Creation and design.

Robert Garcia was based on the actors Steven Seagal and Andy Garcia. SNK staff members Youichiro Soeda said that Ryo and Robert's debut was unique to other games based on the company because it did not focus on fighting tournaments but instead of the duo's quest to save Yuri Sakazaki. Artist Shinkiro has expressed difficulties in designing Robert due how he does not understand how rich people behave. In contrast, he had no problem with Ryo. In the making of "The King of Fighters" Robert was made "the slimmest of them all" in comparison to his original design. His Osaka accent was given to fit "Psycho Soldier" Sie Kensou and give both of them the traits of comedians. Due to fears of Robert's outfit feeling dated, SNK revised him for "The King of Fighters XIV" to make him stand out more by giving a new redesign based on an unspecified American actor.  In the first "Art of Fighting" Robert sports a black T-shirt with short sleeves, a brown vest and a gold medallion around the neck. He also wears white pants, white and black shoes and black gloves. He has the same outfit in the following "Art of Fighting" but without sleeves in his T-shirt. This costume is also featured in the first two "King of Fighters" as well as "The King of Fighters XII" and XIII.  In the third "Art of Fighting" game, Robert is bare-chested under a light blue jacket and does not wear his medallion. He also sports white gloves and brown shoes, but keeps having his white pants. He has the same appearance from "The King of Fighters '96" to "The King of Fighters '98".  From "The King of Fighters '99" to "The King of Fighters 2002", Robert wears a similar outfit to the one from the first two Art of Fighting games but with long sleeves and white gloves and shoes. His "The King of Fighters 2003" outfit is similar to his "Art of Fighting 3" clothes but with white sleeves. In "NeoGeo Battle Coliseum" and the PlayStation 2 version from "The King of Fighters XI", Robert appears as an older version from himself wearing a similar outfit from "Art of Fighting 3". The jacket is purple, his gloves are black and his shoes are brown.  There is an Alternate Striker version of Robert in "The King of Fighters 2000" called "Another Robert". This Robert wears a white male Kyokugen Karate gi with a blue shirt underneath. His clothing now parodies Ryo Sakazaki while his looks and playstyle parody "Street Fighter Alpha"'s Dan Hibiki, right down to his Chouhatsu no Ken that parodies the Chouhatsu Densetsu.

Appearances.

In video games.

In "Art of Fighting", Yuri is kidnapped by the criminal Mr. Big. As such, both Ryo Sakazaki and Robert go to Southtown to interrogate fighters until finding Mr. Big. After defeating Mr. Big, Ryo and Robert face an assassin named an assassin purportedly held Yuri. Ryo nearly finishes him off, but Yuri sneaks in and tells Ryo not to kill him since Mr. Karate is their father, Takuma. The second "Art of Fighting" game features Robert, Ryo, Takuma and a now fighter Yuri entering into the first King of Fighters tournament held by Geese Howard, the main responsible for the kidnap. In "Art of Fighting 3", Robert visits Central America to help Freya Lawrence, a childhood friend, save her brother Wyler, whose demonic power made him go berserk. In his ending, Robert stops Wyler and goes back to Italy. However, before entering into the plane, Yuri accompanies him.  In "The King of Fighters" series, Takuma, Ryo, and Robert are part of the Art of Fighting Team, but in some games they form different allies. With the arrival of "The King of Fighters '99" and its teams of four, Takuma returns to the Art of Fighting team. Though the Garcia Foundation no longer faced liquidation as it did in "The King of Fighters 2001", it needed significant help to rebuild its prior fortunes, causing Robert to be absent in "The King of Fighters XI". Nevertheless, he is present in the Art of Fighting Team where he fails to stage a date between Ryo and King. He appears in the spin-off "The King of Fighters Kyo", in which he helps the main character Kyo Kusanagi into finding his girlfriend Yuki. Alongside an aged Ryo Sakazaki from "Buriki One", an aged Robert appears in "NeoGeo Battle Coliseum" with moves largely from "The King of Fighters 2000" and "The King of Fighters 2003". In his ending, it is revealed that Robert wishes to stay away from his family business and still work as part of teaching the Kyokugen Ryu. He appears in this form as a hidden character in the PlayStation 2 version of "The King of Fighters XI". He returns in "The King of Fighters XII" onwards as part of the Art of Fighting Team.  In "The King of Fighters" game without storylines "The King of Fighters 2002" and "The King of Fighters Neowave" the Art of Fighting Team remains as in '94, while in "The King of Fighters '98" and "The King of Fighters 2002: Unlimited Match", it appears with Yuri taking Takuma's place.  Both of these latest games also feature an "EX" version of Robert with his moves from the "Art of Fighting" series as a playable character. He is also present in mobile phone games "Metal Slug Defense","The King of Fighters '98 Unlimited Match Online" and "Kimi wa Hero". The dating sim "Days of Memories" also features him. Although he is not playable in "", Robert is often mentioned by other characters and makes a cameo in the endings from Takuma and Ryo. Another cameo of him is in Yuri's ending from "". He is also present in as well as the otome game "King of Fighters for Girls".

In other media.

Besides the games from SNK, Robert also appears in the "Art of Fighting" anime film from 1993. The plot from film is loosely based on the first "Art of Fighting" game, with Robert and Ryo searching for Yuri, who has been kidnapped by Mr. Big. However, in the film Mr. Big wants to obtain a diamond held by Ryo and Robert He is voiced by Masanori Ikeda in the Japanese version of film, and by Nick Sullivan in the English adaptation. Two manga based on the "Art of Fighting" games also follow Robert's role in the games. Robert is featured in the manhua adaptations from "The King of Fighters" series, which tell how he participates in the fighting tournaments.

Reception.

Robert has been well received by gamers and has appeared in popularity polls from journals and websites. In "Gamest"'s 1997 Heroes Collection, Robert was voted as the staff's 46th favorite character. He shared the spot with seven other characters, including "Samurai Shodown" character, Hattori Hanzo, and "Darkstalkers" character, Demitri Maximoff. In the January 30, 1995 issue of "Gamest" magazine in Japan, Robert ranked at No. 36 (tied with Iceman from "") in list of Top 50 Characters of 1994.  Videogame publications have commented on Robert's character, adding praise and criticism. Xataka felt that Robert and Ryo shared one of the most unique stories in fighting games as the first "Art of Fighting" featured them in a quest to save Yuri rather than participating in a fighting game. The same site noted that Robert's origins remained as a mystery to the fanbase; Upon his introduction to "The King of Fighter '94" as a member of Team Mexico, the fans believed Robert to be Mexican. However, SNK would later reveal he was Italian stopping this speculation. Mexican company Evoga originally thought Robert was Mexican due to the team being called Mexico in "The King of Fighters '94" yet "Art of Fighting 3" revealed he was Italian much to their comical response. David Simpson from AceGamez noted Robert to be very similar to the "Street Fighter" main characters due to his practice in karate and his relation with Ryo Sakazaki as both are best friends and rivals. Videogamer.com writer Wesley Yin-Poole labeled Robert and Ryo as "two double-hard bastards" and commented they had the best designs from the "Art of Fighting" series in comparison to the other characters who had "wicked" appearances. Spanner Spencer from Eurogamer added that Robert had the best appearance from all the characters of the "Art of Fighting" series but labelled him as a "greasy yuppie". Juan E. Hernandez from IGN also compared both Robert and Ryo to "Street Fighter" as well "Dragon Ball" characters based on their type of techniques.  Gaming Age writer Jeff Keely criticized Robert's redesign in "The King of Fighters '99" as his movesets' input were highly changed, something that might bother his players. In a review from "The King of Fighters XI", Eurogamer writer Luke Albiger noted Robert's addition to the game as hidden character is a good way to compensate the several recurring who were absent. However, Kurt Kalata from Armchairempire.com criticized that unlocking Robert in that game was "a pain" due to the difficult challenges the players has to do to unlock him. Greg Kasavin from GameSpot listed his "Haohshokohken" move from "Art of Fighting" as one of the most influential fireball moves in fighting games' history. Den of Geek listed him as the 54th with the site comparing him to "Street Fighter" character Ken Masters based on their similar personalities but found that he did have notable actions in SNK's games outside the third "Art of Fighting" game which the writer felt few fans cared. Despite criticizing the graphics of "The King of Fighters XIV", Juan Garcia from IGN praised the redesigns of both Robert and Kyo Kusanagi. Den of Geek also liked the new design of Robert, comparing him comic book hero Tony Stark. Robert has also been described as praised "lavish style is sure to attract many players". Niche Gamer noted that while Robert performs the same fighting style as Yuri and Ryo, each present their own variety of Kyokugen Ryu. Den of Geek noted that the trio and the team in general has been characterized as more comical characters in "The King of Fighters" than in "Art of Fighting" though in "XI" they accidentally created their own rival.  Outside the video games, Robert has been analyzed by his role in the "Art of Fighting" original video animation. Akemi's Anime World found the character a poser and found his lack of danger the special "cheesy". AnimeOnDVD.com enjoyed the contrast between Ryo and Robert as both "are like night and day in some respects." The character of Dan Hibiki from the "Street Fighter Alpha" series is deemed as a parody of Ryo due to his similarities with Ryu and Ken. However, his design is more similar to Robert's to the point that in "SVC Chaos", characters often confuse Dan with Robert.

Robert appeared in the film adaptation of "Art of Fighting", and the manhua from "The King of Fighters". He received mixed critics from video games publication, which praised his design, but some also noted him similar to the "Street Fighter" main characters. He has also been well received by gamers, appearing in several popularity polls developed by journals and websites.


History of Anglo–Iranian relations.

Safavid era.

In the year 1553, King Edward VI of England hired the wealthy merchant and explorer, Sebastian Cabot to develop a semi-profitable trading company. He was given two ships that sailed towards the port city of Arkhangelsk. The captain of one of those ships was Cpt. Richard Chancellor, who successfully reached the northern city. From there, Sebastian Cabot and his envoy traveled towards the Russian city of Moscow with a business proposition for the Grand Duke Ivan IV the Terrible. When it was accepted, the Moscow Trading Company came into existence. South of the Moscow Trading Company Headquarters was the wealthy realm of the Safavid Empire. The company started sending envoys during the reign of Shah Tahmasp I during the first years in business. Anthony Jenkinson was one of the first leaders of these envoys. In total, there were six visits and the last one was in June 1579 during the reign of Shah Mohammad Khodabandeh led by Arthur Edwards. But at the time the company's envoys reached the royal

Qajar era.

Anglo-Persian relations picked up momentum as a weakened Safavid empire, after the short-lived revival by the military genius Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747), eventually gave way to the Qajarid dynasty, which was quickly absorbed into domestic turmoil and rivalry, while competing colonial powers rapidly sought a stable foothold in the region. While the Portuguese, British, and Dutch, competed for the south and southeast of Persia in the Persian Gulf, Imperial Russia was largely left unchallenged in the north as it plunged southward to establish dominance in Persia's northern territories.  Plagued with

Pahlavi era.

Of the public outcry against the inability of the Persian throne to maintain its political and economic independence from Great Britain and Imperial Russia in the face of events such as the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 and "the 1919 treaty", one result was the Persian Constitutional Revolution, which eventually resulted in the fall of the Qajar dynasty.  The great tremor of the Persian political landscape occurred when the involvement of General Edmund Ironside eventually led to the rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi in the 1920s. The popular view that the British were involved in the 1921 coup was noted as early as March 1921 by the American embassy and relayed to the Iran desk at the Foreign Office. A British Embassy report from 1932 concedes that the British put Reza Shah "on the throne".  After his establishing of power and strengthening of the central government, Rezā Khan quickly put an end to the autonomous activities of the British-backed Sheikh Khazal in the south. London withdrew its support of Khaz'al in favor of Rezā Shāh. However, Rezā Shāh was removed from power just as quickly during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran during World War II.  A novel chapter in Anglo-Iranian relations had begun when Iran canceled its capitulation agreements with foreign powers in 1928. Iran's success in revoking the capitulation treaties, and the failure of the

The Islamic Republic.

On 30 April 1980, the Iranian Embassy in London was taken over by a six-man terrorist team holding the building for six days until the hostages were rescued by a raid by the SAS. After the Revolution of Iran in 1979, Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran. Britain did not have an embassy until it was reopened in 1988.  During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam Hussein acquired metal tubes from firms in the United Kingdom, intended for the Project Babylon supergun. All were

Current relations.

Trade.

The first Persian Ambassador to The United Kingdom was Mirza Albohassan Khan Ilchi Kabir. The "Herald Tribune" on 22 January 2006 reported a rise in British exports to Iran from £296 million in 2000 to £443.8 million in 2004. A spokesperson for "UK Trade and Investment" was

Political tension.

The confrontation between the United States–European Union pact on one side and Iran on the other over Iran's nuclear program also continues to develop, remaining a serious obstacle in the improvement of Tehran–London ties.  A by UK diplomat John Sawers to French, German and US diplomats, dated 16 March 2006, twice referred to the intention to have the United Nations Security Council refer to Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter in order to put pressure on Iran. Chapter VII describes the Security Council's power to authorize economic, diplomatic, and military sanctions, as well as the use of military force, to resolve disputes.  The "Sunday Telegraph" reported that a secret, high-level meeting would take place on 3 April 2006 between the UK government and military chiefs regarding plans to attack Iran. The Telegraph cited "a senior Foreign Office source" saying that "The belief in some areas of Whitehall is that an attack is now all but inevitable. There will be no invasion of Iran but the nuclear sites will be destroyed." The BBC reported a denial that the meeting would take place, but no denial of the alleged themes of the meeting, by the UK Ministry of Defence, and that "there is well sourced and persistent speculation that American covert activities aimed at Iran are already underway".

2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel.

On 21 June 2004, eight sailors and Royal Marines were seized

2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel.

On 23 March 2007 fifteen Royal Navy personnel were seized by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard for allegedly having strayed into Iranian waters. Eight sailors and seven Royal Marines on two boats from HMS "Cornwall" were detained at 10:30 local time by six Guard boats of the IRGC Navy. They were subsequently taken to Tehran. Iran reported that the sailors are well. About 200 students targeted the British Embassy on 1 April 2007 calling for the expulsion of the country's

Arms sales.

Despite the political pressure and sanctions, a probe by customs officers suggests that at least seven British arms dealers have been supplying the Iranian air force, its elite Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the country's controversial nuclear ambitions. A UK businessman was caught smuggling components for

Gholhak Garden.

In 2006 a dispute about the ownership of Gholhak Garden, a large British diplomatic compound in northern Tehran was raised in the Iranian Parliament when 162 MPs wrote to the speaker. The British Embassy have occupied the site since at least 1934 and assert that they have legal ownership but the issue was raised again in 2007 when a group of MPs claimed that the ownership papers for the site were unlawful under the laws extant in 1934. In July 2007 a conference was held to discuss the ownership of the compound but was not attended by the British side.

Asylum.

On 14 March 2008, Britain said it would reconsider the asylum application of a gay Iranian teenager who claims he will be persecuted

Escalating war talk.

As talk of strikes and counter-strikes in relation to war talk between the United States-Israel-Iran trio heated up in 2008, a senior Iranian official suggested his regime should target London to deter such an attack. The head of the Europe and US Department in the Iranian Foreign Ministry, Wahid Karimi, said an attack on London could deter the US from attacking Tehran. He said: "The most appropriate means of deterrence that Iran has, in addition to a retaliatory operation in the [Persian Gulf] region, is to take action against London." He also suggested a propensity to

2009 Iranian election controversy.

In the aftermath of the disputed 2009 Iranian presidential election and the protests that followed, UK-Iran relations were further tested. On 19 June 2009, the Supreme Leader of Iran Ayatollah Khamenei described the British Government as the "most evil" of those in the Western nations, accusing the British government of sending spies into Iran to stir emotions at the time of the elections, although it has been suggested by British diplomats that the statement was using the UK as a "proxy" for the United States, in order to prevent damaging US–Iranian relations. Nonetheless, the British Government, unhappy at the statement, summoned the Iranian ambassador Rasul Movaheddian to the Foreign Office to lodge a protest. Iran then proceeded to expel two British diplomats from the country, accusing them of "activities inconsistent with their diplomatic status". On 23 June 2009, the British Government responded, expelling two Iranian diplomats from the United Kingdom. Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that he was unhappy at having to take the action, but suggested there was no option after what he described as 'unjustified' actions by Iran. On 24 June 2009, Iranian Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki announced that the country was considering 'downgrading' its ties with the UK.  Four days later it was reported that Iranian authorities had arrested a number of British embassy staff in Tehran citing their "considerable role" in the recent unrest. After this event, the UK Government responded strongly demanding that the Iranian authorities release the British staff immediately as it stated that Iran's accusations are baseless without evidence. After the arrest of UK staff, the European Union

2009 international arbitration court ruling.

In April 2009 the British government lost its final appeal in the arbitration court of the International Chamber of Commerce at The Hague against a payment of $650 million to Iran. The money is compensation for an arms deal dating from the 1970s which then did not come about due to the occurrence of the Iranian Revolution. The Shah's government had ordered 1,500 Chieftain tanks and 250 Chieftain armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs) in a contract worth £650 million, but only 185 vehicles had been delivered before the revolution occurred. The contract also covered the provision of training to the Iranian army and the construction of a

2011 attack on the British Embassy.

On 29 November 2011, despite heavy police resistance, two compounds of the British embassy in Tehran were stormed by Iranian protesters. The protesters smashed windows, ransacked offices, set fire to government documents, and burned a British flag. Six British diplomats were initially reported by the Iranian semi-official news agency Mehr as being taken hostage, while later reports indicated that in fact they were escorted to safety by the police.

Since 2011.

The UK Defence Secretary Philip Hammond warned that Britain may take military action against Iran if it carries out its threat to block the Strait of Hormuz. He said any attempt by Iran to block the strategically important waterway in retaliation for sanctions against its oil exports would be “illegal and unsuccessful” and the Royal Navy will join any action to keep it open. British defense officials met with US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta on 6 January to criticize other members of the NATO for not being willing to commit resources to joint operations, including in Libya and Afghanistan. The following day, UK officials reported its intention to send its most powerful naval forces to the Persian Gulf to counter any Iranian attempt to close the Strait of Hormuz. The Type 45 destroyer will arrive in the Gulf by the end of January. According to officials, the ship is capable of shooting down "any missile in Iran's armory." On July 2013, it is announced that the UK would consider opening better relations with Iran "step-by-step" following the

Tanker detention and Strait of Hormuz tensions.

On 4 July 2019, Royal Marines boarded the Iranian-owned tanker "Grace 1" by helicopter off Gibraltar where it was detained. The reason given was to enforce European Union sanctions against Syrian entities, as the tanker was suspected of heading to Baniyas Refinery named in the sanctions that concern Syrian oil exports. Gibraltar had passed regulations permitting the detention the day before. Spain's Foreign Minister Josep Borrell stated that the detention was carried out at the request of the United States. An Iranian Foreign Ministry official calling the seizure "piracy," stating that the UK does not have the right to implement sanction against other nations "in an extraterritorial manner".  On 10 July 2019, boats belonging to Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps approached a British Petroleum tanker, "British Heritage", impeding it while it was transiting the Strait of Hormuz. The Royal Navy frigate moved between the boats and ship. This further ignited tensions between both the countries.  On 14 July 2019, British Foreign Secretary Jeremy Hunt said "Grace 1" could be released if the UK received guarantees the oil — 2.1 million barrels worth — would not go to Syria. On 19 July 2019, Iran media reported that the Swedish owned but British-flagged oil tanker "Stena Impero" had been seized by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard in the Strait of Hormuz. A first tanker, MV "Mesdar", which was a Liberian-flagged vessel managed in Scotland, jointly Algerian and Japanese owned, was boarded but later released. Iran stated that the British-flagged ship had collided with and damaged an Iranian vessel, and had ignored warnings by Iranian authorities. During the incident HMS "Montrose" was stationed too far away to offer

U.S. Assassination of Iranian General Qassem Soleimani.

On the 2nd January 2020, the United States launched an airstrike in Iraq which killed Iranian General Qassem Soleimani who was arguably the 2nd most powerful person in Iran.

Iran–United Kingdom relations are the bilateral relations between the United Kingdom and Iran. Iran, which was called Persia by the West before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey of Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.


History.

Ong (옹) (甕, 瓮) is the Korean word for "pottery" and refers to the form of the bowl.  Pottery has been used on the Korean peninsula since prehistoric times for storing food. In the Three Kingdoms period, images of large and small pottery appear on the tomb murals of Anak 3 in Goguryeo. Baekje and Silla records that they stored rice, liquor, oil, soy sauce, and salted fish. It is also used for drinking water storage. In the early period of the Joseon Dynasty, there were 104 'Ongjang(옹장)' in 14 institutions such as Bongsung Temple, and there were two assistants according to ≪Ggyeong-guk Dae-jeon(경국대전)≫ in Joseon. In Sung-Hyun's ≪선화봉사 고려도경 宣和奉使高麗圖經≫, "Pottery is the most necessary vessel for people. Now, in Mapo and Noryangjin, mud baking is done as a clay pot, a kind of earthenware. " Thus, it can be seen that pottery has been used for life since prehistoric times.

Uses.

Compared to porcelain, onggi has a microporous structure and has been found to assist in the fermentation in food processing such as the preparation of gochujang (fermented chili pepper, bean and rice paste), doenjang (fermented bean paste), kimchi (fermented seasoned vegetables), and soy sauce. Onggi with proper porosity and permeability needs to be used in order to produce an optimally ripened quality in fermented foodstuff. Fine-tuned onggi containers are, in fact, suitable for many different kinds of fermented products. Since early times, Korea has been famous for fermented foods. In ancient Chinese historiography, in the Biographies of the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Dongyi () in the "Records of Wèi" (), which is part of the "Records of the Three Kingdoms", there is this remark: "Goguryeo people have a custom of making fermented foods". The abundance of soybeans, which grow naturally in Korea, the fresh fishery resources from the sea surrounding the Korean Peninsula and a proper climate for microbial development, all give account of the importance of fermentation as food processing. The development and refinement of onggi ware also contributed to the development of fermented dishes within Korean cuisine. Large onggi ware were stored on the jangdokdae, an elevated floor near the house.

Features.

Onggi, which are made by a specialized group of workmen called "onggijang" (), has been influenced by the characteristics and climate of the regions where it has been made. Therefore, there are shapes and sizes of onggi and ways of manufacturing it that vary from region to region. Nevertheless, all onggi types share some properties. These are biodegradability, porosity, and its proof against rot as well as firmness or "vertebration". Due to the low firing temperatures often used in producing onggi, they are rarely found archaeologically since the sherds return to the clay state or are used as grog. Features of Onggi include its Breathability, Stability, Suitability for Fermentation, Economical Price, Porosity and Diversity of use.

Breathability.

By heating to a high temperature, the crystal water contained in the wall of the pottery vessel is discharged, and pores are generated, so that air flows between the inside and the outside of the pottery pot. For this reason, Onggi was recognized as a breathable vessel from ancient times.

Stability.

The pores of the pottery wall act as pushing out the impurities formed on the inner surface, so that the contents have excellent storage ability that can be stored for a long time without decaying.

Suitability for Fermentation.

The most important characteristic of Korean cuisine is its use of fermented food. Fermented food is mostly fermented in Onggi pots. Tobacco, candlesticks, and cooked rice are also stored in containers made for fermentation purposes.

Economical Price.

Since onggi the materials used in making Onggi can be easily and cheaply obtained, Onggi has traditionally retailed at a low price, which is not burdensome for ordinary people.

Porosity.

While burning onggi, the onggijang master glazes its surface. This glaze plays a key role in giving a waterproof surface and preventing leaks. Following up, many particles of sand are included in the body of the clay acting as passages for air. This way, air can move through onggi while water cannot. Koreans call this action "Onggi drawing breath." This is one of the most critical reasons to use onggi in making Korean fermented foods.

Variety of Usage.

Onggi is mainly used for food containers, but they can also be used to store household appliances such as lamps, fireplaces, ashtrays, ashtrays, coins, and ink pads, as well as ceremonial instruments, and for percussion instruments such as cans, onion jugs, and wind instruments.

Production method.

Onggi pots are made of clay with a high percentage of iron. First, the soil to make the pottery is put into the water and whipped out to remove sand and impurities. Then, when the water comes out from the fine sediment that you have received, it forms a bowl and is dried in the sun. The potters then dry the dried-up bowl again in the sun, wash it with a lye solution, then dry it again. The glaze that is applied to the bowl is mixed with various substances and is then sifted through a sieve. After the glaze is applied to the bowl, an orchid or grass pattern is drawn on the body and the pot is air-dried thoroughly, then baked in a kiln and finished.  Another process of making Onggi is to first knead the soil, dry it in the shade and then with a tool to make it into a brick shape, and hit it on the floor into a plank shape. This is referred to as 'Panzhangjil(판장질)'. Then put it on a spinning wheel and iron it (batting) with a Ddukmae(떡매). The shape of the Onggi is determined by the speed and hand movements of the spinning wheel. Since the pottery culture seemed likely to disappear after the 1960s due to the appearance of plastic and stainless steel bowls, the Ministry of Culture designated the Onggi Human Cultural Property in May 1989. In 1990, Onggijang(Onggi technician) was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties No. 96.

Types of Onggi Pots.

The kinds of Onggi and its usage are as follows.  The act of putting red pepper, charcoal, jujube in a handhold and putting a gold wire on a rope and cutting and attaching a bouquet or a sword pattern is a way of saying that "the house is ruined if the taste changes.".  The gold bars are intended to prevent irregularities that may be caught in the dipping sauces. The sod is always pale, meaning that the sour taste does not change at all times. The fact that the sushi line is reversed means that it will return to its original taste even if the taste has changed. Also, putting charcoal, red pepper, jujube etc was like black as charcoal, red like red pepper and sweet as sweetness.  After the strength of the Japanese colonial rule, the liquor was replaced with a standardized form in the unique form of transferring alcoholic beverages, which was made only by the licensed sake maker.  In general, the sake used in the sake brewery is the'sake, stone, stone, number, doo, bottle,, 'Year','month','month', 'test' and so on, and sometimes the name of a zodiac or a dragon appears.  This bottle, also known as the ear cup, is mainly made of liquid to make it easier for the snout to follow a small bottle.

Onggi () is Korean earthenware, which is extensively used as tableware, as well as storage containers in Korea. It includes both unglazed earthenware fired near 600 to 700°C and pottery with a dark brown glaze that burnt over 1100°C.The origin of onggi dates to around 4000 to 5000 BC. The two types of earthenware are a patternless earthenware which is called "mumun" and a black and red earthenware. The former, a patternless earthenware, was made with lumps of clay including much fine sand; however, the predecessor of Goryeo celadon and Joseon white porcelain, a black/red earthenware, was being made with only lumps of clay. The color of earthenware is determined by the iron contained in the clay and the way of burning the pottery. The present onggi shape dates from the Joseon era. Many records about onggi are found in "Sejong Sillok Jiriji" (, "King Sejong's Treatise on Geography"): "There are three kilns that make the yellow onggi in Chogye-gun and Jinju-mok, Gyeongsang Province".


Design.

German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. "U-310" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-310" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and two twin C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

The boat's service life began with training with the 8th U-boat Flotilla in February 1943. She was then transferred to the 7th flotilla for operations on 1 August. She was reassigned to the 13th flotilla on 5 September 1944.  The boat made two short journeys from Kiel in Germany to Marvika and Egersund in Norway, between June and August 1944.

1st patrol.

The submarine's first patrol began with her departure from Egersund (south of Stavanger), on 13 September 1944. She moved up the Norwegian coast, arriving in Narvik on the 21st.

2nd patrol.

The boat torpedoed the "Edward H. Crockett" on 29 September 1944. The wreck was finished off with gunfire from. She also sank the "Samsuva" in the same attack off the North Cape.

3rd, 4th and 5th patrols.

"U-310"s third sortie covered the Norwegian and Barents Seas.  In her fourth patrol, the U-boat rounded Bear Island and passed east of Murmansk.  Her fifth foray began in Harstad (northwest of Narvik), on 25 December 1944 and ended in Bogenbucht, (west of Narvik), on 5 January 1945.

6th patrol and fate.

The U-boat's last patrol was relatively uneventful. She finished in Trondheim at war's end. There, she was broken up in March 1947.

German submarine "U-310" was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 30 January 1942 at the "Flender Werke" yard at Lübeck as yard number 310, launched on 3 January 1943 and commissioned on 24 February under the command of "Leutnant zur See" Klaus Friedland.


History.

Founded in Silicon Valley in 2003 by Paul J.J. Payack, the GLM describes its role as "a media analytics company that documents, analyzes and tracks cultural trends in language the world over, with a particular emphasis upon Global English". GLM's main services include various products based on the Narrative Tracker technologies for global Internet and social media analysis. NarrativeTracker is based on global discourse, providing a real-time, accurate picture about any topic, at any point in time. NarrativeTracker analyzes the Internet, blogosphere, the top 275,000 print and electronic global media, as well as new social media sources as they emerge. In April 2008, GLM moved its headquarters from San Diego to Austin.  GLM announced "Emoji" as its Top Word of 2014 for Global English along with its complete lists of Top Words, Phrases and Names in December 2014.  Earlier in 2015 GLM has released:

Counting English words.

GLM announced the 1,000,000th English word on June 10, 2009. This controversial exercise was widely covered in the global media. The count itself was widely criticized by a number of prominent linguists, including Geoffrey Nunberg, and Jesse Sheidlower and Benjamin Zimmer, on the grounds that since there is no generally accepted definition of a word, there can never be a definitive count.  The finalists, which met the criteria of a minimum of 25,000 citations with the necessary breadth of geographic distribution and depth of citations, were:  1. Web 2.0. 2. Jai Ho! 3. N00b. 4. Slumdog. 5. Cloud computing. 6. Carbon Neutral. 7. Slow Food. 8. Octomom. 9. Greenwashing. 10. Sexting. 11. Shovel ready. 12. Defriend. 13. Chengguan. 14. Recessionista. 15. Zombie Banks.  Critics noted that the target date had been changed a number of times from late in 2006 to early in 2009. It was also criticized on grounds that a count is impossible because "word" is not a scientifically valid concept. Google addressed this situation by counting the words in the 15 million scanned texts in their corpus. Global Language Monitor states the general criteria for inclusion on its site, maintaining that it is simply updating the established criteria for printed dictionaries beginning with the works of Samuel Johnson and Noah Webster.  The New York Times quoted Paul JJ Payack as saying that the PQI is "an algorithm that tracks words and phrases in the media and on the Internet in relation to frequency, context and appearance in global media. It is a weighted index that takes into account year-to-year increases and acceleration in the last several months". In general terms, GLM describes its Predictive Quantities Indicator (PQI), used to run its analytics on global language trends and, as a weighted index, factoring in long-term trends, short-term changes, momentum and velocity, using frequency data on words and phrases in the global print and electronic media, on the Internet, and throughout the blogosphere, as well as in proprietary databases (Factiva, Lexis-Nexis, etc.). It can also create "signals" that can be used in a variety of applications.

Obama an English language word.

On 20 February 2008 GLM announced that the latest word to enter the English language was "obama", derived from Barack Obama, in its many variations. GLM described Obama- as a "root" for words including obamanomics, obamican, obamamentum, obamacize, obamarama, obamaNation, Obamafy, obamamania and obamacam. GLM announced it to be an accepted word, once it met the group's published criteria: a minimum of 25,000 citations in the global media, as well as achieving the necessary 'breadth' and 'depth' of citations.

Top US Colleges and University Rankings.

The Global Language Monitor publishes other lists relating to the English language including: the TrendTopper MediaBuzz College Guide rankings of the top 425 U.S. colleges and universities according to their internet brand equity.  Top Universities (January 2016): Rank/University/Previous Ranking  Top Universities Last

Top 50 US Colleges by TrendTopper MediaBuzz 2016.

Rank/College/Previous Ranking

Top US Colleges by Category.

and 15 Top All-Time Bushisms, and many others.

The Global Language Monitor (GLM) is an Austin, Texas-based company that collectively documents, analyzes, and tracks trends in language usage worldwide, with a particular emphasis upon the English language. It is particularly known for its Word of the Year, political analysis, college and university rankings, High Tech buzzwords, and media analytics.


The building.

The city hall has three main stories, lined with pointed Gothic windows on the three sides visible from the Markt. Above is a gallery parapet, behind which rises a steep roof studded with four tiers of dormers. At the angles of the roof are octagonal turrets pierced with slits allowing for the passage of light.  Statues in canopied niches are distributed all over the building. The corbels supporting the statues are carved with Biblical scenes in high relief. While the niches and corbels are original with the building, the 236 statues themselves are relatively recent, dating from after 1850. Those of the first floor represent personages of importance in the local history of the city; those of the second, patron saints and symbolic figures; those of the third, the Counts of Leuven and Dukes of Brabant from various ages.  The main façade has an entrance staircase, and two portals in the center, above which are figures of Saint Peter (left) and Madonna and Child (right), the former in compliment to the patron of the church opposite.  The interior accommodates an interesting collection of artwork, including sculptures by Constantin Meunier and Jef Lambeaux. Inside can also be seen the portraits of the Leuven mayors since 1794.

History.

The building today known as the city Hall was the "Voirste Huys" (front house) of a larger complex of municipal buildings on which construction started in 1439 at the site of an existing City hall. The first architect, Sulpitius Van Vorst, died soon after the back wings of the complex got started and was succeeded briefly by Jan Keldermans II, whose death in 1445 ended the first construction campaign.  The project resumed in 1448 under the direction of Matheus de Layens. The first stone of the "Voirste Huys" was laid on 28 March of that year. The cellars of some demolished houses were incorporated into the new construction and can today be accessed through a small door at the left side of the city hall. The initial plans, influenced by the City hall at Brussels, included a belfry tower at one of the corners. This design was modified by de Layens, resulting in the symmetrical arrangement of turrets observed today.  The exterior masonry and roof were finished in 1460, and in 1469 the building was complete.  In the 19th century, the city Hall underwent renovations made necessary by centuries' worth of decay. The building remained standing amid the devastation of Leuven during World War I, escaping with only minor damage. In the Second World War, a bomb strike in front of the building caused yet more damage; it took until 1983 before repairs were completed.

The City Hall (Dutch: ) of Leuven, Belgium, is a landmark building on that city's "Grote Markt" (Main Market) square, across from the monumental St. Peter's Church. Built in a Brabantine Late Gothic style between 1448 and 1469, it is famous for its ornate architecture, crafted in lace-like detail.


Design.

German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. "U-314" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-314" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and two twin C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

The boat's service life began with training with the 8th U-boat Flotilla from June 1943. She was then transferred to the 11th flotilla for operations on 1 January 1944.

1st patrol.

"U-314"s first patrol took her to the Barents Sea, then south of Bear Island. She departed from Trondheim in Norway on 22 December 1943; the patrol finished at Hammerfest, northeast of Narvik, on 14 January 1944.

2nd patrol and loss.

The boat left Hammerfest on 25 January 1944. She was sunk on the 30th by depth charges dropped by the British destroyers and southeast of Bear Island.  Forty-nine men died; there were no survivors.

Wolfpacks.

"U-314" took part in four wolfpacks, namely.

German submarine "U-314" was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 9 June 1942 at the Flender Werke yard at Lübeck as yard number 314, launched on 17 April 1943 and commissioned on 10 June under the command of "Kapitänleutnant" Georg-Wilhelm Basse.


Popular culture use.

"Underdog" was used in the credits of the 2010 film "Takers". Snooker player Mark Selby has used "Underdog" as his walk-on music. "Underdog" is currently used as the run out music by English League One football teams Colchester United and Peterborough United, until Dave Robertson took over in February 2015, with the first match without "Underdog" being played a 2–0 win over Bradford City. The music also featured in the Carlsberg England team talk advertisement for the 2010 World Cup, as did the band themselves. During the 2011 Rugby League Four Nations, an instrumental version of the song was used as music during video referee decisions. The song was played during the fourth episode of the first series of the BBC Three sitcom "Mongrels". The song, like many other Kasabian tracks, is also used in at least one episode of BBC Two's "Top Gear". It was also used on a highlight video for the 2009 European Grand Prix on the official Formula 1 website.  The song was also featured on an episode of "The World's Strictest Parents" in Australia. "Underdog" has been used by Sony in a commercial for their BRAVIA televisions. The advert also features Real Madrid and Brazilian football player Kaká while he was with his former team AC Milan wearing their home kit.  The track is also included in the 16-track playlist of the 2009 racing simulator "".  The song is part of the soundtrack of car racing game "Asphalt 8".  "Underdog" also features in the background of a scene in "Misfits", season one, episode four.  It was also covered by international superstar Kelly Rowland during her BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge session in 2010.  It was used in the regional competition scene of the 2011 docudrama "Soul Surfer", the true story of Bethany Hamilton.  This song is also used by Cancer Research UK's Race for Life campaign, appearing in television and radio advertisements, and played at the start of each event.  "Underdog" was also used as the entrance music for George Groves in his boxing match against Carl Froch at Wembley Stadium.  An instrumental version of the song is featured in Toyota Australia's television commercial that premiered in July 2016.

Music video.

The music video features a live performance by the band in black and white.

Chart performance.

Following the release of Kasabian's album, "Underdog" managed to enter the UK Singles Chart at number 32. However, on the single's physical release in October 2009, "Underdog" only managed to reach number 45, meaning it failed to beat its original peak of number 32.

"Underdog" is the third single released from the album "West Ryder Pauper Lunatic Asylum" by English band Kasabian. It peaked at number 32 in the UK Singles Chart on the week after the album's release. Despite this, it became a widely popular song.


Early life and stage career.

William Christopher Dowlan was born 1882 in St. Paul, Minnesota, the eldest son of five children of Mary E. ("née" Collins) and William Dowlan, who was a native of Canada and in 1900 was working as a "clerk & driver". Young William grew up in St. Paul, where he received his formal education at Christian Brothers School and where he also developed an early interest in acting and stagecraft. After serving briefly as a soldier in 1900, Dowlan began his decade-long stage career. The trade magazine "Motion Picture News" describes his stage experience in a short "authorized" biography of Dowlan published in 1916:

Film.

In 1912 Dowlan refocused his acting career, turning from the stage to the rapidly expanding entertainment medium of motion pictures. That year he relocated to California and began performing in lead roles as a contract player with the new Universal Film Manufacturing Company, which had just merged with the Nestor Film Company. In fact, Dowlan's initial acting assignments in 1912 were in shorts produced under Universal’s Nestor logo or "brand". Later, after several years of performing before the camera, Dowlan became interested in directing as well, often serving as both actor and director in the same production. The first in a series of films in which he performed those dual roles was the 1915 one-reeler short "Her Mysterious Escort". The next year he retired from acting after performing in and directing "Drugged Waters", which was released in March 1916. The screenplay for that film, like most of Dowlan's productions in this period, was written by his wife Leonora Ainsworth. Soon after the release of "Drugged Waters", both Dowlan and Ainsworth left Universal. He then joined the American Film Company to direct "Youth's Endearing Charm", starring Mary Miles Minter and Harry von Meter. Following the completion of that film in the summer of 1916, he continued to direct for other studios for several more years, until he retired from the film industry in the early 1920s.

Post-film work.

Dowlan's wife Leonora had stopped working as a screenwriter even before William quit directing films. The couple did, though, continue to live in Los Angeles and work together in an entirely new business, that of merchandising women's apparel. By 1930 Dowlan, Ainsworth, and Leonora's 35-year-old daughter Harriet from her previous marriage (long ago adopted by Dowlan) were living in a rented residence at 326 North Palm Drive in "Beverly Hills City". All three members of the family were working then as co-owners or "sales managers" of a shop specializing in "Dresses, underwear and hosiery".

Personal life and death.

Dowlan married Leonora Ainsworth in 1906 and lived in Minnesota before relocating to California in 1912. He died in 1947 at age 65 and was buried next to his wife in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.

William C. Dowlan (September 21, 1882 – November 6, 1947) was an American stage performer and a film actor and director during the silent era. Most of his directorial projects were done in collaboration with his wife, screenwriter Leonora Ainsworth. Between 1915 and 1917 he and Ainsworth did extensive work together for Universal Film Manufacturing Company in Los Angeles and for the American Film Company at its facilities in Santa Barbara.


Life.

Killigrew was born in Hanworth on 11 February 1613, the fifth and youngest son of Robert Killigrew and his wife Mary Woodhouse. He was the brother of the dramatist Thomas Killigrew and of Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon, mistress of the future Charles II.  He was educated at Cripplegate, London and at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating B.A. 1632, M.A. 1638, D.D. 1642. He served as a chaplain in the army, and subsequently as chaplain to the Duke of York (the future James II), a canon of Westminster Abbey, and rector of Wheathampstead.  At the Restoration, he was appointed almoner to the Duke of York, and Master of the Savoy in 1663. According to some writers the final ruin of the Savoy Hospital was due to Killigrew's "improvidence, greed, and other bad qualities". A bill was passed in 1697 abolishing its privileges of sanctuary. The hospital was leased out in tenements, and the master appropriated the profits; among the leases granted was one (1699) to Henry Killigrew, the patentee of Drury Lane Theatre, for his lodgings in the Savoy, at a rent of 1 shilling per year for forty years. A commission appointed by William III reported that the relief of the poor (the hospital's intended purpose) was being utterly neglected. In 1702, shortly after Killigrew's death, the hospital was dissolved.  A juvenile play of his, "The Conspiracy", was printed surreptitiously in 1638, and in an authenticated version in 1653 as "Pallantus and Eudora".

Family.

He married Judith and had four children:

Henry Killigrew (11 February 1613 – 14 March 1700) was an English clergyman and playwright. He became chaplain and almoner to the Duke of York, and Master of the Savoy after the Restoration.


Biography.

His father was a tax collector for the Customs Service. He displayed an early talent for art, but his father was opposed on the grounds that it would not be a secure way to make a living so, at the age of eleven, he was enrolled at the.  The Institute was not to his liking and he was an indifferent student, so a family friend who was an amateur artist encouraged his father to send him to the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (MSPSA). With a recommendation from Vasily Perov, he began auditing classes there in 1878; studying with Illarion Pryanishnikov and Evgraf Sorokin.  He left there in 1882 to attend the Imperial Academy of Arts. Dissatisfaction with the school's administration and financial difficulties forced him to return to Moscow in 1884. He went back to the MSPSA and graduated in 1885.  At that time he started work on a series of paintings devoted to "", the process of resettling peasants to outlying, vacant areas (mostly in Siberia) in an attempt to ease overcrowding in the villages after the Emancipation reform of 1861. The move was often very arduous and many died on the way. From 1885 to 1889, he toured the provinces of Samara, Saratov, Astrakhan and Orenburg, documenting the migrants' lives. This was followed by a series on convicts. In the mid 1890s, he began to focus on historical works.  In 1899, he became a member of the Peredvizhniki, but was soon dissatisfied with their emphasis on "lovely scenes". In 1903, he was one of the founders of the "" (Union of Russian Artists), temporarily replacing the better-known "Mir Iskusstva". In 1905, the Imperial Academy named him an "Academician". Later that year, during the Moscow Uprising, he made numerous sketches while also helping the wounded.  From 1903 to 1910, he taught at the MSPSA. He was also known as an illustrator; creating drawings for classics by Gogol, Lermontov and Pushkin, among others. He died of a heart attack at his dacha near the Yakhroma River.

Sergey Vasilyevich Ivanov (Russian: Сергей Васильевич Иванов; 1864-1910) was a Russian genre and history painter, known for his Social Realism.


Contents.

The introduction, bilingual in French and English, is written by editors Viviane Alleton and Michael Lackner. It is titled "De la traduction du chinois dans les langues européennes" in French, and "Introduction. On translating from the Chinese into European languages" in English. Paul W. Kroll, author of a book review for the "Journal of the American Oriental Society", wrote that the grammar of the English version of the introduction is "less than perfect".  The work contains eight essays in English and seven essays in French, with the essays organized into five sections. Each article in French has an abstract in English and each article in English has an abstract in French. The essay authors include academics and researchers. Of the authors of the essays, 9 were from France, 4 were from Germany, and one each were from Italy, Norway, Taiwan, and the United States. Of all of the authors, only one, Andrew H. Plaks, is a native speaker of English.  Kroll wrote that every one of the essays featured in the work has "numerous useful nuggets on particular words and phrases" and that "several" essays "include extensive bibliographies that take account of many little-known works from years and centuries past." Joshua A. Fogel, an author of a book review of this book for "The Journal of Asian Studies", wrote that of the writers, none of them "believes in one-to-one correspondence between source and target texts".

Essays by chapter.

The European game.

The first section, "The European game" ("Le jeu européen des langues"), contains the essays "The Role of Intermediate Languages in Translations from Chinese into German" by Wolfgang Bauer and "Italian Translations of Chinese Literature" by Federico Masini.  Bauer's essay, which has the French title "Le rôle des langues intermédiaires dans les traductions du chinois en allemand", refers to the practice of translating content first into English or French, the "intermediate language", before the text is re-translated into German. In French this kind of re-translation is referred to as ""la belle infidèle"". Bauer wrote that re-translators, in the words of Fogel, "were not tied to the specifics of the original and thus often produced works of enduring beauty in German" while many direct translators "often had great difficulties making their texts sing in French or German". T. H. Barrett, author of a review of this book for the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, wrote that "English is naturally prominent among" the re-translations. In his essay Bauer wrote that by 2000 English became an "internationalese" that made intermediate language translations obsolete, and that therefore there had been little attention paid to the intermediate languages. Bauer referred to how there were far more Chinese translators that were based out of North America compared to a small number some Chinese intellectuals who translate into non-English languages. Barrett wrote that this essay was "masterful". Fogel also wrote that the authors of the pieces of the book are no longer "willing to settle for "belle infidèles", although, as the term implies, one can recognize their merits."  Masini's essay, titled in French as "Les traductions italiennes de littérature chinoise", explores translations of Chinese works into Italian.

The personalities of translators.

The second section, "The personalities of translators" ("Des traducteurs d'envergure"), contains "Literary Translations of the Classical Lyric and Drama of China in the First Half of the 20th Century: The 'Case' of Vincenz Hundhausen (1878-1955)" by Lutz Bieg, "Richard Wilhelm, a 'Sinicized' German Translator" by Michael Lackner, "Slow Poison or Magic Carpet: The Du Fu Translations by Erwin Ritter von Zach" by Monika Motsch, "Le marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys et les traductions littéraires: À propos d'un texte traduit par lui et retraduit par d'autres" by Angel Pino and Isabelle Rabut.  Bieg's essay, which has the French title "Traductions de théâtre et de poésie chinoise classique dans la première moitié du xx siècle", is about Vincenz Hundhausen, a German translator of Chinese drama, poetry, and prose. Bieg believes that Hundhausen's works are, in the words of Fogel, "among the best produced in his Generation." Lackner's essay, with the French title "Richard Wilhelm, un traducteur allemand « sinisé »?", discusses Richard Wilhelm. Motsch's essay, titled in French as "Poison lent ou tapis volant. Les traductions de Du Fu par Erwin Ritter von Zach", explores Erwin Ritter von Zach's translations of poetry written by Du Fu. Pino and Rabut's essay, which has the English title "The marquis D’Hervey-Saint-Denys and literary translations", is about Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys. Fogel wrote that Pino and Rabut "offer an extremely detailed analysis of D'Hervey as translator, looking closely at the principles of translation and how he applied them."

The translator speaks.

The third section, "The translator speaks" ("Le traducteur parle"), discusses translators contemporary to the time of the book's publication. This section contains "Traduction terminable et interminable" by Jacques Dars and "La passion de traduire" by André Lévy. Both authors were recognized translators in Europe.  Dars' essay, titled "Terminable and interminable translation" in English, discusses the process of attempting to make a translation definitive. He compares it to psychoanalysis. Lévy's essay, which has the English title "The passion for translation", discusses the motivations of translators.

The versatilities of translations.

The fourth section, "The versatilities of translations" ("Les aléas des textes"), contains essays discussing issues in particular translations. The section includes "On "Mengxi bitan"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s World of Marginalities and 'South-pointing Needles': Fragment Translation vs. Contextual Tradition" by Daiwie Fu, "Si c'était à refaire...ou: de la difficulté de traduire ce que Confucius n'a pas dit" by Anne Cheng, and "Authorital Presence in Some Pre-Buddhist Chinese Texts" by Christophe Harbsmeier.  Daiwie Fu's essay, titled "A propos de monde de la marginalité dans le "Mengxi Bitan" et des « aiguilles pointant vers le sud »" in French, states, as paraphrased by Yu Xiuying (), a professor of the French language at Nanjing University and an author of a book review for "Babel", that European translators such as Joseph Needham have inevitable degradation of their texts because they use "taxonomic conception in their choice of fragments to render and their manner of doing it". The essay uses "Dream Pool Essays" ("Mengxi bitan") as a case study. Fogel wrote that Daiwie Fu's essay shows the importance of translating "contextually to see how the original authors conceived of their own entire system of thought" instead of translating "fragments of works with the aim of some putative universal scheme". The Daiwie Fu essay criticizes Joseph Needham. The Anne Cheng essay, titled "If it were to be redone... or: on the difficulty of translating what Confucius did not say" in English, discusses a phrase from "Analects" ("Lunyu"), "" (). She analyzes the way thirty translations of "Analects" translate that sentence. The essay does not have information on the Brooks translation, which was more recent. Barrett wrote that Cheng's essay was "authoritative" and that it "shows a fine appreciation of 'un pragmatisme tout brittanique' in the work of Raymond Dawson". The Harbsmeier essay, titled "Présence d’un auteur dans quelques textes chinois pré-bouddhiques" in French, discusses pre-Qin Dynasty texts' usage of the grammatical first person, and therefore their authorial presence. Barrett wrote that Harbsmeier's essay "appends some valuable additions to Michael Loewe's 1993 bibliographical guide".

Words and polysemy.

The fifth section, "Words and polysemy" ("Rémunérer la deefaillance des mots"), discusses polysemy and issues in translating from Chinese that appear in four genres. It includes "Problèmes d'indéterminations sémantiques dans la traduction de textes philosophiques" by, "Noms de plantes asiatiques dans les langues européennes. Essai en forme de vade-mecum" by Georges Métailié, "Traduire ou transcrire les noms de personnages : incidences sur la lecture" by Yinde Zhang (), and "The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the "Zhongyong"" by Andrew Plaks.  Jean Levi's essay, titled "Problems of semantic indetermination in the translation of philosophical texts" in English, discusses the "semantic plasticity" that is a core component of philosophical texts from Ancient China and how "semantic plasticity" complicates translation. He argues that, as paraphrased by Fogel, "as long as the translation does not attempt perfection, it will succeed if it conveys a feel for the original." The Métailié essay, which has the English title "Translations of Asian plant names into European languages", discusses issues with translating plant names from the Chinese and Japanese languages into European languages. Yinde Zhang's essay, titled "Translating or transcribing the names of literary characters?" in English, discusses the transcribing and translating names of characters within modern Chinese fiction, and the essay compares the different efforts to accomplish the tasks. The Plaks essay, titled in French as "Le milieu, la nature et la réalisation de soi Traductions européennes du "Zhongyong"", argues that since the text of the "Doctrine of the Mean" ("Zhongyong") is "too easy", this factor is, as paraphrased by Fogel, a "major impediment" to translation.

Reception.

Barrett concluded that "every British student interested in the Chinese humanities should be familiar with the contents of this book."  Kroll wrote that in this book "most of the authors are more concerned with discussing matters of historical fact, context, and development than demonstrating their own translation skills" so therefore the emphasis of the book is skewed "more toward information than opinion" and that the articles "are of more than usual interest and value".  Fogel concluded that "On the whole, these essays offer a refreshing look in the theoretical, as well as practical, as seen through the eyes of real translators."  Yu Xiuying wrote that the work was of high quality as a reference book or a "simply pleasant book" ("un livre simplement plaisant") and that the book would be a considerable service ("service considérable") to specialized translators.

De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages ("From one into many: Translations from the Chinese to the European languages") is an academic book in French and English with essays about translations of Chinese into European languages. It was published in 1999 by the Éditions de la MSH,, and edited by Viviane Alleton and Michael Lackner. The introduction states that the purpose of this work is to examine specific issues in translation from Chinese to European languages and from the Chinese culture to Western cultures, instead of promoting a new theory regarding translation.


Method.

HRM analysis is performed on double stranded DNA samples. Typically the user will use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) prior to HRM analysis to amplify the DNA region in which their mutation of interest lies. In the sample tube there are now many copies of the DNA region of interest. This region that is amplified is known as the amplicon. After the PCR process the HRM analysis begins. The process is simply a precise warming of the amplicon DNA from around 50 ̊C up to around 95 ̊C. At some point during this process, the melting temperature of the amplicon is reached and the two strands of DNA separate or "melt" apart.  The key to HRM is to monitor this separation of strands in real-time. This is achieved by using a fluorescent dye. The dyes that are used for HRM are known as intercalating dyes and have a unique property. They bind specifically to double-stranded DNA and when they are bound they fluoresce brightly. In the absence of double stranded DNA they have nothing to bind to and they only fluoresce at a low level. At the beginning of the HRM analysis there is a high level of fluorescence in the sample because of the billions of copies of the amplicon. But as the sample is heated up and the two strands of the DNA melt apart, presence of double stranded DNA decreases and thus fluorescence is reduced. The HRM machine has a camera that watches this process by measuring the fluorescence. The machine then simply plots this data as a graph known as a melt curve, showing the level of fluorescence vs the temperature:

Comparison of melt curves.

The melting temperature of the amplicon at which the two DNA strands come apart is entirely predictable. It is dependent on the sequence of the DNA bases. If you are comparing two samples from two different people, they should give exactly the same shaped melt curve. However, if one person has a mutation in the DNA region you have amplified, then this will alter the temperature at which the DNA strands melt apart. So now the two melt curves appear different. The difference may only be tiny, perhaps a fraction of a degree, but because the HRM machine has the ability to monitor this process in "high resolution", it is possible to accurately document these changes and therefore identify if a mutation is present or not.

Wild type, heterozygote or homozygote?

Things become slightly more complicated than this because organisms contain two (or more) copies of each gene, known as the two alleles. So, if a sample is taken from a patient and amplified using PCR both copies of the region of DNA (alleles) of interest are amplified. So if we are looking for mutation there are now three possibilities:  These three scenarios are known as "Wild–type", "Heterozygote" or "Homozygote" respectively. Each gives a melt curve that is slightly different. With a high quality HRM assay it is possible to distinguish between all three of these scenarios.  Homozygous allelic variants may be characterised by a temperature shift on the resulting melt curve produced by HRM analysis. In comparison, heterozygotes are characterised by changes in melt curve shape. This is due to base-pair mismatching generated as a result of destabilised heteroduplex annealing between wild-type and variant strands. These differences can be easily seen on the resulting melt curve and the melt profile differences between the different genotypes can be amplified visually via generating a difference curve

Applications.

SNP typing/Point mutation detection.

Conventional SNP typing methods are typically time-consuming and expensive, requiring several probe based assays to be multiplexed together or the use of DNA microarrays. HRM is more cost-effective and reduces the need to design multiple pairs of primers and the need to purchase expensive probes. The HRM method has been successfully used to detect a single G to A substitution in the gene Vssc (Voltage Sensitive Sodium Channel) which confers resistance to the acaricide permethrin in Scabies mite. This mutation results in a coding change in the protein (G1535D). The analysis of scabies mites collected from suspected permethrin susceptible and tolerant populations by HRM showed distinct melting profiles. The amplicons from the sensitive mites were observed to have a higher melting temperature relative to the tolerant mites, as expected from the higher thermostability of the GC base pair  In a field more relevant to clinical diagnostics, HRM has been shown to be suitable in principle for the detection of mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. More than 400 mutations have been identified in these genes.The sequencing of genes is the gold standard for identifying mutations. Sequencing is time-consuming and labour-intensive and is often preceded by techniques used to identify heteroduplex DNA, which then further amplify these issues. HRM offers a faster and more convenient closed-tube method of assessing the presence of mutations and gives a result which can be further investigated if it is of interest. In a study carried out by Scott et al. in 2006, 3 cell lines harbouring different BRCA mutations were used to assess the HRM methodology. It was found that the melting profiles of the resulting PCR products could be used to distinguish the presence or absence of a mutation in the amplicon. Similarly in 2007 Krypuy et al. showed that the careful design of HRM assays (with regards to primer placement) could be successfully employed to detect mutations in the TP53 gene, which encodes the tumour suppressor protein p53 in clinical samples of breast and ovarian cancer. Both these studies highlighted the fact that changes in the melting profile can be in the form of a shift in the melting temperature or an obvious difference in the shape of the melt curve. Both of these parameters are a function of the amplicon sequence. The consensus is that HRM is a cost efficient method that can be employed as an initial screen for samples suspected of harbouring polymorphisms or mutations. This would reduce the number of samples which need to be investigated further using more conventional methods.

Zygosity testing.

Currently there are many methods used to determine the zygosity status of a gene at a particular locus. These methods include the use of PCR with specifically designed probes to detect the variants of the genes (SNP typing is the simplest case). In cases where longer stretches of variation is implicated, post PCR analysis of the amplicons may be required. Changes in enzyme restriction, electrophoretic and chromatographic profiles can be measured. These methods are usually more time-consuming and increase the risk of amplicon contamination in the laboratory, due to the need to work with high concentrations of amplicons in the lab post-PCR. The use of HRM reduces the time required for analysis and the risk of contamination. HRM is a more cost-effective solution and the high resolution element not only allows the determination of homo and heterozygosity, it also resolves information about the type of homo and heterozygosity, with different gene variants giving rise to differing melt curve shapes. A study by Gundry et al. 2003, showed that fluorescent labelling of one primer (in the pair) has been shown to be favourable over using an intercalating dye such as SYBR green I. However, progress has been made in the development and use of improved intercalating dyes which reduce the issue of PCR inhibition and concerns over non-saturating intercalation of the dye.

Epigenetics.

The HRM methodology has also been exploited to provide a reliable analysis of the methylation status of DNA. This is of significance since changes to the methylation status of tumour suppressor genes, genes that regulate apoptosis and DNA repair, are characteristics of cancers and also have implications for responses to chemotherapy. For example, cancer patients can be more sensitive to treatment with DNA alkylating agents if the promoter of the DNA repair gene "MGMT" of the patient is methylated. In a study which tested the methylation status of the "MGMT" promoter on 19 colorectal samples, 8 samples were found to be methylated. Another study compared the predictive power of "MGMT" promoter methylation in 83 high grade glioma patients obtained by either MSP, pyrosequencing, and HRM. The HRM method was found to be at least equivalent to pyrosequencing in quantifying the methylation level.  Methylated DNA can be treated by bi-sulphite modification, which converts non-methylated cytosines to uracil. Therefore, PCR products resulting from a template that was originally unmethylated will have a lower melting point than those derived from a methylated template. HRM also offers the possibility of determining the proportion of methylation in a given sample, by comparing it to a standard curve which is generated by mixing different ratios of methylated and non-methylated DNA together. This can offer information regarding the degree of methylation that a tumour may have and thus give an indication of the character of the tumour and how far it deviates from what is "normal".  HRM also is practically advantageous for use in diagnostics, due to its capacity to be adapted to high throughput screening testing, and again it minimises the possibility of amplicon spread and contamination within a laboratory, owing to its closed-tube format.

Intercalating dyes.

To follow the transition of dsDNA (double-stranded) to ssDNA (single-stranded), intercalating dyes are employed. These dyes show differential fluorescence emission dependent on their association with double-stranded or single-stranded DNA. SYBR Green I is a first generation dye for HRM. It fluoresces when intercalated into dsDNA and not ssDNA. Because it may inhibit PCR at high concentrations, it is used at sub-saturating concentrations. Recently, some researchers have discouraged the use of SYBR Green I for HRM, claiming that substantial protocol modifications are required. This is because it is suggested that the lack of accuracy may result from "dye jumping", where dye from a melted duplex may get reincorporated into regions of dsDNA which had not yet melted. New saturating dyes such as LC Green and LC Green Plus, ResoLight, EvaGreen, Chromofy and SYTO 9 are available on the market and have been used successfully for HRM. However, some groups have successfully used SYBR Green I for HRM with the Corbett Rotorgene instruments and advocate the use of SYBR Green I for HRM applications.

Design of high-resolution melting experiments.

High resolution melting assays typically involve qPCR amplification followed by a melting curve collected using a fluorescent dye. Due to the sensitivity of high-resolution melting analysis, it is necessary to carefully consider PCR cycling conditions, template DNA quality, and melting curve parameters. For accurate and repeatable results, PCR thermal cycling conditions must be optimized to ensure that the desired DNA region is amplified with high specificity and minimal bias between sequence variants. The melting curve is typically performed across a broad range of temperatures in small (~0.3 °C) increments that are long enough (~10 seconds) for the DNA to reach equilibrium at each temperature step.  In addition to typical primer design considerations, the design of primers for high-resolution melting assays involves maximizing the thermodynamic differences between PCR products belonging to different genotypes. Smaller amplicons generally yield greater melting temperature variation than longer amplicons, but the variability cannot be predicted by eye. For this reason, it is critical to accurately predict the melting curve of PCR products when designing primers that will distinguish sequence variants. Specialty software, such as uMelt and DesignSignatures, are available to help design primers that will maximize melting curve variability specifically for high-resolution melting assays.

High Resolution Melt (HRM) analysis is a powerful technique in molecular biology for the detection of mutations, polymorphisms and epigenetic differences in double-stranded DNA samples. It was discovered and developed by Idaho Technology and the University of Utah. It has advantages over other genotyping technologies, namely:


Plot.

At age 28, plain and bookish Lina McLaidlaw lives a life of boredom with her retired parents in an English village. Her prettier sister has married a rising writer, but Lina never meets any men she could accept until the arrival of charming Johnnie Aysgarth, from an impoverished and disreputable family. Her father is opposed to a marriage, and everyone seems to know that all Johnnie is after is Lina's money.  However they are soon married, enjoy a long and expensive honeymoon abroad, and return to a large country house that Johnny has acquired and extravagantly furnished. When Lina wonders how the jobless Johnnie has met all this outlay, and what he expects to live on, he eventually admits that he borrowed everything. Gradually the more level-headed Lina takes charge of the family finances, relying on an allowance from her father, and pushes Johnnie into finding a job. He gains a good post nearby, managing the country estate of a distant relation, while she looks after their house. She would like a baby, but never falls pregnant.  After the first shock of discovering Johnnie's huge debt, and the fact that he lied, other shocks keep arriving. She discovers that he is a practised thief, stealing jewelry from a guest and from her to sell. Her inherited furniture also starts disappearing, until she tracks some of it to an antique shop. He is a forger, putting her signature on cheques. Worse, he is sacked from his job for embezzling money.  Most of his takings are placed on horses, for he is an unrepentant gambler, while some are used for another pastime. Any number of local wives and daughters have had affairs with him, for which he rents a flat in a nearby town, and one of their servants has a son by him. When all this comes into the open, the childless Lina at last leaves to stay with her sister in London. There she is introduced at a party to an affectionate unmarried artist, who wants her to get a divorce and marry him. But Lina refuses to sleep with him, instead returning to her purgatory with Johnnie.  Johnnie meanwhile has been plotting new ways of raising money. Going with Lina to her parents for Christmas, after dinner he gets her father to perform a trick which is too much for the old man's weak heart. His death means that Lina comes into her inheritance and Johnnie thus has access to improved means. Later, he cons an old school friend into backing a property development and, taking his gullible partner to Paris, on a visit to a brothel pours so much brandy into him that the man dies. The money he had invested remains in Johnnie's hands.  In Johnnie's view, neither of these events counts as murder. His big project will be to murder Lina, collect her money and insurance, and not be detected. In this he is aided by Isobel Sedbusk, a writer of crime stories, who often visits their village and enjoys discussing foolproof ways of getting rid of people. She tells Johnnie that there is a common chemical which is tasteless if mixed in milk, kills instantly, and leaves no trace in the body.  Lina is driven increasingly desperate by Johnnie's interest in murder, accentuated by discovering that after years of marriage she seems to be pregnant. When she falls ill with flu, Johnnie mounts the stairs with a glass of milk which she deliberately drinks.

About the story.

The novel covers a period of approximately ten years: Johnnie Aysgarth's courtship of, and marriage to, Lina McLaidlaw, the disintegration of their marriage, and her imminent death – although it is uncertain if she really dies (Isobel Sedbusk's alleged deadly chemical is never named, and maybe does not exist.) The story is told almost wholly from Lina's point of view, so readers follow what she does and learn what she thinks. On the other hand, little is revealed of what Johnnie is up to, except for what Lina sees and gathers.

Adaptations.

The novel was adapted to film as "Suspicion" (1941), directed by Alfred Hitchcock. However, the inverted detective story format was eliminated, making Johnnie's murderous indiscretions merely a product of Lina's imagination. According to William L. De Andrea in "Encyclopedia Mysteriosa" (1994), this was because the studio, RKO Radio Pictures, was uncomfortable with the idea of having one of Hollywood's leading actors Cary Grant, who played Johnnie, being shown on screen as a devious psychopath.  Hitchcock was quoted as saying that he was forced to alter the ending of the movie. He wanted an ending similar to the climax of the novel, but the studio, more concerned with Cary Grant's "heroic" image, insisted that it be changed. Writer Donald Spoto, in his biography of Hitchcock "The Dark Side of Genius", disputes Hitchcock's claim to have been over-ruled on the film's ending. Spoto claims that the first RKO treatment and memos between Hitchcock and the studio show that Hitchcock emphatically desired to make a film about a woman's fantasy life.  A 1988 American Playhouse remake stars Anthony Andrews and Jane Curtin.

Before the Fact (1932) is an English novel by Anthony Berkeley Cox writing under the pen name "Francis Iles". It tells the story of a woman marrying a man who is after her inherited money and prepared, it seems, to kill her for it. Whether he does succeed in the end, or whether she has been imagining his plots, is left unclear. Together with the previous Iles book "Malice Aforethought" (1931), it can be placed in the category of psychological suspense novel. Elements of the story were used for the 1941 American film "Suspicion", directed by Alfred Hitchcock.


History.

Affiliation.

Photographers joined together to form photographic clubs and societies from the early-1840s onwards. The Leeds Photographic Society was established in 1852, and the London Photographic Society (which became the Royal Photographic Society) in 1853.  The Royal Photographic Society, then known as the Photographic Society of Great Britain, became central in acting as a coordinating body for camera clubs and photographic societies in Britain, and the Society was frequently referred to as the 'parent body' in its relationship to other British photographic organisations. The strengthening of links between clubs and societies was started in 1890 when the Society considered a proposal to establish a photographic institute which it circulated to all societies. This scheme failed to gain momentum and an affiliation committee was established which reported back to The Society's Council in April 1891. An alternative affiliation scheme promoted by The Camera Club in London failed to gain any significant support.  The 1891 committee noted that 'it would be desirable if the majority of local Photographic Societies could be affiliated to the Parent Society...such a scheme ought to be practical and useful'. The scheme would: An alternative independent scheme of affiliation was proposed and sent to the various London societies but there seemed to be a consensus that the Photographic Society's scheme was preferred and in July 1891 a formal affiliation scheme was adopted which adopted some of the six points outlined in April and some of the aims of the institute scheme proposed the previous November. The first meeting of delegates took place on 1 February 1892 which dealt with minor revision of the rules and negotiating the relationship ship between the societies and the Parent society. Further meetings took place in March. The published list of affiliated societies in February 1892 contained twenty-four societies, including the Photographic Society of India. From 1892 reports dealing with affiliated societies and activities began to appear regularly in "The Photographic Journal" and an annual list of affiliated Societies was published.

Early federations.

During the period from 1892 to 1930 various photographic unions of individual photographic clubs were formed, the first of which was the Yorkshire Photographic Union formed in 1899 as a regional grouping of photographic clubs and societies. This was followed by the Northern Counties Photographic Federation in 1901, the Scottish Photographic Federation in 1903, the Lancashire and Cheshire Photographic Union in 1905, the Midland Counties Photographic Federation in 1907, and the East Anglian Federation in 1910.  By the late 1920s there was increasing pressure from other photographic societies and camera club to distance themselves from the Royal Photographic Society. The Society was less concerned with competition than local groups. Larger alliances were formed, for example, The Council of Photographic Federations in 1926.

The formation of the PAGB.

Mr. J. S. Lancaster of the Midland Counties Photographic Federation proposed the formation of an Inter-Federation national body in a letter to the Royal Photographic Society in 1929, and The Society's affiliation scheme partly gave way to the formation of the Photographic Alliance, to act as an umbrella organisation for federations of societies, in 1930. The individual groupings retained their own identities and organisation within the PAGB, which provided a national body to give a structure to club photography: coordinating activities, competitions, and standards.  The RPS fully supported the formation of the Photographic Alliance. Those societies which were territorially in a federation became affiliated to the Society through their federation, and those societies which were not federated were formed into The Central Association of Photographic Societies and were directly affiliated to the Society. The negotiations with the RPS were led by Thomas H B Scott (the Society's President 1925-27), F F Renwick and Alexander Keighley in 1927 and Scott did much to promote the idea. The RPS made available the whole of its Affiliation lecture, portfolios and funds unreservedly at the disposal of the Alliance.  The Photographic Alliance was established by Articles of Association of the Royal Photographic Society and comprised the RPS; Northern Counties, Midland Counties and East Anglian Federations; the Yorkshire and the Lancashire and Cheshire Photographic Unions; and the Central Association of Photographic Societies. A meeting of the provisional executive committee was held on 8 March 1930, the Council of the RPS agreed that the Chairman of the Alliance need not be a member of the RPS, so reinforcing its status as a body semi-independent of the RPS. The constitution of the Alliance noted 'The business of the Alliance shall be conducted consistently with the Articles of Association of The Royal Photographic Society, and shall not interfere with the complete self-government of the constituent associations'. The Scottish Photographic Federation declined to join. The Alliance was formally launched at Leicester on 24 May 1930.  The details of these regional federations were not fixed. At first, all clubs that were not members of a regional grouping became members of the Central Association of Photographic Societies (CAPS), affiliated to PAGB. Eventually CAPS was replaced by other regional federations. Boundary changes have continued since then. But the overall structure, with the Photographic Alliance of Great Britain as the national body, has been stable for decades.  By 1936 the Alliance consisted of the six English Federations and Unions and the Central Association, totalling 310 individual societies. The Alliance published its own "Year Book" from 1933-34 of which 1800 copies were distributed in 1936, and the "Photographic Red Book" which had been originally published by Affiliation from 1900 with a total of 6981 being sold in 1936.  Over time the PAGB gradually moved away from the Royal Photographic Society and is now a wholly independent body. The PAGB appoints a member of The Society's Advisory Board meetings and a Society Council member attends PAGB Executive Committee meetings as a full voting member, reporting on matters of interest to the Society's Council.

PAGB Archive.

The Archive of photographs and documents of the PAGB were passed to Birmingham Central Library in 2011.

Relationships.

The Photographic Alliance of Great Britain comprises 15 federations based on geographical regions. The total number of clubs within all of these is over 1000, hence there are tens of thousands of photographers indirectly affiliated to the PAGB.  This hierarchy with the PAGB at the top is not one of control. The PAGB is not a governing body for federations, and neither are federations governing bodies for clubs. The hierarchy is one of service. Federations exist to serve the needs of clubs and their members, and the PAGB exists to serve the needs of all of those. These organisations are typically run by volunteers who are also club photographers.  The PAGB is a member of Fédération Internationale de l'Art Photographique (FIAP). So too are two of the federations of the PAGB, whose membership of FIAP pre-dated that of the PAGB, the Scottish Photographic Federation and the Welsh Photographic Federation.

Awards.

Awards are of two sorts: for photographic merit, and for outstanding services to the PAGB and/or its federations and their clubs, for example CPAGB (Credit PAGB), DPAGB (Distinction PAGB), MPAGB (Master PAGB), APAGB (Associate of PAGB) and the J.S. Lancaster Medal (HonPAGB)

Competitions and events.

The PAGB organises a number of national events and services. These include:  Competitions where club photographers make individual decisions to enter, yet do so via their clubs on behalf of their federations: Inter-club competitions where the entrants are two clubs chosen by each federation to represent them (plus the previous year's finalists): An inter-club PDI competition (with 3 sections) where clubs make individual decisions to enter: A bi-annual Slide Sound sequences weekend run in conjunction with the Royal Photographic Society:

The Photographic Alliance of Great Britain (known as the PAGB) is the umbrella organisation that provides benefits and co-ordinates specific events for the majority of photographic clubs and societies in England, Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland. (Hence its scope is in fact not merely Great Britain, but rather the United Kingdom.)


Early life and career.

General Pang was born in a rural household in Hebei Province and joined the newly formed modern army under the Qing dynasty. After graduating from the Manchurian Surveying Academy, he was given a rank equivalent to that of a captain. When the Xinhai Revolution broke out in 1911 his superiors suspected him of being a revolutionary sympathizer and forced him to resign. After he returned home, Pang started several small businesses in order to make a living. In 1920, when a bad drought hit his hometown and a famine broke out, he decided to take up military service again at the age of 41. So he entered the Northwestern Army and served under a number of local warlords, and eventually became one of the best known military commanders in the North China Region. When Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek launched the Northern Expedition in 1926, Pang was serving under General Wu Peifu, one of the most powerful warlords who had control over Central and Northern China. Pang demonstrated his political shrewdness when he announced his support for the nationalist revolution and joined with General Tang Shengzhi. After Chiang Kai-shek purged the communists in the Shanghai massacre, the Wuhan Nationalist Government ordered Pang Bingxun to attack Nanjing. Pang instead joined General Feng Yuxiang's Second Army Group and became a division commander in Feng's units. He fought with courage and distinction for Feng Yuxiang in the Central Plains War, but when General Zhang Xueliang, Commander-in-chief of the Northeastern Border Defense Army, formerly known as the Fengtian clique declared himself for Chiang Kai-shek, the anti-Chaing forces were quickly defeated. Pang again switched sides and once again declared support for the Nationalist Government who appointed him as commander of the 40th corps. He participated in a number of actions against the Chinese Communist forces in Shaanxi province and defended North China against the Imperial Japanese Army invasion led by Field Marshal Baron Nobuyoshi Mutō in the Defense of the Great Wall. In 1935, General Feng Yuxiang and a number of his old colleagues were involved in the Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936) against Japanese penetration of the region. Because President Chiang Kai-shek still held out hopes for a peaceful settlement with Japan. President Chiang sent War minister General He Yingqin to disband Feng Yuxiang's Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army and named Pang Bingxun as Chairman of Chahar Province in order to appease the Japanese military leaders. The Nationalist Government made him a lieutenant general in 1936 and General Pang once again showed support for Chiang Kai-shek during the Xi'an Incident and subsequently joined the Second Sino-Japanese War next year.

Second Sino-Japanese War.

In July 1937, General Pang Bingxun joined the Second Sino-Japanese War in North China. When Japanese forces struck in the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin, he covered the retreat of General Song Zheyuan's 29th Army into Shandong Province. In December 1937 his unit became part of the 5th war zone under General Li Zongren, and from March 16 to April 17, 1938 he and General Zhang Zizhong fought a bloody defensive action against General Seishirō Itagaki which contributed to the Chinese victory in the Battle of Taierzhuang. After the Battle of Xuzhou he was transferred again to North China, and engaged heavily against the Japanese forces in the region. He was promoted as commander-in-chief of the 24th Army Group and became provincial governor of Hebei province. During his tenure as governor, his forces was clashed with the communist Eighth Route Army which led the two sides to work out a political settlement which led to the easing of armed conflicts soon afterwards. In 1941, the Japanese Northern China Area Army under General Hayao Tada launched Battle of South Shanxi which resulted in a defeat of the Nationalist forces. General Pang was already over 60 years old and asked to resign, but President Chiang Kai-shek turned down his request because experienced commanders were hard to find at the time. General Pang continued to harass and was frustrated with the continued Japanese military presence in North China. In April 1943, 50,000 Japanese soldiers under General Yasuji Okamura stepped up their military offensives against Chinese resistance in the region and achieved a decisive breakthrough against General Pang's defensive perimeter, resulting in most of his units fleeing southward. During the breakout from the Japanese attack, he lost touch with his Army headquarters and was forced to hide in a cave. General Sun Dianying, commander of 5th corps of Chinese puppet forces and a Japanese lieutenant captured him and forced him to surrender to Japan. General Pang was taken to the Japanese corps headquarters and on May 23, 1943, President Wang Jingwei of the Nanjing regime appointed him as commander-in-chief of the 24th Army Group. After he surrendered to Japan, the KMT government tried to win him back, and Pang agreed to rejoin the national resistance. But the Japanese command learned of his plans and disbanded his units. In 1944 he was reassigned as to Hennan as pacification director of Kaifeng and he again contacted Chongqing through the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics under Lieutenant General Dai Li. So when the Japanese forces in China surrendered the next year President Chiang Kai-shek again appointed him as commander-in-chief of the vanguard forces, commissioning him to prevent the region from falling into the hands of Chinese communists.

Chinese Civil War and retirement.

In 1946 the Chinese Civil War resumed, and General Pang handed his unit to the Nationalist government in Nanjing. General Sun Dianying was made commander of the 40th corps, while also concurrently serving as commander-in-chief of the 24th Army Group. But the People's Liberation Army under Marshal Liu Bocheng defeated Pang and Sun's Nationalist troops in the Handan Campaign. General Pang was tasked to reorganize these broken units, and named a military advisor to the Ministry of National Defense (Republic of China), after which he went into retirement. Before the Chinese Communist forces under Marshal Lin Biao took over North China he left Henan for Nanjing in 1948. After the Huaihai campaign he followed President Chiang Kai-shek and other nationalist leaders to Taiwan. Unable to make ends meet with his meager salary, he opened up a restaurant in Taipei with his old friend General Sun Lianzhong. He died in Taiwan on January 12, 1963.

Pang Bingxun (; October 25, 1879- January 12, 1963) was a high-ranking nationalist military commander who fought against the Imperial Japanese Army and Chinese Communist Army. He stopped the IJA 5th Division led by General Seishirō Itagaki, one of the principal architects of the 1931 Manchurian incident, from capturing Linyi and converging with General Rensuke Isogai's IJA 10th Division at Tai'erzhuang District, foiling their plan to assault Xuzhou.