of the Valdivian Ecoregion.  Torres del Paine was selected as the eighth wonder of the world in 2013;, one of the most beautiful national parks in the world.  In the ice fields, the Glacier Pío XI (or Brüggen), the longest glacier in the southern hemisphere outside the Antarctic, and one of the few advancing glaciers in the world; and Puerto Williams, the southernmost city in the world  The sprawling glaciers of the Cordillera Darwin, which is contained within Alberto de Agostini National Park, are reachable only by boat. Other typical destinations are Puerto Williams and Cape Horn.

Chile insular.

In the middle of the Pacific Ocean, Easter Island, is world-renowned for its unique cultural and natural heritage. Traditionally called "Rapa Nui" and previously known as "Te pito o te henua" ("The navel of the world") and "Mata ki te rangi" ('eyes looking at the sky'), it is one of the main tourist destinations in Chile because of its natural landscapes and mysterious ancient culture of Rapa Nui people that since time immemorial, developed completely isolated for centuries until it almost became extinct in the mid-19th century. Its most notable feature is the over 1,000 enormous and mysterious statues known as moai, which have been shrouded in mystery since their discovery. To preserve these characteristics, the government has designated, through the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF), the island as Rapa Nui National Park, while UNESCO declared this park as a World Heritage Site in 1995. It is named Easter Island because it was discovered on Easter Sunday in 1722.  Among the activities that can be carried out in "Rapa Nui" are different excursions and tours, visiting the craft market, the Padre Sebastián Englert Anthropological Museum, the ceremonial center Tahai, the quarries of Puna Pau and Rano Raraku, visiting the different "ahus" on the beaches of Anakena and Ovahe, seeing the archaeological site of Orongo, witnessing shows with music and island dances, and the annual festival "Tapati Rapa Nui", the main artistic and cultural activity of the island, where a series of ceremonies and traditions are performed.  The Juan Fernández archipelago is also well known for its jungles and endemic flora, formed by the islands Robinson Crusoe, Santa Clara and Alexander Selkirk. The geological origin of these islands is volcanic and their subtropical weather is rainy. The activities that can be performed are varied, among them hiking, horseback riding, snorkeling, spearfishing, fishing, and observation of flora and fauna, which is mostly endemic. The Juan Fernández Islands are also known for being inhabited by Alexander Selkirk, the man who inspired the novel Robinson Crusoe. The islands were previously named Island Mas Afuera, and Island Mas a Tierra, but in 1966 the Chilean government renamed the Island Más Afuera to Alejandro Selkirk Island and Island Más a Tierra to Robinson Crusoe Island, in order to promote tourism. Incidentally, Selkirk never set foot on Alejandro Selkirk Island, only on Robinson Crusoe Island. The islands can be accessed by air and sea routes.

Chilean Antarctic Territory.

According to information gathered by the National Tourism Service (Sernatur), 35,000 tourists visited the Antarctic in the 2012–2013 season, 32% more than in the 2011–2012 season, when it was visited by 26,500 people. 34% of those visitors were Europeans (34%). Of the total percentage of visitors, 5% were from Chile.

Winter Tourism.

In Chile from June to September it is possible to practice Winter Sports, especially skiing and snowboarding During the Andes, between the regions of Valparaíso and Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica, there are eighteen ski resorts of international quality, as Portillo, the oldest ski resort in South America and home to the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1966, and Valle Nevado, which has one of the largest ski areas in South America

World Heritage Sites in Chile.

As part of the cultural heritage of Chile, there are buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, nature, architecture, handicraft, artistic, ethnographic, folk, historical, religious or technological scattered throughout the Chilean territory. Among them are those assets declared World Heritage by UNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are:

Ethical Traveler Destination.

Chile has been included in the 2010, 2011 and 2012 lists of ""The Developing World's 10 Best Ethical Destinations"." This is an annual ranking produced by Ethical Traveler magazine, which is based on a study of developing nations from around the world to identify the best tourism destinations among them. The benchmarking uses categories such as environmental protection, social welfare, and human rights.

Touristic Projects.

Within Bicentennial projects, the National Tourism Service (Sernatur), a dependent entity of the Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism, launched in 2011 the first circuit of the touristic project "Rutas Chile", which aims to bring "more distinctive elements [...] in geographical matters, cultural, heritage and tourism [integrating] fundamental elements of national identity, the presence of featured tourist products [...] and the existence of road structure." These tourist routes cover the fifteen regions of Chile and are formed according to a main theme, which is determined by the contents available along the route.  In the table below are named the eleven tourist circuits and the corresponding regions of Chile, in.

Hotel industry.

The availability of hotel beds reaches over 22,500 in Santiago. According to Sernatur, and according to services they offer and the requirements with which they comply, there are ten five star hotels in Chile. Ordered from north to south, those hotels are:

Since the mid-1990s, tourism in Chile has become one of the main sources of income for the country, especially in its most extreme areas. In 2005, this sector grew by 13.6%, generating more than US$500 million, equivalent to 1.33% of the national GDP.


Background.

"Door to Door" was the group's last studio album before they disbanded in 1988. It was also the last Cars record to feature Benjamin Orr before his death in 2000. The band would not release another studio album until 2011's "Move Like This".  Although by 1987 the Cars had reached the heights of superstardom, their last few albums had relied heavily on studio tricks and machines but this album was an attempt to move back to the group's original roots. For example, where the previous album, "Heartbeat City", extensively used sampled and sequenced drums (a move that had somewhat alienated drummer David Robinson), this album returned to having Robinson performing the drums in the studio, often simultaneously with other band members  During a writing jam session, the band began to play "Ta Ta Wayo Wayo", a song from their earliest days together. It had never been recorded in the studio, except as a demo in 1977. They enjoyed the tune so much that the 1987 version of the song made it onto the album. The opening track, "Leave or Stay", also was originally a 1977 demo that was not properly recorded until "Door to Door", although they had often played the song live in the band's early days. Both tracks had their respective 1977 demo versions eventually issued on the 1995 compilation "".  While the original album bears the credit "Produced by Ric Ocasek", individual tracks from this record that appear on various Cars compilations bear the credit "Produced by Ric Ocasek and Greg Hawkes".  The lead single of the album, "You Are the Girl", reached number #17 on the Billboard 100 as well as reaching number #2 on the rock charts. The follow-up single, "Strap Me In", only scraped into the top 100, peaking at #85, although it was much more successful on the rock charts, where it reached #4. The final single released, "Coming Up You", peaked at 74 on the charts and was also a moderate hit on the adult contemporary charts.

Door to Door is the sixth studio album by the American rock band the Cars. It was released in 1987 on Elektra Records.


History.

The ancient site of the city was first settled from the late ninth or early eighth centuries BCE by the Messapians. In the late sixth century BCE it developed in importance and, even after it had been partially Hellenised during the period of Magna Graecia, it still retained its native traditions. According to Aulus Gellius, the poet Ennius referred to the linguistic and cultural heritage given him by the city in asserting that he had "three hearts", Greek, Oscan and Latin ("Quintus Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, quod loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret").  Rudiae is identified with the archaeological remains found in the immediate outskirts of Lecce. These comprise traces of an amphitheatre, a necropolis and two city walls built of tuff. In the past the walls were towered and defended by a ditch 4 km long. Judging by the extent of these, its entire area covered some 100 hectares, twice the size of nearby Lupiae (as Lecce was then called) in the Roman period. Later the city lost importance and by the first century CE, according to Silius Italicus, was reduced to a modest village even as its neighbour was growing in size and importance.  From the archaeological standpoint, however, Rudiae seems to have played the role of stylistic and distribution centre for funerary pottery over a considerable period. It is recognised as the most important site for both quantity and quality of such vases used in the Messapian region. Almost all local discoveries are housed in the Sigismondo Castromediano Museum in Lecce.

References.

Part of the article is translated from the Italian Wikipedia

Rudiae ("Rusce" in the local dialect and Ῥοδίαι in ancient Greek), is presently an archaeological park beside the Via San Pietro in Lama that runs south-west from the city of Lecce. The place was identified as the former home of the poet Ennius by the Renaissance Humanist, Antonio de Ferraris.


Song information.

The lyrics were written and the music composed by Feldman himself and the famous songwriter Jean-Marie Moreau. According to the expert of French chart Elia Habib, the song is a "romantic ballad, whose identity remains a salve savour in the subject as well as in the musical coloration". The song is based on a pun and all the text is declined as well, juggling with the likeness and the consonance of terms between them (e.g. "dans la Rome antique, errent les romantiques"). The part played by the violins was written by Thierry Durbet. The song was also included on the singer's best of, "Two Feldman".  The music video features Feldman with a young girl who portrayed his daughter and who tries to comfort her father because he is separated from her mother. The cover on the CD maxi and vinyls is a screenshot from the video.

Chart performances.

In France, the single started at #38 on 23 November 1989, then climbed quickly and entered the top ten three weeks later. It was blocked for four weeks at #2 by Roch Voisine's huge hit "Hélène". Then it reached #1 for four weeks, was displace by "Hélène" for two weeks, then returned at the top of the list for two additional weeks. Almost continual dropping from the list followed and left the (Top 50) chart after 23 weeks. It achieved Gold status awarded by the SNEP and is currently the 548th best-selling single in French recording history.  In 2003, the French program "Top 50: 50 numéros 1 de légende" revealed that the song was the 26th best received number-one hit of the Top 50 (SNEP Singles Chart) thanks to the votings of the TV viewers.

"Les Valses de Vienne" is a 1989 song originally recorded by the French artist François Feldman for his 1989 album, "Une Présence" and was the second singles release from that album in November of the same year. It achieved great success in France, topping the chart for six nonconsecutive weeks, and remains Feldman's signature song and a classic of 1980s French music.


Themes.

Stephenson explores the GUI as a metaphor in terms of the increasing interposition of abstractions between humans and the actual workings of devices (in a similar manner to "Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance") and explains the beauty hackers feel in good-quality tools. He does this with a car analogy. He compares four operating systems, Mac OS by Apple Computer to a luxury European car, Windows by Microsoft to a station wagon, Linux to a free tank, and BeOS to a batmobile. Stephenson argues that people continue to buy the station wagon despite free tanks being given away, because people do not want to learn how to operate a tank; they know that the station wagon dealership has a machine shop that they can take their car to when it breaks down. Because of this attitude, Stephenson argues that Microsoft is not really a monopoly, as evidenced by the free availability of other choice OSes, but rather has simply accrued enough mindshare among the people to have them coming back. He compares Microsoft to Disney, in that both are selling a vision to their customers, who in turn "want to believe" in that vision.  Stephenson relays his experience with the Debian bug tracking system (#6518). He then contrasts it with Microsoft's approach. Debian developers responded from around the world within a day. He was completely frustrated with his initial attempt to achieve the same response from Microsoft, but he concedes that his subsequent experience was satisfactory. The difference he notes is that Debian developers are personally accessible and transparently own up to defects in their OS distribution, while Microsoft pretends errors don't exist.

Later developments.

The essay was written before the advent of Mac OS X. A recurring theme is the full power of the command line compared with easier to learn graphical user interfaces (GUIs) which are described as broken mixed metaphors for 'power users'. He then mentions GUIs which allow traditional terminal windows to be used. In a Slashdot interview in 2004, in response to the question: ... have you embraced the new UNIX based MacOS X as the OS you want to use when you "Just want to go to Disneyland"?  he replied: I embraced OS X as soon as it was available and have never looked back. So a lot of "In the Beginning...was the Command Line" is now obsolete. I keep meaning to update it, but if I'm honest with myself, I have to say this is unlikely.  With Neal Stephenson's permission, Garrett Birkel responded to "In the Beginning...was the Command Line" in 2004, bringing it up to date and critically discussing Stephenson's argument. Birkel's response is interspersed throughout the original text, which remains untouched.

In the Beginning... Was the Command Line is an essay by Neal Stephenson which was originally published online in 1999 and later made available in book form (November 1999, ). The essay is a commentary on why the proprietary operating systems business is unlikely to remain profitable in the future because of competition from free software. It also analyzes the corporate/collective culture of the Microsoft, Apple, and free software communities.


Biography.

Born and educated in Sydney, Swan attended Canterbury High School where he was Dux in 1935. After school he joined the Rural Bank of New South Wales, studying part-time at the University of Sydney. In 1940 he received a bachelor of economics with First Class Honours and was awarded the gold medal, the first time it had been awarded on the basis of part-time study; he was appointed an assistant lecturer at the University of Sydney. From 1942 to 1950 he was employed in government service, as an economist in the Department of War Organization of Industry, secretary to the War Commitments Committee, chairman of the Food Priorities Committee, joint secretary of the Joint Administrative Planning Sub-Committee of the Defence Committee, chief economist of the Department of Post-War Reconstruction, and, from 1949, chief economist of the Department of the Prime Minister. During this period he contributed to the White Paper on Full Employment which set the framework for Australian macroeconomic policy in the postwar decades.  In 1950, he was appointed as the first chair of economics created at the Australian National University, remaining Professor of Economics until his retirement in 1983. He built up a strong department with such figures as Noel Butlin and Ivor Pearce.  In 1975 he was appointed to the Board of the Reserve Bank of Australia and reappointed in 1980. He played a small role in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, by suggesting to his friend, the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, that the banks could assist in ensuring the government had funds to meet its obligations, during the period when Supply was being threatened by the Opposition in the Senate.  In 2007, in an address to the American Economic Association celebrating the 50th anniversary of his 1956 contribution, Robert Solow reminded his audience that, "If you have been interested in growth theory for a while, you probably know that Trevor Swan—who was a splendid macroeconomist—also published a paper on growth theory in 1956. In that article, you can find the essentials of the basic neoclassical model of economic growth."  Swan was noted by Paul Krugman in his "New York Times" blog: "There's an oldie but goodie in international macro known as the Swan Diagram — not instructions for making an origami swan, but the insightful analysis developed by the Australian economist Trevor Swan."  He died in 1989.

Trevor Winchester Swan (14 January 1918 – 15 January 1989) was an Australian economist. He is best known for his work on the Solow–Swan growth model, published simultaneously by American economist Robert Solow, for his work on integrating internal and external balance as represented by the Swan Diagram, and for pioneering work in macroeconomic modeling, which predated that of Lawrence Klein but remained unpublished until 1989.


History.

He was born in Brittany, France. In 1901 he arrived in Tonkin after having joined the Société des Missions-Etrangères de Paris (MEP). He was 25 years old at the time.  Initially Savina worked with Hmong in Lào Cai, Vietnam. From 1906 to 1925 Savina worked with the Hmong people in Yunnan, China, and also with Hmong in northern French Indochina. From 1918 to 1921 Savina had an official assignment in Laos. Beginning in 1925 he worked as an ethnographic field research representative of the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO). During that assignment he was based in Hainan and made frequent trips to Hong Kong where he interacted with a printing house of the MEP. This assignment ended in 1928.  He resumed his missionary activities in 1939 and moved to Ha Giang in Upper Tonkin. He was hospitalized in Hanoi after he came down with pneumonia in March 1941. At age 65 he died on July 23 of that year.

Publications.

Savina collected his own data to build eight dictionaries of languages of Southeast Asia, including those in highland and lowland areas. The dictionaries and four lexicons he wrote combined have a total of over 5,000 pages; these were published from 1911 to 1939. Savina also wrote histories and ethnographic texts. Many of his works are about the Hmong people. Savina's publications discuss the Ao, Be, Chinese, Day, Hiai, Hoklo, Miao, Nung, Tay, and Vietnamese languages. His works appeared in academic journals of the era.  Savina wrote "Histoire des Miao", published in 1924, and "Monographie de Hainan" ("Monograph of Hainan Island"), published in 1929. Of Savina's writings, "Histoire des Miao" is the most well-known and the most often cited. He wrote a 1920 confidential report titled "Rapport politique sur la révolte des Méos au Tonkin et au Laos."

François Marie Savina (20 March 1876 – 23 July 1941) was a Frenchman who worked as a Catholic priest and as an anthropologist. For an approximately forty-year period he worked in the Upper-Tonkin Vicariate, Hainan, and Laos. He studied the Hmong people of northern Vietnam and Laos as he was asked to spread Christianity to them. Nicholas Tapp, author of "The Impossibility of Self: An Essay on the Hmong Diaspora", described Savina as "One of our earliest informants who is at all frank about the nature of his day-today encounters with the Hmong". Charles Keith, author of "Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation", wrote that Savina was "[t]he most notable" missionary ethnographer of Southeast Asia of his era.


Early life.

Bour Kry was born in Battambang and was ordained as a Buddhist monk in 1963. His early years in the monkhood were devoted to the study of the Pali Canon. In the following years, he was given the spiritual post of Secretary of the Mekon and appointed to the head of a monastery on the Thai-Cambodian border.

Exile in France.

The rise to power of the Khmer Rouge in 1975 began a grim and violent period for the country, and the existence of the Cambodian Sangha was put in critical danger. Bour Kry managed to flee, arriving in France in 1976. In 1977, he founded the Association Bouddhique Khmer (Khmer Buddhist Association) with a small group of expatriate monks and laypersons. The growth of this religious community in the following years led to the establishment of Vatt Khémararam at Créteil, a suburb of Paris, in 1980. Bour Kry's continued support for the Southeast Asian refugee community saw the foundation of Secours Bouddhique International (International Buddhist Assistance), a humanitarian organization independent of the monastery, in 1982.

Royal nominations.

Prince Norodom Sihanouk appointed Bour Kry to the rank of Spiritual Eminence () in 1987. Following the signing of the Paris Agreement in 1991, King Norodom Sihanouk further appointed Bour Kry to the head of the Cambodian Buddhist Dhammayuttika order with the title of Supreme Patriarch ().

Social and religious activities.

After 1991 Bour Kry returned regularly to Cambodia to assist in the reconstruction and redevelopment of Buddhist schools and monasteries. The number of Dhammayuttika monasteries has since grown to over 150. The Preah Sihanouk Dhammadhiraj Buddhist Institute was founded in 1995 with the goal of education and professional training for Cambodia's poorest youth, the revitalization of Buddhist teachings, and the introduction of Cambodian youth to Khmer culture and traditions.  Bour Kry has been involved in addressing the spread of AIDS, participating in international discussions on the topic and encouraging the role of the monastery in disseminating health information. He has also been active in spreading information concerning drug and cigarette dependence in Cambodia.

Titles.

As the Supreme Patriarch of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, Bour Kry's full official title is "Samdech Preah Aphiserei Sukonthea Mohasangreacheathipadei (Abhisirī Sugandhā Mahāsangharājādhipati)" (). This title means 'Of Higher Merit and Pure Virtue, Great Supreme Patriarch Leader'. In letters with King-Father Sihanouk, an abbreviated title is used in the valediction: "Samdech Preah Sangreach" ().

Samdech Preah Sanghareach Bour Kry (, ) (born 11 January 1945) is the seventh and current Supreme Patriarch of the Thammayut order of Cambodia.


Cast of characters.

"see "

Plot summary.

Steve "Jetlad" Traynor is aboard a train going directly to Neopolis, a new city created in America that will house all the science heroes, scientists, magicians, vampires and any other'special' person throughout the United States and even parts of the world. On the train, he happens to cross paths with the Skywitch, Leni Muller. The Skywitch and Jetlad were enemies in the beginning of the war, before Leni defected to the Allied Power after learning how evil the Nazi regime truly was. On the same train car they meet a Hungarian man, who is also a vampire, covered in head to toe to save himself from the sun's light. Jetlad and Skywitch reminisce about their past and discuss their future in Neopolis. They share a cab to City Hall where they register and join an assembly to hear from the mayor, John Q. Public. The mayor explains to all the new citizens that the city of Neopolis is a new, social experiment full of the specials of the world, making them paradoxically normal in the city, and to make certain that they do not become vigilantes. After the assembly, Jetlad and Skywitch find a boarding home run by a Betty Doesgood, one of the first citizens of Neopolis. She explains to Steve and Leni that the first citizens of Neopolis were not science heroes but public characters, like Betty Doesgood who ran an advice column. Leni and Steve soon decide to visit a nearby bar to learn their surroundings and for Leni to inquire about a singing job. While in the bar, Leni and Steve meet the members of the Skysharks, a group of international pilots that fought against the Axis Power in World War II. Some of the Skysharks are impressed that Steve Traynor was Jetlad at such a young age. They all sit together and the Skysharks offer Steve Traynor a job at their hangar as a mechanic, which he readily accepts. Soon a pair of vampires enters the bar, demanding that the owner pay some protection money. Jetlad and the Skysharks get up to help the owner and suddenly three police officers, The Maid, Rocket Ryan and Steelgauntlet, enter the bar. The Maid, with her powers being divine, scare the vampires out of the bar, but not before they warn that they will be back. The Skywitch is inspired by the police officers, particularly by the Maid, and asks her if there are any positions available as a police officer. Skywitch is given information on how to reach the city's precinct and is told to apply the next day.  Jetlad works at the Skyshark's hangar as a mechanic and starts a friendship in particular with Wulf. Their conversation sometimes leads to awkward lapses and Jetlad finds himself lying, saying that Leni Muller is his girlfriend. In the hangar's canteen, Sharkey speaks to Jetlad and Wulf, informing them that the mayor of Neopolis may consider shifting power from the police and giving it to the military, to units like the Skysharks. The city of Neopolis is overrun with crime from the vampires and the robot population and Sharkey feels that the military could do a much better job than any police officer. Meanwhile, the Skywitch begins her first day as a police officer in Neopolis. She meets her captain, Doctor Omega, who has Steelgauntlet introduce her to her fellow police officers, including Sea-Knight and Major Lilliput. He then introduces her to her new partner, Black Rider. They go on patrol and shortly stop an act of vigilantism. The pair are then called to the Institute of Science, where pardoned, former Nazi scientists and science heroes work to make Neopolis as advanced as possible through architecture and other ideas. When they arrive at the Institute, they find the body of Herr Panzer, a scientific advisor, on the floor, an apparent victim of murder. Black Rider opens Herr Panzer's helmet to find his skeleton covered in ash. They recruit the assistance of Major Lilliput to bring Herr Panzer's body to the station to be investigated further. The Skywitch tries to interview the Nazi scientists and advisors, but none are forthcoming with motives or any other information. That night, Jetlad and Wulf arrive at the bar near Betty Doesgood's boarding home and find the Skywitch nearby. Still feeling awkward over some of the exchanges he has had with Wulf during the day, Jetlad becomes very forward with Leni, even kissing her in front of Wulf. Leni is very surprised to find Jetlad this way and they both go back to the boarding room, leaving behind a grim Wulf, where they attempt to be intimate, but Jetlad is unable to go very far. That night the vampires that tried to racketeer money from the bar owners arrive back and kill the owner and his wife.  The next morning, things become very awkward between the Skywitch and Jetlad. The Skywitch goes to work where she becomes part of a contingency of officers that are raiding a vampire brothel. The Maid, who's divine powers are the most effective against the undead, is part of the group, as well as Black Rider and Steelgauntlet. They are able to raid the brothel, with the Maid and Skywitch having to kill one male vampire, Miroslav, who runs the prostitution operation. They also arrest a client in the brothel, someone named Junior Q. Public, the mayor's nephew. Meanwhile, Jetlad and Wulf speak to each other at the Skyshark's hangar and they have a talk. Wulf reveals to Jetlad that he is a homosexual and is attracted to him, but that he won't play any immature games. Wulf leaves Jetlad to ponder that information. Meanwhile, the Skywitch and her fellow officers report back to their captain, Doctor Omega, who realizes that the news of the mayor's nephew being arrested may cause John Q. Public to give up on the police department and simply use the military to bring order to Neopolis. Doctor Omega also realizes that the vampire fraternity of crime will retaliate after the events of the brothel raid. After the meeting with the captain, the Skywitch is told that Drang, one of the Nazis who was pardoned and works at the Institute, has come to the precinct to speak to her. They go from the precinct to the Institute, where Drang explains to the Skywitch that she had an affair with Herr Panzer, cheating on her perceived husband, Sturm. She also explains that Sturm was her brother and the Nazi regime forced them into their relationship, to bring forth a master race through their genetics. Drang disliked the idea and fell for Herr Panzer. Herr Panzer, before being killed, had informed Drang that the Iron Mask and Professor Gromolko were undertaking a secret project called the Janons. Gromolko and Iron Mask told everyone that the Janons project was meant to create energy but it was actually a time machine. Their plan was to go into the past and to alter events so that the Nazi regime could win the war. The Skywitch and Black Rider immediately rush to stop the two Nazis and finds that Professor Gromolko has already entered the machine. The Skywitch follows him immediately while the Black Rider holds Iron Mask. The Skywitch is able to stop Professor Gromolko before he could cause any damage with the time stream and brings him back to the present time, even though he and Iron Mask are able to escape. Doctor Omega informs Skywitch and Black Rider how proud he is of them for stopping any damage that Gromolko could have done. Doctor Omega then speaks to Steelgauntlet, telling him that he's heard of a tip that Miroslav's replacement to run the brothel will be getting into town from the train station at a specific time. Steelgauntlet expresses his concern that this may be a trap and Doctor Omega agrees, but cannot allow this opportunity to be squandered, especially with the bad attention they are receiving from the mayor. Meanwhile, Jetlad comes to terms with himself and tells Wulf that he is ready to further their friendship. They both leave the hangar and Sharkey, the Skyshark's leader, stays behind plotting a bomb run for Neopolis, not wanting to wait for the mayor's official sanction in taking care of the crime in the city.  The police officers of Precinct 10 make plans to scope out the train station so they can arrest the incoming vampire meant to run some of their illegal operations in Neopolis. The Maid informs her fellow officers that she will not be available for the bust that night, much to everyone's dismay. The Maid's divine powers make her the most effective against the vampires. This conversation is overheard by a vampire seer, who informs the vampire's leaders that the trap is set and the ambush against the police officers will eradicate them once and for all, especially with the Maid not being there. As the officers leave the Precinct to go to the train station, the Skywitch is approached by Jetlad, who apologizes for his advances. He tells Leni that he is gay and is with Wulf, and hopes that they can remain friends. The Skywitch has too much on her mind and leaves, saying that maybe they could talk later. The police officers are in the train station, awaiting the vampire intended to run some of their illegal operations, when they are ambushed by a plethora of vampires from the city. The press had been informed of the night's bust, so they broadcast the events to all of Neopolis. While the vampires descend on the police, Jetlad rushes to the hangar to grab his plane, Black Beauty, and help Leni and her fellow officers. At the hangar, he finds Wulf on the ground, shot. Wulf explains to Jetlad that he found out that Sharkey and Lars have taken their planes and went to bomb the robot section of town, then the train station, then other crime-riddled areas of town to stop the crime once and for all. Jetlad realizes he has to stop Sharkey and Lars before it's too late and rushes to the sky to stop them. Meanwhile, Doctor Omega plays out his actual plan and informs his fellow officers to use the fire hoses in the station and hit the vampires with the water. He informs them that the Maid went to the city's reservoir to bless the water, effectively making it holy water. They are able to defeat a vast amount of the vampires that very night. The Skywitch is told to go outside to find any lingering vampires when she sees the bomb blasts of Sharkey and Lars. She rushes to the sky on her broomstick while Jetlad is able to take down Lars. Sharkey makes moves to take out Jetlad but the Skywitch arrives in time to save his life, taking Sharkey out at the same time. In the air, the Skywitch and Jetlad make their peace and rebuild their friendship. The next day Jetlad visits Wulf in the hospital. They decide to give their relationship a try and wonder how where life in Neopolis will lead them.

Top 10: The Forty-Niners is a graphic novel published by America's Best Comics in 2005. It is a prequel to the ABC series "Top 10", a police procedural set in the city of Neopolis, where superpowers, robots, monsters, and other comic fodder are the norm for all citizens. It was written by Alan Moore, drawn by Gene Ha, and colored by Art Lyon, with lettering, logos, and design by Todd Klein. Unlike the original series and its spin-off "Smax", it was released in one 112 page edition instead of being released in separate issues and collected later. It won the 2006 Eisner Award in the "Best Graphic Album: New" category.


Early life.

Palmer was born at Footscray Hospital in Footscray, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria on 26 March 1954, and spent his early years in the nearby suburb of Williamstown. His family moved to Queensland in 1963 and Palmer was largely raised on the Gold Coast, where he attended Aquinas College and Southport State High School, although he also attended Toowoomba Grammar School for a short time. Palmer's father, George, was a travel agent, and the family travelled the world extensively. George Palmer was also the proprietor of the Akron Tyre Co and the Akron Broadcasting Co and, thus, the founder of Melbourne broadcasting station 3AK (now operating as SEN 1116).  Palmer studied law, journalism and politics at the University of Queensland from 1973 to 1975, but did not finish the course. He later completed a Diploma of Law through the Queensland Bar Board, and worked as a clerk and interviewing officer for the Public Defender's Office.

Business career.

Real estate.

During the early to mid-1980s Palmer was a real estate agent. He did well from the property boom on the Gold Coast, and "retired" at the age of 29.

Mineralogy.

In 1985 and 1986 Palmer founded three companies which undertook mining exploration in Western Australia. These included Mineralogy, a company which in 2006 had of iron ore reserves in the Pilbara Ranges, in remote northern Western Australia. In 2008, Palmer bought Waratah Coal. Palmer transferred Mineralogy to New Zealand in December 2018, and moved it again to Singapore in January 2019.  Mineralogy has been involved in a long-running dispute with CITIC over a royalty payment. Mineralogy and CITIC entered into an agreement in 2006 to develop some of the iron ore reserves Palmer owns. In November 2017, Justice Kenneth Martin of the Supreme Court of Western Australia awarded Mineralogy nearly $200 million. Palmer said the decision was "a win for Australian law over Chinese Communist government powerhouses". As of May 2019, CITIC was suing Palmer and he had counter-sued them for $5 billion.

Queensland Nickel.

In 2009, he bought Queensland Nickel and the Palmer Nickel and Cobalt Refinery after BHP was going to close the refinery. In the first year after purchasing the refinery, Palmer gifted staff 50 Mercedes Benz cars and thousands of overseas holidays after the refinery turned a huge profit. On 18 January 2016, Queensland Nickel entered voluntary administration. Palmer declined to pay the entitlements of workers who lost their jobs when Queensland Nickel closed, stating that "I have no personal responsibility, I retired from business over three years ago". He also blamed the administrators for sacking the workforce. This forced the Federal Government to cover the workers' entitlements.  In April 2019 Palmer announced that he intended to re-open the Queensland Nickel refinery and pay the $7.16 million still owed to workers following the 2019 federal election.  The Special Purpose Liquidator of Queensland Nickel stated that Palmer's offer was inadequate as it did not cover the money owed to small businesses and was unclear whether he would repay the Federal Government. The Liquidator was seeking $200 million from Palmer, other individuals and related entities, with a trial to take place from July 2019. The Australian Government was also seeking to recover $70 million from Palmer personally to meet the costs of the payments it made to Queensland Nickel workers through the same trial. Palmer stated in April 2019 that the administrators should repay the government as they were responsible for sacking the refinery's workers, and not him. "The Canberra Times" reported that 218 workers were made redundant shortly before the operation was placed into voluntary administration.  In August 2019 Palmer reached a settlement two weeks into a trial in the Queensland Supreme Court. The settlement included repaying the Commonwealth what it had paid under the Fair Entitlements Guarantee (FEG), all other employee entitlements and most unsecured creditors.  Palmer maintained his position that the scheme should never have been triggered by the liquidators in the first place and under the terms of the Settlement Agreement, the Special Purpose Liquidator withdrew all claims the SPL made against Palmer and all of the defendants associated with him. All parties paid their own costs in the court matter. Palmer personally appeared in court and represented himself.

Palmer Coolum Resort: Dinosaur Park.

Palmer purchased the Coolum Hyatt Resort in 2011. He later announced plans to build a park featuring animatronic dinosaurs there. Palmer ordered more than 160 animatronic dinosaurs, which included an initial shipment of a tall, long "T. rex", nicknamed "Jeff". Palmer received full council approval for the park on 25 July 2013, and it was expected to open to the public in 2014. On 14 December 2013, the dinosaur park, now called "Palmersaurus", was opened to the public. Palmer's installation of dinosaurs along the side of the resort's golf course led the Australian PGA Championship to be relocated from it.  The Palmer Coolum Resort was mothballed in 2015 due to low occupancy rates, with 600 people losing their jobs over the period after Palmer purchased the complex. In 2017, the ABC reported that "once regarded as one of south-east Queensland's most prestigious resorts, the site is a shadow of its former self and has been the centre of a legal battle between retirees who own villa shares and Clive Palmer". In 2018 the Australian Securities and Investments Commission charged Palmer with violations of the Corporation Act in relation to an attempt to take over timeshare villas at the resort in 2012. Palmer has stated that the charges are an attempt to stop him standing for election.

Football.

Palmer purchased the Gold Coast United football club in 2008. In October 2009, he made a decision to cap attendances of Gold Coast United home games at Skilled Park stadium to 5,000, in a bid to save money by avoiding transport subsidies on crowds over 5,000. After a widespread backlash and only 2,616 fans attending the next home game, and the intervention of Football Federation Australia (FFA), the idea was scrapped.  On 29 February 2012, Ben Buckley and Frank Lowy announced that Palmer's licence for Gold Coast United FC was to be revoked for constant breaches of FFA rules and regulations and sought to pay out the contracts of the players for the remaining month of the season. Lowy stated that he acted in order to protect the integrity of the sport. However, Palmer stipulated that he would contest the decisions through legal action and claimed Lowy was a dictator. Despite a ruling ordering the removal of "Freedom of Speech" logos on team shirts, Palmer indicated they would remain. On 2 March 2012, Palmer lost his Supreme Court bid against Gold Coast United's expulsion from the A-League.  In 2012, after the FFA revoked his Gold Coast United A-League licence, Palmer founded Football Australia a competing organisation for the sport of football in Australia.

Litigation.

Palmer has frequently been involved in legal cases relating to his businesses, and once listed litigation as one of his hobbies in Who's Who. He at times has been involved in complex cases, and journalist Hedley Thomas has written that Palmer's "lawyers take legal steps, presumably on his instructions, that prolong litigation and rack up costs for the other side" which can result in his opponents being unable to continue their case due to a lack of resources. Palmer has argued that the litigation he is involved in is justified as it rights wrongs.  In August 2019 Palmer reached a settlement in the Queensland Nickel case, understood to total $110m, agreeing to repay the federal government for the entitlements it has already paid, “all other outstanding employee entitlements, and a full recovery for the majority of unsecured creditors”. A small number of debt claims against Palmer's flagship company, Mineralogy, remain in dispute and before the courts. Palmer claimed that the settlement of the debts had left him “vindicated”. “Today’s settlement confirms the actions against me were nothing more than a witch-hunt designed to smear my good reputation”, Palmer said.  In September 2019, Palmer threatened to sue internet comedian Jordan Shanks for $500,000 for defamation relating to a YouTube video posted before the May 2019 election. The video created by Shanks called Palmer a "dense Humpty Dumpty" and a profane nickname that included "Fatty". Shanks responded that he had not defamed Palmer and being required to prove his claims in court would not help Palmer.  In February 2020, it was revealed that Palmer was to appear in Brisbane Magistrates Court on 20 March 2020 to answer four charges, brought by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC), reportedly "for dishonestly gaining an advantage and dishonestly using his position as the director of a corporation". It was not revealed which business activities the charges relate to, although they were said to concern events in 2013. Palmer denied that the charges relate to the collapse of Queensland Nickel, commenting: "It's just a fabricated charge which will be dismissed pretty easily which is what we do with ASIC charges which are political in nature."

Other activities.

In June 2002, Palmer was appointed adjunct professor of business at Deakin University's Faculty of Business and Law, a role he held until 2006. During that time, he delivered a series of lectures as part of Deakin's MBA residential programs. In 2008, Palmer was appointed adjunct professor of management at Bond University on the Gold Coast.  In December 2012, Palmer was appointed joint secretary general of the World Leadership Alliance, a new democracy-promoting council that included former US president Bill Clinton and Myanmar's opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Palmer was named president of the alliance's business chapter, the World Economic Council.  In December 2012, on Christmas Day, Palmer hosted a buffet lunch for 650 disadvantaged people, mostly children and their families.  In July 2013, Palmer was referred to in an iPhone application making light of then Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard, by having sandwiches thrown at her. News Corp Australia publications were critical of the app, calling it sexist, whilst referencing his weight in an opinion poll with an option saying "We should have one for big Clive Palmer".  On 4 March 2012, Palmer was named, amid controversy, as a National Living Treasure by the New South Wales Branch of the National Trust of Australia.  In 2015, Palmer donated a house, car and food to victims of a house fire in Beenleigh that saw their son tragically lose his life.  In 2017, Palmer lost a lot of weight. This was accompanied by a renewed dedication to posting regular memes on his official Facebook page. The memes often have nonsensical or ironic undertones, and contain reoccurring themes – such as Rupert Murdoch's control of the media in Australia, contrasting himself with other political figures such as Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, or paying homage to Tim Tam packets and his pet "Grog Dog". Palmer was once required to provide an affidavit explaining a tweet sent out during a hearing on 1 December 2017.  In March 2020, as the Covid-19 coronavirus pandemic was spreading in Australia, Palmer placed a prominent media advertisement offering to personally fund one million doses of a "cure" for the disease. The medication would include hydroxychloroquine, which is established in other countries as an anti-malarial drug but is known to have serious side-effects. The Australian drugs regulator, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), had warned that this drug and its derivatives “pose well-known serious risks to patients including cardiac toxicity potentially leading to sudden heart attacks, irreversible eye damage and severe depletion of blood sugar potentially leading to coma”. The TGA stated that it was considering legal action against Palmer. Other experts also criticised Palmer, concerning safety as well as the ethics of potentially producing a shortage of the drug in countries where it is needed to combat malaria. However, it was later confirmed that the federal health department plans to import hydroxychloroquine for emergency use, with a written agreement for partial funding by Palmer. On 28 April, Palmer placed further prominent advertisements in News Corp media, claiming to have purchased 32.9 million doses of hydroxychloroquine. The TGA stated that no action would be taken with respect to either set of advertisements, since they were "assessed as not intended to promote the sale of the product”. However, the President of the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, Dr Harry Nespolon, warned that trials of fhe drug were still ongoing and were "not looking particularly promising”. He was also concerned that "people may think that a cure is imminent and be lulled into a false sense of security so that they don’t exercise social distancing responsibilities”.

"Titanic II".

In February 2013, at a press conference in New York, Palmer announced plans to build a modern-day replica of the liner. It was planned that "Titanic II" would be built in China and would make its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City in 2016 (later postponed to 2018). Palmer hoped to recreate the "Titanic" as closely as possible with its familiar external and internal appearances. According to Palmer, the "Titanic II" would be 883 feet long, weigh 55,800 gross tons and carry 2,435 passengers and 900 crew. Palmer said the "Titanic II" would honour the memories of those who died and survived on the "Titanic". The "Titanic" was operated by the White Star Line and Palmer's cruise company is named Blue Star Line.  During the first half of 2015, evidence accumulated strongly suggesting that the project had been abandoned. The Blue Star Line trademark was listed as "abandoned". No construction had been ordered in the Chinese shipyard identified as the likely building site with the workers highly skeptical that the project would ever move beyond the proposal stage. In May 2016 it was reported by the administrators for an insolvent Palmer company, Queensland Nickel, that no significant money had been spent on the development of "Titanic II" in over two years. On 27 September 2018 the Blue Star Line, in a press release on their official web site, announced that work on the project would recommence but there has been no confirmation of this since. Prior to this media release the web site had not been updated since May 2014.

Politics.

Palmer was instrumental in the split of the South Australian conservatives in the 1970s, and was active in the Liberal Movement headed by former Premier of South Australia, Steele Hall. Palmer joined the Queensland division of the Nationals in 1974, having been influenced by the policies of Joh Bjelke-Petersen, Premier of Queensland at the time. From the early 1980s, he was involved in state politics, serving as the National Party's campaign director during the 1983 state election and as media spokesman during its 1986 election campaign, both of which were successful.  Palmer was a backer of the aborted "Joh for Canberra" campaign, which attempted to get Queensland Premier Bjelke-Petersen elected as Prime Minister of Australia at the 1987 federal election. Palmer was elected to life membership of the party in 1992, which he retained after the state branches of the Nationals and Liberal Party merged to form the Liberal National Party of Queensland in 2008.  In late April 2012, Palmer announced that he would contest Liberal National Party preselection for the Division of Lilley at the 2013 federal election, held by Wayne Swan, the then Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer. However, in July that year, he announced his intention to seek preselection for a different seat, including possibly the Division of Kennedy, held by Bob Katter of Katter's Australian Party (formerly sitting as a National and an independent).  Several months after announcing his intent to seek preselection, Palmer resigned his life membership of the Liberal National Party. His membership of the party had been suspended on 9 November 2012, following his comments on the actions of state government ministers. He was re-instated to the party on 22 November, but resigned the same day.  In March 2012, Palmer accused Drew Hutton and Greenpeace of receiving funding from the CIA, due to Hutton's involvement in the preparation of a Greenpeace strategy titled "Stopping the Australian Coal Export Boom". His claims were dismissed by Greenpeace senior campaigner John Hepburn as "ludicrous", and he said that Greenpeace would not accept money from any government, corporation or secret service. His claims were also rejected by the CIA.  On 25 April 2013, Palmer announced a "reformation" of the United Australia Party, which had been folded into the present-day Liberal Party in 1945, to stand candidates in the 2013 federal election, and had applied for its registration in Queensland. Another representative of a former South Australian political party, The United Party, lodged a formal objection to the registration of the name "Palmer United Party" with the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC). The AEC further determined that the names "Uniting Australia Party" and "Palmer United Party" were distinct and the name "Palmer United Party" was not prohibited.

Member of Parliament.

Palmer ran as the candidate in the Sunshine Coast seat of Fairfax for his party in the 2013 Australian federal election. In the first count he won by only 7 votes over Liberal National Party (LNP) candidate Ted O'Brien, triggering an automatic recount. While he had won only 26.5 percent of the primary vote, Palmer overtook O'Brien on Labor and Green preferences. During the recount, he filed many challenges to votes cast for O'Brien, and made unsupported claims that the Australian Electoral Commission was tainted by corruption. Ultimately, he was confirmed as winner with 50.3% of the vote – a margin of 53 votes.  His party was also successful in the Senate in 2013, where three of his party members were elected and won a shared balance of power. The senators were elected in Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania.But soon the party fell into disarray. The Tasmanian Senator Jacqui Lambie resigned from the Palmer United Party on 24 November 2014 announcing that she would remain in the Senate as an independent. Lambie's resignation followed several weeks of disagreements with Palmer. The Queensland Senator Glenn Lazarus also quit the party on 13 March 2015 citing issues with Palmer.  In his maiden speech to federal parliament, Palmer implied that the government was "deaf to the everyday struggles of all Australians" and stated that "the entrenchment of the two-party system in this country not only threatens democracy but destroys the creativity of the nation."  Palmer was absent from Parliament more than any other MP in the 44th Parliament; he only attended 64 percent of sitting days in 2014 and 54 percent in 2015. He was rarely seen in his own electorate, preferring to reside at his Gold Coast residence. At one point, he went seven months without setting foot in Fairfax. His LNP opponent in 2013, O'Brien, claimed that many residents had come to him for help after not being able to get help from Palmer, to the point that many of them considered him their MP.  In May 2016, Palmer announced he would not seek reelection to his seat of Fairfax or run for the Senate and retire from politics. This all but assured that Fairfax would revert to the LNP; like most Sunshine Coast seats, it would have been a comfortably safe LNP seat in a traditional two-party matchup. As expected, O'Brien reclaimed the seat for the LNP resoundingly.  Palmer deregistered the party's state branches in September 2016, initially intending to keep it active at the federal level. However, in April 2017, he announced that the party would be wound up.  In February 2018, Palmer announced his intention to resurrect his party and return to federal politics. The party was revived that June under its original name, the United Australia Party. Even while using the name Palmer United, the party continued to brand itself as a revival of the original UAP; then as now, it reckoned the original UAP's three leaders – Joseph Lyons, Robert Menzies and Billy Hughes – as its former leaders. Former One Nation senator Brian Burston joined the United Australia Party in June 2018.  In April 2019, Palmer stated that he would stand for the Senate in Queensland in the 2019 Australian federal election. Palmer spent $60 million at the 2019 election. He and his party did not win any seats in the election.

Personal life.

Palmer lives in a gated mansion on Sovereign Islands, an exclusive community on the Gold Coast. News Limited reports that property records reveal "Mr Palmer, his family and associates own a total of 11 homes in the Sovereign Islands, a gated enclave developed on reclaimed land on the banks of the Southport Broadwater." Palmer also owns homes at Broadbeach Waters on the Gold Coast, Fig Tree Pocket in Brisbane and in Sofia in Bulgaria. Other holdings include properties in Brisbane, Jandowae on the Darling Downs, Queensland, Port Douglas in Queensland and Bora Bora, French Polynesia. In addition, his wife owns an undisclosed number of properties held in trust. He was reported to have spent more than during 2018–19 on luxury homes on the Gold Coast and in Brisbane and Perth.  Palmer was married to his first wife for 22 years. He has two adult children: a son, Michael and a daughter, Emily. His first wife, Susan Palmer, died from cancer in 2006. In 2007, he married Anna, and they have two daughters, Mary and Lucy. Palmer is a Roman Catholic and was a prominent member of Right to Life Australia while at university, organising pro-life rallies on campus.  While watching a soccer game in October 2009, Palmer was thought to have suffered a heart attack, and was taken to hospital. However, doctors dismissed it as merely a heart palpitation. Palmer has also suffered from sleep apnoea.

Wealth rankings.

Up until 2013, the 'Forbes" list included Australia's 40 richest people; it then expanded to 50 people.

Clive Frederick Palmer (born 26 March 1954) is an Australian businessman and politician. He has iron ore, nickel and coal holdings. In 2016, the "BRW" magazine "Rich 200" list estimated his wealth at 600 million and by 2019 his estimated wealth had increased to A$4.09 billion.


Early life and career.

Judah was born at Snow Hill on the Eastern Shore of Maryland to Henry Raymond Judah and Mary Jane (Reece) Judah. His father, a native of Connecticut, was serving as a parish minister in an Episcopal church. One of his brothers, Theodore Judah, later was chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad and was instrumental in constructing the first transcontinental railroad. Another brother became a prominent attorney.  Judah received an appointment to the United States Military Academy, graduating 35th of 39 students in the Class of 1843. He was a classmate of Ulysses S. Grant. Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment, he served on the frontier. He served with distinction during the Mexican–American War and was promoted to first lieutenant on September 26, 1847. He was commended for bravery during the storming of Monterrey, and again at the Battle of Molino del Rey and the Battle for Mexico City.  He was promoted to captain in the U.S. 4th Infantry Regiment and served in a variety of posts in the Pacific Northwest in the Washington Territory before being assigned to duty in California. His Company E was stationed at Fort Jones in Siskiyou County, where he joined the Freemasons, becoming a member of the North Star Lodge No. 91.  In 1854, Judah participated in an expedition against local Native Americans, but was too inebriated to lead his company in an attack on a group of Indians who were hiding in a cave. Instead, he stayed with the pack train and straggled far behind the column. The commissary officer, Lt. George Crook (a future Civil War general) later wrote, "It seemed that the rear guard had gotten some whiskey, and were all drunk, and scattered for at least 10 miles back. Judah was so drunk that be had to be lifted from his horse when the rear guard straggled into camp. The next day he was sick all day with the delirium tremens." Crook and other officers discussed pressing charges against Judah, but the matter was dropped when Judah promised to arrange a transfer to a new post. He then served in Placerville, California, in El Dorado County. However, Judah's reputation for bouts with alcohol would carry over into the Civil War.

Civil War.

With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, Judah was colonel of the 4th California Volunteers at Fort Yuma, a post on the Colorado River opposite the Arizona Territory. He commanded troops at Camp McClellan near Auburn, California, until November, when he resigned his command and returned to the East. He served in the defenses of Washington, D.C. for several months. He was appointed a brigadier general of volunteers on March 22, 1862 (confirmed March 24, 1862), to rank from March 21, 1862, and served as Grant's inspector general during the Battle of Shiloh. Given field command of a division under Henry W. Halleck, Judah participated in the siege of Corinth. He received a promotion in the Regular Army in June 1862 to Major (United States) of the 4th Infantry. By autumn, he was performing administrative duties in Cincinnati, Ohio before being ordered in October to join the Army of Kentucky under Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger at Covington, Kentucky. Judah returned to a staff position during the winter of 1862–63, when he served as acting inspector general of the Army of the Ohio.  In June 1863, Judah was assigned to command the 3rd Division of the XXIII Corps, stationed in Cincinnati, Ohio. During Morgan's Raid, Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside ordered Judah to pursue the Confederate raider John Hunt Morgan. Judah's Indiana and Illinois cavalry under Edward H. Hobson defeated Morgan at the Battle of Buffington Island, but failed to capture the general (who finally surrendered to other Federal troops on July 26). Judah was criticized for missing an opportunity earlier in the week to snare Morgan near Pomeroy, Ohio, where his slowness in flanking Morgan allowed the Confederates to escape. He then led his command back to Tennessee to rejoin the army of William S. Rosecrans.  In 1864, Judah led an infantry division under Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield during the Atlanta Campaign. Having been previously disciplined for poor performance and alcoholism by Schofield, Judah was given one last chance to redeem himself at the Battle of Resaca. In his haste to seize victory, he did not properly reconnoiter the battlefield terrain beforehand or use his artillery in the fight. It would be his last field command, as Schofield soon removed him from duty.  Judah was placed on routine administrative duty in the Department of the Cumberland until the end of the war, stationed in Marietta, Georgia. He was appointed a brevet lieutenant colonel and colonel in the Regular Army on March 13, 1865. On May 12, he received the surrender of Brig. Gen. William T. Wofford's estimated 3,000 to 4,000 Confederate soldiers. Since no crops had been grown here on the battlefields in 1864 and, as the surrender had paralyzed the local economy and government, the citizens and former soldiers lacked food, funds and employment. Judah, seeing that aid was needed to prevent suffering, issued corn and bacon to the needy until a crop could be harvested. The rations helped put the Georgians and their economy back on a sound basis, and served as a humanitarian gesture.  After the war, Judah mustered out of the volunteer army on August 24, 1865 and reverted to his Regular Army rank of major. He served on garrison duty in Plattsburgh, New York, where he died a year later. He was entombed at Kings Highway Cemetery in Westport, Connecticut.

Henry Moses Judah (June 12, 1821 – February 14, 1866) was a career officer in the United States Army, serving during the Mexican–American War and American Civil War. He is most remembered for his role in helping thwart Morgan's Raid in 1863 and for leading a disastrous attack during the Battle of Resaca.


Career.

Rua attended Marion L. Steele High School in Amherst, Ohio. He attended NCAA Division II Lake Erie College. Rua was drafted by the Texas Rangers in the 17th round of the 2011 Major League Baseball draft. He was the first player in school history to be drafted.  He made his professional debut for the Arizona League Rangers that year and also played for the Spokane Indians. In 52 games, he hit.303./.376/.484 with four home runs. He returned to Spokane in 2012 and hit.293/.368/.432 with seven home runs in 74 games. During his time in the minor leagues, Rua primarily played third base and second base.  Rua started 2013 with the Hickory Crawdads. At the end of June he was leading the entire minor leagues in homers. On August 9, he was promoted to the Double-A Frisco RoughRiders. He finished the year hitting.247/.347/.525 with 32 home runs in 127 games.  He started the 2014 season back with Frisco. Rua was called up to the big leagues for the first time on August 29, 2014 and made his debut the same day at first base, collecting his first hit on an infield single. Rua finished his debut going 1-for-5 with a run scored. On September 21, 2014, Rua hit his first career homer, a solo shot off Angels' closer Huston Street, sending the Rangers to a 2–1 victory.  Rua made the Rangers 2015 opening day roster, and on opening day, Rua had the only base hit for the Rangers as they fell to Oakland 8–0. On July 30, 2015, Rua hit an inside-the-park home run against the New York Yankees in the bottom of the fourth inning, tying the game 5–5 (the Rangers went on to win 7–6 after a walk-off from Josh Hamilton).  Before Opening Day 2016, Rua was informed he had made the Opening Day roster. He started out as a bench player, but as the end of April progressed, manager Jeff Banister began to trust Rua more and more as an every day player. When center fielder Delino DeShields, Jr. was sent down to Triple-A on May 13, Ian Desmond moved to center and Rua received the left field job. On May 10, 2016 he hit a 3-run home run in the 8th inning against the Chicago White Sox to cap the biggest Rangers' comeback since 2012 (13–11). But Rua began to struggle again and by the end of May he had lost his job to Nomar Mazara. In 99 games, Rua hit.258 with 8 home runs and 22 RBIs. The next two seasons, Rua would shuffle between the minors and the Rangers roster. Rua made one pitching appearance on July 23, 2018, throwing a scoreless inning and recording one strikeout. He elected free agency after the 2018 season.

Personal life.

Rua's number 2 was retired by Marion L. Steele High School in 2015.

Ryan Anthony Rua (born March 11, 1990) is an American former professional baseball outfielder and first baseman. He previously played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Texas Rangers.


Release and reception.

Larry Flick from "Billboard" wrote, "After several weeks at the top of Britain's pop charts, European rave duo is ready tackle the U.S. radio market with a bright ditty that melds techno, hi-NRG, and rap elements. The hook is irresistible, and the pace is heart-racing. Will please fans of last year's hit, "Twilight Zone," while reeling in newcomers." Matt Stopera and Brian Galindo from "BuzzFeed" said that "this is possibly the most aggressive beat from the '90s. It's like they're strumming a GIANT rubber band." Tom Ewing of Freakytrigger felt the track's "echoey hi-hat hits and the union of steam-hammer bass and rubber-ball synths" carry the industrial, "piston-powered aggression" of Belgian rave music. He also noted the presence of a cowbell in the back of the track. Per Reinholdt from "Gaffa" called it a "dance-powerhit", noting its "inciting up-tempo" and a rhythm and theme "with the same temper as a dressed beeswarm". He added that the song is a "piece of pop art". "Irish Independent" described "No Limit" as "a humugous global hit". "Woroni" said "it's tremendously exciting and highly recommended." They also noted the song as a "obvious higlight" of the "No Limits!" album. Graham Clark from "The Yorkshire Times" stated that "the track at the time sounded unlike anything else but you can hear how it has influenced so many of today's Electronic Dance Music tracks".  To this day, "No Limit" is one of the most well-known Eurodance songs and was a worldwide hit, selling 2.8 million copies. It topped many European charts including the United Kingdom, Finland, Denmark and Spain. It peaked at number 25 in the American Dance charts. It was Europe's biggest-selling song for 1993.

Music video.

The music video for "No Limit" was directed by British director Nick Burgess-Jones. It features Anita and Ray performing the song inside a pinball machine.

Track listings.

CD single  CD maxi  CD maxi  7" single  UK 7" single  12" maxi  12" maxi Italy

Millennium remixes.

Track listings.

CD single  CD maxi  12" single

No Limit 2.3.

Track listing.

CD single  12" single

Charts.

"No Limit 2.3" charted at no. 41 in Germany.

Irene Moors and de Smurfen cover.

A Dutch cover version by Irene Moors en de Smurfen topped the Dutch charts for six weeks in 1995.

beFour cover.

"No Limit" was covered by German band beFour on their fourth studio album "Friends 4 Ever", and as a single in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The song entered the German Singles Chart in January 2009.

Track listings.

CD maxi  Digital download

"No Limit" is a song recorded by Dutch Eurodance band 2 Unlimited. It was their fifth single in total and the first to be released from their second album "No Limits!". The song is one of their most commercially successful singles, especially in Europe, reaching the number-one spot in at least 13 counties and the top 10 in several others. Like previous releases, the UK version of the single removed all of the raps from Raymond Slijngaard, leaving just Anita Dels' vocals. One word from the rap was kept, the word 'Techno' (from the line "I'm making techno and I am proud") which was looped and repeated during the middle of the song, turning the line into "Techno! Techno! Techno! Techno!" and giving the song an extra vocal hook.


Early life and education.

Nasser is the fourth-born son of the King of Bahrain, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa with Sheia bint Hassan Al Khrayyesh Al Ajmi, his second wife.  Nasser was educated in Bahrain at Ibn Khuldoon National School and then attended Sandhurst Military Academy in the United Kingdom, graduating in August 2006. He is currently serving in the Bahrain Defence Force and leads the Bahrain National Endurance Team.

Military service.

Nasser is the commander of the Bahrain Defence Force Royal Guard, an elite unit that is deployed in the war in Yemen. Nasser himself fought in coalition missions accused of war crimes.

Endurance racing.

He has participated in many regional and international endurance races and won many medals. In December 2006, Sheikh Nasser led the Bahrain National Endurance team in the Doha Asian Games. He won a silver medal in the individual race and the six-member Bahraini squad came second in the overall team event.  In September 2007, Sheikh Nasser led the Bahrain National Endurance team in the European Open held at Portugal. He came in 8th place in the individual race and the Bahrain team came in second place and won a silver medal.  Nasser has been coached by Milan Erzen, a former professional cyclist. Erzen is now under suspicion of having organized doping at team Bahrain-Merida, where he is a managing director.

President of the Olympic Committee.

Nasser is the president of the Bahrain Olympic Committee. As such he created a special commission that prosecuted 150 members of the sporting community for peaceful demonstrations.

Charity.

Nasser is chairman of the board of trustees of the Royal Charity Organisation (RCO), through which he is directly involved in charity work with many local and international community projects.

Allegations of Torture.

Nasser became the subject of allegations of torture after anti-government protests in 2011. During the Arab Spring Bahraini uprising, three unnamed individuals reported to human rights groups that they had personally been beaten by Sheikh Nasser. One was granted refugee status in the UK and has since sought his arrest by Scotland Yard. Several criticized his participation at the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games in Normandy, France. These accusations have earned Nasser the label "torture prince".

Personal life.

Nasser married in Dubai on 28 September 2009 (nikah ceremony) and 2 October 2009 (milcha reception) to Shaikha bint Mohammed bin Rashed Al Maktoum, a daughter of the Emir of Dubai, Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum. Together they have one daughter and three sons.  There children are :

Nasser bin Hamad Al Khalifa (Arabic: الامير ناصر بن حمد آل خليفة) (born 8 May 1987) is a member of the Bahraini royal family, commander of Bahrain's Royal Guard president of the Bahrain Olympic Committee and the head of the government’s Supreme Council for Youth and Sports. He has been connected to several severe acts of human rights abuses, including personally torturing pro-democracy activists during the Arab Spring protests in Bahrain.


Establishment.

Fort Dummer was a British fort built during Dummer's War by the colonial militia of the Province of Massachusetts Bay under the command of Lieutenant Timothy Dwight in what is now the Town of Brattleboro, in southeastern Vermont. This was in the heart of one of the three main sections of the Equivalent Lands.  The fort was the first permanent European settlement in Vermont. It consisted of a 180-square foot (17 m2) wooden stockade with 12 guns manned by 55 men (43 English soldiers and 12 Mohawk Indians). It was named after Lieutenant Governor William Dummer, who was acting governor of Massachusetts at the time of the fort's construction.  On October 11, 1724, seventy Abenakis attacked Fort Dummer and killed 3 or 4 soldiers in the only known military action involving the stockade.  Near the former site of the fort is a granite monument, which is one mile (2 km) south of the Brattleboro railway station.

Fort Dummer State Park.

Fort Dummer State Park is part of the Vermont State Park system. It comprises 217 acres (878,000 m2) of forest in Brattleboro, Guilford & Vernon.  The park overlooks the former site of Fort Dummer which was flooded when the Vernon Dam was built on the Connecticut River in 1908. The granite monument that commemorates the fort is not within the borders of the park. The monument itself was moved in 1908 to prevent it from being lost after the dam was completed. The original site of the fort can be seen from the northernmost scenic vista on the Sunrise Trail within the park. It is now underwater near the lumber company located on the western bank of the river.  Campground facilities include 50 tent/trailer sites and 10 lean-to sites, toilet buildings with hot showers, and a sanitary dump station. Other facilities include a small picnic area, three short hiking trails, one of which leads to a swimming hole, and a large open field.

Fort Dummer was built in the winter of 1724 in what is now the Town of Brattleboro in southeastern Vermont. Today, it is notable as the first permanent European settlement in Vermont. The original site of the fort is now lost below the waters of the Connecticut River impoundment of the Vernon Dam.


Morphology and keys to identification.

"Cochliobolus carbonum" is divided into at least five different races based on pathogenicity, particularly lesion types on corn leaves. "Cochliobolus carbonum" race 0 (CCR0) is essentially non-pathogenic. "Cochliobolus carbonum" race 1 (CCR1) produces host specific toxins and oval to circular spots on leaves. While infection by "C. carbonum" race 2 (CCR2) is rare, it is characterized by the production of oblong, chocolate-colored spots. "C. carbonum" race 3 (CCR3) produces linear and narrow lesions while "C. carbonum" race 4 (CCR4) is weakly pathogenic, forming oval to concentric circular spots.  The genus "Cochliobolus" is distinguished by the presence of dark to black ascomata with a unilocular, globose pseudothecium and a short, cylindrical neck. Ascomata also bear hyphae and conidiophores and asci are bitunicate, 2-8 spored, and cylindrical to obclavate. Ascomata are black, globose to ellipsoidal, and setae are present over the upper half of the wall mixed with conidiophores. Pseudoparaphyses are filiform, hyaline, septate, and branched. The shapes of asci are cylindrical to clavate, short-stalked, straight to slightly curved having 1-8 spores, and vestigial bitunicate. Conidia are straight to moderately curved, occasionally cylindrical but usually broad in the middle and tapering towards the rounded ends, distoseptate, and 36-100 X 12-18 μm. The surface of the conidia is often granulose and the hilum is inconspicuous. Conidia are produced from the apex of an unbranched conidiophore. Generally, the conidiophore arises singly or in small groups which are straight or flexuous, mid to dark brown, smooth, septate, cylindrical, and up to 250 μm long, 5-8 μm thick. Variation in mycotoxin production by "Cochliobolus" species is used to distinguish some taxa and these mycotoxins are host-specific and non-host specific. HC toxin produced by "C. carbonum" race 1 and T toxin produced by "C. heterostrophus" are host-specific toxins while ophiobolins produced by "C. miyabeanus" and carbotoxin produced by "C. carbonum" are non-host-specific toxins.

Reproductive biology.

The species most closely related to "C. carbonum" is "C. victoriae" which have inter-specific fertility, however only 1% attempted crosses between species were fertile. The sister relationship of these two species were evident based on phylogenetic analysis. "Cochliobolus carbonum" is the sexual stage and can be obtained by pairing opposite mating single conidial isolates in Sach's agar media with sterilized maize leaf segments or barley grains incubated at 24 °C.  Crosses between different species of "Cochliobolus" are possible, producing offspring differing in conidial morphology. Horizontal and vertical gene transfer has occurred within and between fungal species of "Cochliobolus" and might be the reason for occurrence of highly virulent, toxin producing races of "C. heterostrophus", "C. carbonum" and "C. victoriae". In nature, there is no evidence of gene flow among races of "C. carbonum" despite their sympatry. The teleomorph of "C. carbonum" has not been observed in field conditions.

Habitat preference, life cycle, dispersal and symptoms development.

Fungi are capable of showing different interactions with their host and different lifestyles depending upon the interaction. Different species of "Cochliobolus" and its anamorphs are associated with different host species as ephiphytes, endophytes, saprophytes and pathogens. Infected seed is the major source of inoculum of "C. carbonum" internationally, so it is a quarantined pathogen in Europe and other countries. To my knowledge, few studies have been conducted to better understand the life and infection cycle of "C. carbonum. Cochliobolus carbonum" survives as mycelium and resistant chlamydospores on maize debris in the field and on infected seed. Conidia serve as a primary source of inoculum dispersed by wind and rain-splash. Damp weather and moderate temperature greatly favor sporulation and produce additional inoculum for secondary spread. During both pathogenic and saprophytic phases of the lifecycle, this fungus enters and ramifies through intact leaves and obtains nutrients from the host cytoplasm and walls by degrading cell wall components through the production of a variety of extracellular enzymes. The symptoms first appear as small, circular to oval, reddish brown to tan lesions and over time become more tan to grayish. In general, moderate temperature, high relative humidity, and heavy dew during the growing season favors the development of this disease. Senescent corn leaves are an important plant part for the growth and development of "C. carbonum", because it provides biochemicals required for the formation of perithecia, asci and ascospores.

Important developments in classification.

Previously, many species of "Cochliobolus" were placed in "Ophiobolus". Drechsler found that graminicolous forms of "Helminthosporium" produced teleomorphs with characteristic features of greater ascus and ascospore width as well as helicoiod ascospores with bipolar germination, which deviates from previously described characters of "Ophiobolus". To accommodate these species, he introduced the new genus "Cochliobolus" transferred several species to "Cochliobolus". Another genus "Pseudocochliobolus" was separated from "Cochliobolus" based on the presence of stromatic tissue below the ascomata and the degree of ascospore coiling. The sexual states of "Cochliobolus" are only found associated with "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia". "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" share some morphological similarities and cannot be easily distinguished by any distinct taxonomic criteria. Although few morphological differences were reported, conidia of "Bipolaris" are distoseptate while the conidia of "Curvularia" are bigger and euseptate. Some scientists believe that "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" are synonymous, however there is an existing debate regarding this issue. The different species of fungi belonging to "Cochliobolus" with asexual states in "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" have undergone frequent name changes as a result of refinement to the taxonomy that has resulted in some confusion. The perfect stage of this fungus was first named as "C. carbonum" by R. R. Nelson in 1959. The imperfect stage was named as "Bipolaris" "zeicola" in 1959. The commonly used synonyms of "Cochliobolus carbonum" were "Helminthosporium zeicola" (1930), "Helminthosporium carbornum" (1944), "Drechslera zeiocola" (1966) and "Drechslera carbonum" (1984). Several phylogenetic studies of "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" showed that "Bipolaris" is not monophyletic and some "Bipolaris" species are nested within "Curvularia".

Phylogenetic affinities.

The taxonomy of "Cochliobolus", "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" is confusing due to the frequent name changes and no clear morphological demarcation between "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia". A phylogenetic analysis of "Cochliobolus, Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" species was performed using rDNA markers (ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2) and a 600 bp fragment of gpd (glyceraldehyde-3 dehydrogenase) gene. The results showed that most isolates of "Cochliobolus" and "Bipolaris" including "C. carbonum", that cause serious crop losses, form a separate group from other species. These data revealed that these species radiated form a common ancestor recently. Another phylogenetic study was conducted using a combined analysis of rDNA ITS (internal transcribed spacer), GPDH (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase), LSU (large subunit) and EF1-α (translation elongation factor 1-α) and showed that this generic group is divided into two major lineages. According to their study "Bipolaris" and "Cochliobolus" species grouped with their type species and "Curvularia" species, with its generic type, form another group. Similar to previous findings, the analyses showed that "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" cannot be combined into a single monophyletic genus and trees showed both of these groups resolved into single complex. In this paper, the authors claim that they have resolved nomenclatural conflict within this complex based on their phylogenetic data and suggest giving priority to the more commonly used generic names "Bipolaris" and "Curvularia" to represent these distinct lineages.

Cochliobolus carbonum (anamorph: "Helminthosporium carbonum") is one of more than 40 species of filamentous ascomycetes belonging to the genus "Cochliobolus" (anamorph: "Bipolaris/Curvularia"). This pathogen has a worldwide distribution, with reports from Australia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, China, Congo, Denmark, Egypt, India, Kenya, New Zealand, Nigeria, Solomon Islands, and the United States. "Cochliobolus carbonum" is one of the most aggressive members of this genus infecting sorghum ("Sorghum" spp. [Poaceae]), corn ("Zea mays" [Poaceae]) and apple ("Malus domestica" [Rosaceae]). As one of the most devastating pathogens of sweet corn, "C. carbonum" causes Northern leaf spot and ear rot disease while the asexual stage causes "Helminthosporium" corn leaf spot. "Cochliobolus carbonum" is pathogenic to all organs of the corn plant including root, stalk, ear, kernel, and sheath. However, symptoms of infection show distinct manifestations in different plant parts: whole plant - seedling blight affects the whole plant, leaf discoloration and mycelial growth, black fungal spores and lesions appear on inflorescences and glumes, and grain covered with very dark brown to black mycelium which gives a characteristic charcoal appearance due to the production of conidia.


History.

Hillsong Church's popularity in Christian praise and worship music stems from the inauguration of the Hillsong Conference in 1986 and the first publication of choruses written by Hills CLC members, especially Darlene Zschech. It is in this context that Hillsong Music was founded in 1991. Their first live worship CD "The Power of Your Love" was released in 1992. Since then, live praise and worship albums have been produced each year. Other music series include the "Worship series", "United", "Youth Alive", "Hillsong Kids" and "Instrumental series". They have also released two Christmas albums and several compilation albums. "What a Beautiful Name" won the 2018 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song.

Popularity.

Some Hillsong songs have distinct gospel influences. Hillsong Music titles regularly feature in the top 25 of most songs sung in all reporting countries recorded through the CCLI website.  "People Just Like Us" was the first Christian album to achieve gold status in Australia as well as the first to go Platinum. To date, all Hillsong live worship albums have achieved Gold status in Australia. In 1996, Hillsong Music reached international prominence with the release of "Shout to the Lord" produced by Integrity Music. This was Integrity Music's first live worship album featuring a female worship leader – Darlene Zschech.  The 2004 Hillsong live worship album "For All You've Done", debuted at No. 1 on the Australian Record Industry Association album charts. There was some controversy about this outcome as almost all of the albums were sold at Hillsong's annual conference held in early July. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) have defended the outcome noting that the album sold more copies than any other record on sale in Australia that week. As of December 2011, Hillsong has sold more than 12 million records across the globe, following its first release in 1991 and a quarter of all contemporary songs heard in Australian churches in 2011 were written by Hillsong.

Albums.

Early albums were released solely on cassette and CD. Video recordings of the live albums have also been made for VHS since the second album in 1993, and additionally for DVD since 2000, with increasing additional content such as documentaries and extra songs. The "Hillsong United" series CDs have included an additional free part-length DVD since 2004. Several music books have also been published. Including all the series (LIVE, UNITED, Kids, Kids Junior, Chapel, Young & Free, Español, Youth Term, Youth Alive, Worship, Compilation, Instrumental, Christmas, Preview, KIEV, LONDON) and other special releases (Like The 1st Album, Or Other special recordings) they have more than 125 albums, in 15 series.

Hillsong Music is Christian music produced by Hillsong Church in Sydney, Australia as well as offshoot churches, Hillsong London and Hillsong Kiev. Hillsong albums are released and distributed by Hillsong Music. The main groups are Hillsong Worship, Hillsong United, Hillsong Young & Free, and Hillsong Kids.