History.

Early years.

Built by Sefton Henry Parry as the Royal Avenue Theatre, it opened on 11 March 1882 with 1200 seats. The first production at the theatre was Jacques Offenbach's "Madame Favart". In its early seasons, the theatre hosted comic operas, burlesques and farces for several years. For much of this time, the low comedian Arthur Roberts, a popular star of the music halls, starred at the theatre. By the 1890s, the theatre was presenting drama, and in 1894 Annie Horniman, the tea heiress, anonymously sponsored the actress Florence Farr in a season of plays at the theatre. Farr's first production was unsuccessful, and so she prevailed upon her friend, George Bernard Shaw, to hurry and make his West End début at the theatre with "Arms and the Man" in 1894. It was successful enough to allow him to discontinue music criticism to focus full-time on play writing. The actress Gladys Cooper managed the theatre for some years.  The theatre was rebuilt in 1905 to the designs of Blow and Billerey. During the work, part of the roof of the adjacent Charing Cross railway station collapsed. The roof and girders fell across the train lines but part of the station's western wall also fell and crashed through the roof and wall of the theatre. This resulted in the deaths of three people in the station, and three workmen on the theatre site and injuries to many more. The theatre was repaired and re-opened as The Playhouse on 28 January 1907 with a one-act play called "The Drums of Oudh" and a play called "Toddles", by Tristan Bernard and Andre Godferneaux. Shaw wrote a sketch entitled "The Interlude at the Playhouse" for the occasion.  The new theatre had a smaller seating capacity of 679. W. Somerset Maugham's "Home and Beauty" premièred at the Playhouse on 30 August 1919, running for 235 performances, and Henry Daniell appeared here in February 1926 as the Prince of Karaslavia in "Mr. Abdulla". Nigel Bruce appeared in February 1927 as Robert Crosbie in Somerset Maugham's "The Letter", and again in May 1930 as Robert Brennan in "Dishonoured Lady". Alec Guinness made his stage début here in Ward Dorane's play "Libel!" on 2 April 1934. Daniell returned in November that year as Paul Miller in "Hurricane".

BBC studio.

In 1951 it was taken over by the BBC as a recording studio for live performances. "The Goon Show" and the radio versions of "Hancock's Half Hour" and "Steptoe and Son" were recorded here, although at least the first two shows were also recorded at other venues during their runs. The stage also hosted live performances by KISS, Queen, Led Zeppelin, The Who, The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. On 3 April 1967, a live Pink Floyd concert was broadcast from the theatre.  When the BBC left around 1976, the theatre went dark and was in danger of demolition.

Other Uses.

In 1986, Rock band Queen used the Playhouse Theatre as the set for their A Kind Of Magic music video

1987 return to theatre usage.

The theatre was restored to its 1907 design by impresario Robin Gonshaw, opening again in October 1987 with the musical "Girlfriends". A commercial building, Aria House, was erected above the theatre.  In 1988, novelist and politician Jeffrey Archer bought the Playhouse for just over £1 million. The following year, the theatre was offered commercial sponsorship by a financial services' company, and for a while it was known as the MI Group Playhouse. In 1991, the Playhouse became home to the Peter Hall Company, and a number of critically and commercially successful plays were performed there, including Tennessee Williams' "The Rose Tattoo" (1991), starring Julie Walters and Moliere's "Tartuffe" (1991), starring Paul Eddington and Felicity Kendal. Around this time the basement bar area of the theatre was converted into a private restaurant, Shaws, but the enterprise was unsuccessful and the space was later converted back into a bar/cafe.  In 1992, Archer sold the Playhouse to the writer and impresario Ray Cooney for just over £2 million. That year Cooney staged the West End premiere of his latest farce "It Runs in the Family" at the Playhouse. This was followed by "Jane Eyre" (1993), adapted by Fay Weldon and starring Tim Pigott-Smith; Frederick Lonsdale's "On Approval", (1994), starring Simon Ward, Martin Jarvis and Anna Carteret; and Ray Cooney's "Funny Money" in 1995.  In 1996, Cooney sold the Playhouse to American investment banker Patrick Sulaiman Cole, whose first production was a critically acclaimed revival of Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" in 1996, directed by Anthony Page and starring Janet McTeer. Later that year, the theatre was closed for complete refurbishment under the direction of English Heritage, with the auditorium luxuriously decorated, with grandiose murals, caryatids, golden pillars, carved balustrades, and shining gold decoration. It reopened in 1997 with Sulaiman Cole's production and the West End première of Anton Chekhov's "The Wood Demon". This was followed by Sulaiman Cole's production of a first ever West End Snoo Wilson premiere, "HRH", directed by Simon Callow, about the British Royal Family's Duke and Duchess of Windsor, which opened the day after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. The play was harshly reviewed as anti-Royal. The theatre returned to life as a commercial receiving house with several seasons of Almeida Theatre and Cheek by Jowl productions, including the popular but critically panned premiere of David Hare's "The Judas Kiss".  Successes at the Playhouse since the late 1990s have included "Naked" (1998); J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls" (2001) and "Journey's End", directed by David Grindley.  American theatrical producers Ted and Norman Tulchin's Maidstone Productions purchased the theatre at the end of 2002, with the venue managed by the Ambassador Theatre Group. The Playhouse hosted Richard Eyre's 2003 Olivier Award-winning production of "Vincent in Brixton", starring Clare Higgins; Eyre's 2005 production of "Hedda Gabler", starring Eve Best; and Megan Dodds in a transfer of "My Name Is Rachel Corrie" by Alan Rickman and Katharine Viner in 2006.  More recent successes include the musical "Dancing in the Streets", "The Adventures of Tintin" based on the famous comic-book detective, "The Harder They Come", and "La Cage Aux Folles".  In December 2013, ATG had acquired 100 percent ownership of the Playhouse.

The Playhouse Theatre is a West End theatre in the City of Westminster, located in Northumberland Avenue, near Trafalgar Square. The Theatre was built by F. H. Fowler and Hill with a seating capacity of 1,200. It was rebuilt in 1907 and still retains its original substage machinery. Its current seating capacity is 786.


History.

Origins.

The 6th Operations Group's origins begin on 30 September 1919 as the United States Army Panama Canal Department 3d Observation Group, being stationed at France Field in the Panama Canal Zone. The unit controlled numerous miscellaneous Air Service light observation squadrons to provide protection for the Panama Canal area.  In 1921 the group was redesignated the 6th Group (Observation) and in 1922, the 6th Group (Composite). The 6th flew such aircraft at the Curtiss R-4, DeHavilland 4-B, SE-5A, MG-3A, Piper L-4, P-12B and Martin B-10 and Douglas B-18 Bolo aircraft.  Throughout the 1920s and 1930 the group participated in maneuvers, flying patrol missions, photographing the canal area, staging aerial reviews and making good-will flights to Central and South America. In 1933, the group became part of the larger 19th Composite Wing, which provided a central command and control organization for the Air Service units. In 1937, as the mission of the 6th moved toward bombardment, the War Department renamed it the 6th Bombardment Group. They continued to operate in the Canal Zone under the VI Bomber Command of the Sixth Air Force at Rio Hato AB, Albrook Field and Howard Field.

World War II.

As events in Europe and the Far East unfolded, the 6th Bomb Group and its units moved towards a war footing. Starting in May 1940, ground training for junior officers, newly arrived at France Field, became of major importance. Local courses on armament, use of flares and the delicate and seldom practiced fusing of bombs were made practically daily matters of practical application. Communications were also being stressed, as qualified radio operators were in short supply, while the squadrons rotated in and out of Rio Hato Army Air Base on "live" bombing practice.  On 4 June 1941, the first four-engine Boeing B-17B Flying Fortress was assigned to the Group. By November, all four of the B-17Bs had been assigned to the 7th Reconnaissance Squadron.  Many alerts and false alarms of enemy aircraft were recorded in the first three months after the Japanese Pearl Harbor Attack, although, of course, these proved to be false alarms. As the early months of the war swept by, and as VI Bomber Command struggled to apportion its scarce resources to best advantage.  In 1941 it was assigned to the new VI Bomber Command of Sixth Air Force with an antisubmarine mission on both the Caribbean and Pacific approaches to the Panama Canal. By 1943, the antisubmarine mission was taken over by the United States Navy, and the group was disbanded in November 1943.  Author James Rusbridger examined the records of the 6th Heavy Bomber Group operations while in Panama. The records show the sinking of a large submarine the morning of 19 February 1942. Since no German submarine was lost in the area on that date, it is assumed the large submarine was the Free-French "Surcouf", which was the largest submarine in the world at the time. Rusbridger suggested that a collision reported by the American freighter Thompson Lykes on the night of 18 February, sustained damaged to the submarine's radio antenna with the stricken vessel limping towards Panama.  On 19 April 1944, the 6th Bombardment Group was reactivated at Dalhart Army Air Field, Texas, being formed as a B-29 Superfortress Very Heavy bombardment Group. The reactivated group was initially assigned four newly constituted bomb squadrons, the 24th, 39th, 40th and 41st as its operational components.  Due to a shortage of B-29s, the group was equipped with former II Bomber Command B-17 Flying Fortresses previously used for training heavy bomber replacement personnel. In May shortages in aircraft and equipment led to the 41st Bomb Squadron being inactivated, with its personnel being consolidated into other group squadrons and the 6th becoming a three squadron group (the 41st would be reactivated a month later as part of the 501st Bombardment Group, but was inactivated a second time, finally being deployed into combat with the 448th Bombardment Group). The 6th was eventually equipped with newly manufactured B-29 Superfortresses at Grand Island Army Airfield, Nebraska during the summer of 1944.  In November the group was deployed to the Asiatic-Pacific Theater, being assigned to the XXI Bomber Command 313th Bombardment Wing, being stationed at North Field, Tinian, The group entered combat by flying navigational escort for a major attack force bound for Iwo Jima. The 6th then began engaging in very long range bombardment missions over the Japanese Home Islands, striking Tokyo and other major Japanese cities and facilities during daylight high-altitude bombing raids, with crippling, non-stop incendiary raids which destroyed lines of communication, supply, and numerous kamikaze bases.  On 25 May 1945, the 6th flew a low-altitude night mission through alerted enemy defenses to drop incendiary bombs on Tokyo, for which they received their first Distinguished Unit Citation. In addition to incendiary raids, the 6th also participated in mining operations. By mining harbors in Japan and Korea in July 1945, the group contributed to the blockade of the Japanese Empire earning their second Distinguished Unit Citation. The 6th's final World War II mission came on 14 August 1945, with the dropping of 500-pound general-purpose bombs on the Marifu railroad yards at Iwakuni.

Postwar era.

With the war over, the 6th dropped food and supplies to Allied prisoners of war and took part in show-of-force flights over Japan. The unit remained on Tinian until February 1946 during which time the group largely demobilized as part of the "Sunset Project", with some aircraft being sent as reclamation on Tinian; others being returned to the United States for storage at aircraft depots in the southwest. By Christmas, the group fleet was reduced to 30 or fewer planes. Many of the remaining veterans signed for "any conditions of travel" to get home, arriving three weeks later in Oakland, California, where troop trains scattered them for points of discharge close to their homes.  The unit moved to Clark Field in the Philippines where it was reassigned to the postwar Far East Air Forces 1st Air Division. At Clark its remaining aircraft and personnel were consolidated into other units. It was again reassigned in June 1947 to Kadena Air Base, Okinawa as a paper unit where it was inactivated in 1948.  In January 1951, the group was activated as the operational component of the new 6th Bombardment Wing at Walker AFB, New Mexico as part of Strategic Air Command's Fifteenth Air Force. However all of the group's B-29 Superfortress were attached directly to the Wing organization, with the group having only one officer and one airman officially assigned to group headquarters. It was inactivated in June 1952 as part of the implementation of the postwar Tri-Deputate organization, as all operational flying squadrons were assigned directly to the 6th Bombardment Wing.

Reactivation, from the 1990s.

Activated on 1 October 1996 with an air refueling mission as part of the Objective Wing structure of the 6th Air Refueling Wing.  Elements deployed to Southwest Asia in July 1998 to refuel aircraft engaged in no-fly operations over northern Iraq. After January 2001, the group also provided airlift for the commanders of U.S. Central Command and U.S. Special Operations Command. It also refueled fighters providing security over the southeastern United States as part of homeland security after terrorist attacks against the United States in September 2001. MacDill KC-135’s have supported US military operations all over the world including refueling coalition aircraft during the war in Bosnia. Since 2001, personnel and aircraft deployed around the world to fulfill air refueling and aeromedical missions.  The 6th has twice won the Air Mobility Rodeo Best Air Mobility Wing Award; in 2000 and 2005.  The group's squadrons in the late 2010s include: All three Air Refuelling Squadrons operate the KC-135R Stratotanker, a long-range tanker aircraft capable of refueling a variety of other aircraft in mid-air, anywhere in the world and under any weather condition.

Heraldry.

The group's emblem, approved in 1924, reflects its Panama Canal Zone origins with a ship sailing through the Gaillard Cut and an airplane flying overhead.

The 6th Operations Group (6 OG) is the operational flying component of the 6th Air Refueling Wing, stationed at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida.


Plot.

"The Peach Blossom Spring" was written during a time of political instability and national disunity; and, according to the story, set in the same (the Taiyuan era of the Jin dynasty (266–420). "Peach Blossom Spring" describes how a fisherman haphazardly sailed into a river in a forest made up entirely of blossoming peach trees, where even the ground was covered by peach petals. When he reached the end of the river (or spring in some translations), the source turned out to be a [grotto]]. Though narrow at first, he was able to squeeze through and the passage eventually reached a village with animals and people of all ages.  The villagers were surprised to see him, but were kind and friendly. They explained that their ancestors escaped to this place during the civil unrest of the Qin dynasty and they themselves had not left since or had contact with anyone from the outside. As a result, they had heard nothing of subsequent changes in political regimes.  The fisherman was warmly received by the hospitable villagers and stayed for over a week. Upon leaving, he was informed that it was worthless to reveal this experience to the world. However, he marked his route on his way out with signs and later divulged the existence of this idyllic haven to others. They tried to find it repeatedly but in vain.

Influences.

Li Bai referenced Peach Blossom Spring in his poem "A Gift to Wang Lun" (赠汪伦, Zeng Wanglun, circa 750 AD). The expression "shìwaì taóyuán" ( "the Peach Spring beyond this world") has become a popular four-character idiom ("chengyu"), meaning an unexpectedly fantastic place off the beaten path, usually an unspoiled wilderness of great beauty.  The text inspired many later poems, some music compositions, art and a modern Taiwanese play-turned-movie, "Secret Love for the Peach Blossom Spring". In some of the poems, the inhabitants of the villages were xian (immortals).  Taohuayuan Scenic Area is a national park based on "The Peach Blossom Spring" located in Taoyuan County, Hunan, China.  The Mu Lung Gardens in "MapleStory" are named after the land in the text (). Mu Lung Garden is one of the Asian-themed areas in the game, even with several pandas training to become monks.  The modern sculpture by Yuanxing Liang called "Chunmang Peach Blossom Island" was inspired by the tale, it presents a woman with her hair forming into nature imitating the utopian world which is presented in the fable.

The Peach Blossom Spring (, also translated as “(The Record of) the Peach Blossom”), or Peach Blossom Spring Story or The Peach Blossom Land, was a fable written by Tao Yuanming in 421 CE about a chance discovery of an ethereal utopia where the people lead an ideal existence in harmony with nature, unaware of the outside world for centuries.


Life and career.

At the age of 18? Mézéray appeared with the Théâtre Lyrique at the Théâtre de la Gaîté in Paris as Rosine in the "Barber of Seville" in April 1877, and later that season as Violetta Tiepolo in "Bravo" by Salvayre.  Mézéray made her Paris Opéra-Comique debut on 27 May 1878 as Isabelle in "Le Pré aux clercs", having spent the previous winter season in Lyon. A good actress and musician, her salary at that time was 3,000 francs per month. Later in 1878 she sang Marie in a revival of "La Fille du régiment", and she continued to sing at the Opéra-Comique for ten years. In 1881 she sang Angèle in "Le Domino noir", and the title role in "Haydée" in 1882.  She was billed at the Théâtre de la Monnaie in "Jean de Nivelle" during the 1882-83 season and appeared during the 1885-86 season as Catherine de Médicis in the premiere of "Saint-Mégrin", when she was praised for her “impeccable talent”.  She sang Rosine in the 100th performance of "Le Barbier de Séville" at the Opéra-Comique on 25 February 1887, alongside Louis Delaquerrière as Almaviva and Gabriel Soulacroix as Figaro, and Philine in the 500th performance of Mignon in 1878. Other roles with the company included Cherubino in 1882, the Queen of the Night in 1883, and Camille in "Zampa" in 1883.  She created a role in "Dianora" by Samiel Rousseau (1879), and sang Laurette in a revival of "Richard Cœur de Lion" in December 1880.  In the preparation for Chabrier's "Le roi malgré lui" Mézeray came into dispute with Carvalho over the importance of her role. A replacement was found (Merguillier) but in April 1887 she had returned to rehearsals and created the part of Alexina that May.  Mézéray appeared as Catherine Glover in the first revival in Paris of Bizet's "La jolie fille de Perth", on 3 November 1890 at the Éden-Théâtre.

Cécile Mézéray was a French soprano active in France and Belgium in the mid nineteenth century. Born around 1859, she was one of the daughters of the musician Charles Mézeray (né Costard, born in Brunswick in 1810 and sometime conductor of the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux). Her sisters Caroline and Reine were also professional singers. As well as singing, Cécile also played the harp.


France.

Rumours of a plot broke out in the spring of 1321 and terrified the people of southern France. Torture of lepers ensued, and eventually confessions were forced out. These initially blamed lepers only but later, in June 1321, stated that the lepers were acting on the orders of Jews, who in turn had been bribed by the Muslims of Spain, in an attempt to "poison the Christian population of Europe". In the confession of the leper Johan de Bosco on 16 May 1321 to the officials of Regale Ville, he says that Geraldus, leper and proctor of the leprosarium of Alterque, had brought bags of powder and ordered him to put them in fountains and rivers so that anyone who drank from them would die or become leprous.  Jacques Fournier's (Bishop of Parmiers 1318-25) inquisitorial records contain the depositions of Guillaume Agasse, the head of the leper house in Parmiers. In a statement on the 9 June 1321 Agasse said that fifty or sixty representatives, leaders and ministers of leper houses from across France, met in one place and conspired to poison the populace with the aid of the Muslim King of Granada. The heads of the houses, it was claimed, were required to deny ‘Christ’s faith and his law’ and in return were to become the masters of the localities their houses served.  The alleged plot flourished in the wake of the previous year's Shepherds' Crusade, which saw young rural men and women form a mob and attack Jews in France and the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragon, despite being ordered to stop by Pope John XXII, King Philip V of France and King James II of Aragon. Already in 1320, some of the apprehended and later hanged "crusaders" claimed to have found barrels filled with rotten bread while pillaging a leper colony (possibly near Le Mas-d'Agenais), and made a strikingly uncommon accusation, alleging that the lepers had intended to use the bread to prepare poisons for contaminating well water. The rumours that sparked the violence in 1321 may have started here. While the Shepherds' Crusade was led by rioters, the persecution of lepers was orchestrated by municipal authorities, making it judicial though extralegal (judicial power being royal prerogative).  King Philip was on a tour of the region when the stories started circulating. He found himself in a difficult position; he could openly neither condone nor condemn the unstoppable persecution, as the former would have led to more violence, while the latter would have undermined his authority. The Dominican inquisitor Bernard Gui was instructed to conduct extensive investigation. On 21 June, Philip ordered by edict that all lepers be imprisoned and examined under torture. Those found guilty were to be burnt at the stake. Since their crimes were declared lèse-majesté, the lepers' property was to be confiscated by the Crown. Unfortunately for Philip many local lords had already executed lepers and confiscated their goods. He was persuaded by the barons, prelates and nobles, who said they had by ancient custom the right to administer leproseries and take immediate steps against the plotters, to give way and accept their actions through a second ordinance on August 18.

Aragon.

News of the uncovered plot spread rapidly to the neighbouring countries. King James of Aragon learned of the supposed conspiracy and associated violence almost immediately. James's cousin, King Sancho of Majorca, informed him of the situation in France by a letter dated 2 June, but James deliberated for nearly a week. The French lepers fleeing the "lash of justice", as James put it in a letter to his officials, were already seeking shelter in his realm. He cautiously commanded the arrest and expulsion of all leprous foreigners, while Jews were not mentioned. By 27 June, James had changed his mind in favour of a harsher approach. He ordered not only the seizure of the diseased, destruction of their powders, and questioning under torture, but also the arrest and expulsion of non-leprous foreigners, "since it is difficult, truly even impossible, to recognize such and identify them". Local inquisitions were set up in Manresa, Ejea de los Caballeros, Huesca, Montblanc, Tarazona and Barcelona. Those who confessed were burnt. Leper colonies were attacked and their goods seized, including the ancient leprosarium attached to the Church of Santa Maria de Cervera.  A suspected leper was most likely examined and diagnosed with the disease by frightened lay people rather than experienced physicians. A year after the scare, a physician called Amonant decided to move from Gascony to Aragon, only to be apprehended in Huesca and accused of being a leper intending to poison the water. The physician appealed to King James's son Alfons and was granted examination by local physicians, who confirmed that he was not infected. Frightened, he chose to nevertheless leave Aragon. The incident was probably one of many that helped promote medical diagnosis of leprosy.

Aftermath.

Doubts about whether the lepers' plot' was real or not emerged soon after the persecution of lepers in France of June, July and August 1321. Those lepers of Limoges who were branded and locked up on 27 August in response to the royal edict were released only a month later, despite the original intention that confinement should be permanent. The original accusations were already being questioned. Jews continued to be persecuted but references to poisoning of the water supply by lepers were progressively treated with more scepticism and the phrase ‘it is said that’ appears more often in official records. In 1338, Pope Benedict XII issued a Bull that was in response to pleas from the lepers of Toulouse for support in recovering goods, including property and lands, confiscated during the plot. The Pope pointed out that the lepers had already been recognised in court as ‘innocent and guiltless’ of the crimes of which they had been accused and were therefore due formal restitution. The Pope was the same Jacques Fournier who twenty years before had been one of the interrogators of Agassa.

The 1321 lepers' plot was an alleged conspiracy of French lepers to spread their disease by contaminating water supplies, including well water, with their powders and poisons. According to the American historian Solomon Grayzel, lepers were the most abused group of people during the Middle Ages: they were thrown out of settlements and treated as wild animals due to the widespread belief that their disease was highly contagious. However, other historians have contested such a view, pointing out that lepers often lived within communities in leper houses ("leprosaria") and were supported by charitable donations.


History.

Leachville was established in 1896 by land developers Joshua Gilbert Leach, James Wiseman Honnoll, and Sam McNamee, who afterward formed the Leach-McNamee Land Development Company. The city was named in honor of Joshua Gilbert Leach. The Jonesboro, Lake City and Eastern Railroad completed a rail line to Leachville in 1899, and the Blytheville, Leachville and Arkansas Southern Railroad completed a second line in 1908.  One of the largest cotton gins in Arkansas, the Adams Land Company gin, was completed in Leachville in the early 1990s.

Geography.

Leachville is located in the Arkansas Delta region at (35.931381, -90.254433). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land. The city lies just south of the Arkansas-Missouri state line in northwestern Mississippi County. Arkansas Highway 77 connects the city with Manila to the southeast and the state line to north (where the road continues as Missouri Route 108 in the direction of Arbyrd, Missouri). Arkansas Highway 119 connects the city with the east-west oriented Arkansas Highway 18 to the south.  Ecologically, Leachville is located within the St. Francis Lowlands ecoregion within the larger Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The St. Francis Lowlands are a flat region mostly covered with row crop agriculture today, though also containing sand blows and sunken lands remaining from the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes. Waterways have mostly been channelized, causing loss of aquatic and riparian wildlife habitat. The Big Lake National Wildlife Refuge, which preserves some of the bottomland hardwood forest typical of this ecoregion prior to development for row agriculture lies east of Leachville.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,993 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 85.6% White, 0.3% Black, 0.2% Native American, 0.1% Asian and 1.3% from two or more races. 12.6% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  As of the census of 2000, there were 1,981 people, 788 households, and 549 families living in the city. The population density was 1,069.6 people per square mile (413.4/km2). There were 866 housing units at an average density of 467.6 per square mile (180.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.88% White, 1.41% Black or African American, 0.30% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 4.04% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races. 9.54% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 788 households out of which 32.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.6% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.3% were non-families. 27.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 3.07.  In the city, the population was spread out with 27.3% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $25,789, and the median income for a family was $32,574. Males had a median income of $26,792 versus $17,083 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,360. About 12.4% of families and 17.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.9% of those under age 18 and 16.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The Buffalo Island Central School District, which operates Buffalo Island Central High School, serves Leachville. The school's mascot is the mustang.  The Buffalo Island Central School District was established on July 1, 1984. Until that point the Leachville School District served the community; on that day it merged with the Monette School District to form the current school district.

Leachville is a city in Mississippi County, Arkansas, United States. The population was 1,993 at the 2010 census. Leachville was incorporated in 1916.


History.

The town began during the Victorian Gold Rush. It is located on the traditional lands of the Dja Dja Wurrung people, who called the area "Lea Kuribur".  One of the very first accounts of the Dunolly Gold Rush was recorded by the Bendigo Advertiser on 3 July 1857 that estimated the population at 12,000. Confirmation of a rush followed on 10 July.  The exact date that Dunolly was founded is unknown. The location of the township itself moved four times before the 1856 rush, further adding to the confusion of its early history. The modern town is the 5th location, and was founded in July 1856 with the previous resettlements driven by further discoveries of gold leads. Technically, even at this time Dunolly was not a town. It was held as a Municipality from 1858 to 1863, and wasn't officially declared a borough until 1 October 1863.  Goldborough Post Office opened on 1 March 1856 and was renamed Dunolly in 1859.  One of the largest natural gold nuggets ever found, the legendary "Welcome Stranger", was discovered in nearby Moliagul township.  Rail came to Dunolly with the opening of the Mildura railway line in 1875. Another branch line that connected to Inglewood in 1888.  The Dunolly Magistrates' Court closed on 1 August 1981.

Attractions.

Centred on the main street, Broadway, Dunolly features a rural transaction centre, SES, CFA, a pre-school and a primary school, and many businesses. Dunolly hosts a monthly market for vendors from all over Victoria and other states.  Although Dunolly is located on a major rail line, no passenger services are available, but regular bus services offer travel to and from Dunolly.  There is a local museum on Broadway which has a large collection of historic photographs, goldfields implements, replicas of gold nuggets, ladies fashions, needlework, and guns. It also offers a family research facility and regular history tours.  Dunolly has become a favorite location for gold fossicking using metal detectors. In 2016–2017, gold nuggets of and were found near Dunolly. The nuggets have been valued at around $300,000.  The town's Australian Rules football team, the Dunolly Eagles, competes in the Maryborough Castlemaine District Football League. Star recruits, Shannon Motlop and Robbie Ahmat, have played on the team.

Dunolly is a town in Victoria, Australia, located on the Dunolly - Maryborough Road, in the Shire of Central Goldfields. At the 2016 census, Dunolly had a population of 893, down from 969 in 2006.


Plot.

The Great Patriotic War is nearing the end. In a train two youths, Volodya (Boris Tokarev) and Valya (Natalia Bogunova) returning from evacuation to Leningrad cross paths for a few minutes. The plot carries them to their first random encounter that takes place in the summer of 1941 at a crowded refugee station. The period of growing adolescents, their "introduction" to adult life occurs in the arduous years of war. During the bombing of the evacuation train near the Mga station, dies the mother (Lyubov Sokolova) of Valya and her younger sister Lucy (Lida Volkova). After long wanderings in orphanages, the girls are found by their own aunt and they find shelter in her house.  The fate of Volodya Jakubowski develops in a difficult way; mother (Nina Urgant) is divorced from his own father (Yuri Volkov), who has long had another wife and son Oleg (Nikolai Burlyayev), a half-brother of Volodya. In evacuation the mother is trying to arrange her personal life, and gets close to the army captain (Stanislav Checkan). Not wanting to burden her, the teenager takes a job at a defensive aircraft factory and moves to a hostel. There he finds a good friend - Romka (Valery Nosik). Learning that the woman is pregnant, the captain breaks up with Volodya's mother. The unfavorable reputation of a "loose" woman, a baby girl born without a father, make her unable to rent decent accommodation. The teen takes has a difficult time coping with his mother's unhappy personal life, and goes to Leningrad to his father, so that he would issue a due summons to the city from which the blockade was only recently lifted. Jakubowski Sr. initially refuses to help (facts about the mothers infidelity are discovered) but matured Volodya is insistent and gets what he wants. The father objects to communication between Volodya and Oleg however the teenagers are introduced and become friends.

Introduction to Life () is a 1963 Soviet drama film about World War II seen through the eyes of a young boy from Leningrad. It won a Special Jury Prize at the 24th Venice International Film Festival.


History.

Founded in 1982 by Françoise Kourilsky, Ubu Rep serves as a forum for cross-cultural exchange in New York, NY. The company encourages the collaboration of translators, directors, actors, playwrights, and theater professionals as a way to foster international cooperation.

The Theater.

Ubu originally performed in a small, second-floor theater in Chelsea, Manhattan, on Mercer Street. The company relocated in 1989 on West 28th Street in a 99-seat theater. In 1999, Ubu Rep moved into new offices located at 95 Wall Street (at the bottom of Wall Street) and shared its floor office with FIAF. The new space however did not include its own theater. The company worked on a number of larger Off-Broadway productions such as the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club's Annex Theater and the Alliance Française French Institute's Florence Gould Hall to accommodate its growing popularity. Ubu Rep also provided a large selection of francophone plays year round through its reading series..  Past key-staff members include French-Australian director, Morgan Dowsett, and French-American writer-director-producer, Frederic Colier.

Ubu Bilingual Company.

Still under Kourilsky's leadership, Ubu Rep also founded the Ubu Bilingual Company. The troupe has performed bilingual productions including Jean-Paul Sartre's "Huis Clos/No Exit" (1985) and Albert Camus's "Le Malentendu/The Misunderstanding" and "Les Justes/The Just Assassins" (1998), Jean Anouilh's, "Antigone," (2000), Denise Bonal's "In Transit", and Xavier Durringer's "Murder in Mind," (2001), and many others.

Ubu Repertory Theater Publications.

Translations and publications are an important step of Ubu Rep's mission. Many authors have been commissioned to have their play translated, performed, and then published: Aimé Césaire, Jean Tardieu, Jean-Claude Grumberg, Simone Schwarz-Bart, Sony Labou Tansi and Bernard-Marie Koltès and, Kateb Yanice, Maryse Condé, Koffi Kwahulé, and Michel Tremblay to name a few of its vast catalogue of individual and anthologized published plays. As of 2002, Theater Communications Group (TCG) handles all the distribution of Ubu Rep's catalogue.

End of the First Chapter.

The 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center took a heavy toll on the company given its offices close proximity. On-going fire at the site of the attack, aggravated by dangerous air contamination, prohibited access to the downtown area for weeks on end. Françoise Kourilsky decided to retire and dissolved the company at the beginning of the summer 2002, though not before running a final celebration: "Bravo Ubu" celebrating the 20 Years of the company presence in New York, with Ellen Stewart and Tom Bishop as the masters of the ceremonies. The celebration took place at the Florence Gould Hall in May 2002. Françoise Kourilsky died in Paris in 2012.

New Chapter.

Since the summer 2017, a group of ex-staffers, actors and playwrights, are working towards bringing Ubu Rep back to the New York theater scene.

The Ubu Repertory Theater is the only US theater dedicated to presenting French-language plays both in English and French productions. The Ubu Repertory Theater provides Americans with a unique perspective into the world of Francophone cultures: the French-speaking European countries, as well as the ones located in North America, Africa, and the Caribbean islands.


Career.

Born in London he began as a student of his uncle, the notable painter Louis Goupy. Along with his uncle, he was one of the original subscribers to the Great Queen Street academy started by Godfrey Kneller and developed a reputation for reproducing old masters. He was especially known for reproducing the works of Salvator Rosa and his influence can be seen in his own compositions.  After painting copies of the Raphael Cartoons on commission for Baron von Kielmansegg, the husband of Sophia von Kielmansegg, half-sister to George I he made use of his connections to the royal family to begin work painting snuff boxes for the king. He worked consistently for 20 years for John Hedges, treasurer to Frederick, Prince of Wales whom Goupy went on to paint another set of Raphael Cartoons. On Hedges’ death, his brother brought a lawsuit against Goupy by his brother Charles Hedges for failing to repay debts. Goupy claimed the money was for work for Hedges that he delivered. Numerous witnesses were called to testify on the good character of Goupy, incluing John Wootton and Michael Dahl. It is in this deposition of 1738 that Dahl describes Goupy as ‘esteemed the best hand in England at his trade’. Like his uncle Charles and his cousin William, Joseph Goupy is also known to have been 'the most eminent of fan painters'. From 1724 he worked intermittently designing scenery for the theatre. He counted among his numerous artistic friends the sculptor Joseph Nollekens.  In 1726 he was paid £170 to restore elements of the Triumphs of Caesar, Mantegna in the Royal Collection. From 1736 he worked as cabinet painter to the Prince of Wales and regularly supplied new pictures and restored paintings to Leicester House up until the prince’s death in 1751.  As well as being a subscriber to the Great Queen Street Academy he went on to join the Virtuosi of St. Luke and the later Rose and Crown Club. It was here that he mixed with fellow artists, musicians and collectors including William Hogarth with whom he campaigned successfully for the granting of copyright to the designers of prints in 1735.  Goupy features in Gawen Hamilton’s group portrait of a ‘club of artists’ at the King’s Arms. Goupy himself won the portrait in a raffle of April 1735. Shortly before Prince Frederick’s death in 1751, Goupy submitted several designs for buildings at Kew Gardens that were subsequently realized.  Following the prince’s death Goupy seems to have retired or severely reduced his artistic output. There are no extant paintings that can be dated after 1751 with limited references to works.  In 1755 his copperplates were sold and in 1765 he sold his collection of paintings in ninety-three lots. In 1765 he exhibited 2 watercolours at the Society of Artists of Great Britain and was elected a fellow although he appears as a non-exhibitor for the next several years.

Teaching.

He was also a teacher to an illustrious clientele including Dorothy Boyle, Countess of Burlington, Matthew Robinson, 2nd Baron Rokeby, and Augusta, Princess of Wales. He also had the famous architect Athenian Stuart as a student. It has been suggested his connections to the art world whilst teaching the Mark Catesby could have afforded the naturalist the connections and skills he needed to begin his ‘Natural History’. He also gave lessons to his landlady, a Mrs. Dorothy Chambery with whom he lodged for 17 years. He was also appointed drawing master to Prince Frederick himself in 1733.

Friendship with Handel.

Goupy was heavily immersed in the artistic world of 18th century London. From 1724 he worked as designing sets with Peter Tillemans at the Haymarket Theatre and went on to work on the scenery for Handel’s Riccardo I three years later. Their careers ran close together for many years overlapping regularly. On the death of their mutual patron, George I, their paths seem to have diverged with Handel falling under the patronage of George II whilst Goupy moves closer to the Frederick, Prince of Wales. After the closure of the Royal Academy of Music and Handel’s split with other members of the company, especially Paolo Rolli, Goupy went to speak to Rolli’s brother to try and unsuccessfully mend fences.  They seem to have remained on good terms for some years with Goupy painting a portrait of Handel in 1742 for the prince. In 1743 however, Goupy was chosen to present a commission to Handel on behalf of the Prince of Wales’ circle of friends but was supposedly rudely rebuffed. This may be the incident that led to Goupy’s insulting caricature of Handel as a hog surrounded by symbols of gluttony, the original painting is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum. Goupy also aligned with Handel’s operatic rivals under the patronage of the Prince of Wales could be another reason for the rift between the two. At the time of his death, Handel still owned a considerable number of Goupy’s paintings and prints.

Death.

Goupy died sometime in 1769 ‘in very indigent circumstances’ owing to his care of an old mistress of his, Sarah Wright, ‘who became mad [and whom he took] to his own house’. Goupy left an estate in trust to her sister Elizabeth Williams. Additionally he left to different people a ‘book of nudities’, four flutes, and his painting materials. Posthumous sales of his collection fetched a total of £296 3s 6d.

Joseph Goupy (c.1689–1769) was an English engraver, painter, set designer and watercolourist. He was of French descent living and working in London from at least 1711.


Early life.

Rau was born in Paris and is of Algerian descent. Assigned as male at birth, Rau transitioned and underwent sex reassignment surgery at the age of 16, after being inspired by the life story of English trans model Caroline "Tula" Cossey. Afterwards, she lived as a woman but did not divulge her transgender identity until she was 24.

Career.

After turning 18, Rau started dancing for DJs in Ibiza, during which she became friends with David Guetta. In 2013, at age 24, she first posed nude with Tyson Beckford for a spread in "OOB", a French luxury magazine, shortly after coming out as transgender. In May 2014, she first appeared in "Playboy's" "A-Z issue" in a spread titled "Evolution" that aimed to depict the growing acceptance of gender identities beyond the male-female binary. She became the second transgender woman to be featured in "Playboy" after Cossey in 1981, and the first who came out voluntarily (Cossey was outed against her will and reappeared in the magazine in 1991).  Following her magazine appearances, Rau worked as a model for Nicole Miller, Alexis Bittar and Barneys New York. She also appeared in "Vogue Italia" and in a campaign for Balmain.  In October 2017, Cooper Hefner, son of "Playboy" founder Hugh Hefner, announced that Rau would appear as "Playmate of the Month" in the magazine's November/December 2017 issue, making her the first openly transgender woman to be featured this way. Hefner likened the choice to feature Rau to his father's decision to feature Jennifer Jackson as the first African-American model to appear in "Playboy" as a Playmate in 1965.

Activism.

Following her coming-out, Rau became more active campaigning for transgender rights. In 2016, she appeared on the TF1 news format "Sept à Huit" on an episode focused on her life.

Ines-Loan Rau (born 1990) is a French model. She was "Playboy" magazine's Playmate of the Month for November 2017, and the first openly transgender Playmate.


Life and career.

Bovie was born in Brussels and studied drawing first under Frans-Karel Deweirdt (1799–1855) before becoming part of the painting atelier of Antoine Wiertz (1806–1865), whose "megalomanic conceptions" she is said to have picked up. From 1850 forward, she regularly exhibited her works at the annual salons of Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent. These were historical and allegorical scenes, portraits or genre pieces. By the time she was 30, Bovie had executed two large-scale paintings for her parish church.  She began a tour of Italy in 1855 with her older sister, Louise Bovie, a writer whose collected stories were published posthumously in 1870. Of the 300 Belgian painters, sculptors, engravers, and architects who traveled to Italy to study during the period 1830–1914, only five are thought to have been women; Bovie is one of three whose presence there is attested with certainty. She visited Rome, Florence, Naples, and Venice, obtaining permission to copy paintings in the galleries of Florence as she did later in Paris at the Louvre, where in 1858 she reproduced "The Raft of the Medusa" by Théodore Géricault. Bovie painted several works on canvas drawing on Italian subject matter, including "Neapolitan Woman with Child" (1857), and exhibited some of these at the 1866 salon in Brussels and the 1879 salon in Antwerp.  Her father was a rentier capitalist, and Bovie was able to remain financially independent and unmarried throughout her life. She lived in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode and Ixelles, suburbs of Brussels that were favored by artists. She built a "grand maison" at 208 rue de Trône, Ixelles, and had "Musée Bovie" carved into one of the foundation stones. She lived there for many years with Louise, who also never married, and used the house as exhibition space. Her cousin Félix Bovie, a painter, and the sculptor Antoine-Félix Bouré also showed their works there. In an 1873 English-language guide describing a six-day walking tour of Brussels, the Musée Bovie was noted as near the Musée Wiertz.  Bovie persisted with history painting at a time when it had become unfashionable, but her subject matter shows great variety. Her economic and personal independence enabled her to focus her energies on her career as a painter. The art historian Anne-Marie ten Bokum has conjectured that Bovie was a lesbian.  Virginie and Louise had a third sister, Hortence or Hortense, who married François-Joachim-Alexandre Rouen and appears to have outlived him and both her sisters.  Upon Bovie's death, the state declined the bequest of her "musée" and allowed its contents to be auctioned off. A catalogue for the auction, held in February 1889, was compiled by Jules de Brauwere.

Work.

The auction catalogue for the estate lists 170 works of art by Bovie, in addition to 71 she had collected. She is thought to have produced at least 204 works, an unusually high figure for a woman at the time, but as of 2005, only seven could be located. In addition to her grand historical and religious paintings, some of which were official commissions, her diverse oeuvre includes scenes of contemporary life, floral arrangements, and portraits. Unlike the large-scale paintings, the genre works appeal to a bourgeois sensibility and permit a female perspective.  In the first decade of the 21st century, "The Crucifixion" and "Descent from the Cross" were still on view at the at Schaerbeek in Brussels. These early paintings show the influence of Wiertz and masters of the Flemish Baroque such as Rubens and de Crayer.  Bovie exhibited "The Visitation" and "The Iconoclasts at the Cathedral of Antwerp" at the Antwerp salon of 1861. A reviewer remarked: They show evidence of substantial studies, a good grasp of composition, great feeling for color—all qualities which are grounds for astonishment in a woman and in a century when painting shines with more grace than power. Through her observation of Venetian masterworks, her use of color gained warmth and luminosity. During the last decade of her life, she gradually renounced the academic tradition of painting and her style became freer.  Other known works are the "Neapolitan Woman with Child" (1857), among those inspired by her travels in Italy; "L'affranchissement de l'Escaut" (1863), a drawing in black chalk "()" and sanguine that came to auction in Belgium in 2009; and a self portrait (1872).

Virginie Bovie (1821–1888), full name Joséphine-Louise-Virginie Bovie, was a Belgian painter and arts patron. In 1870, she was described as "well known", but she has fallen into neglect in the 20th and early 21st centuries and only seven of her more than 200 works have been located.


History.

Paraje de Robledo.

For centuries the site of Fort Selden had been the Paraje de Robledo, a camp site along the course of the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro on the east bank of the Rio Grande. The campground or paraje was named for an old Spanish soldier, Pedro Robledo, who died and was buried there on the 1598 expedition of Juan de Oñate. It became known as La Cruz de Robledo because of the cross originally marking his grave there. Later the name was shortened to Paraje Robledo.  Paraje Robledo was the last stop along the Rio Grande before the route of the Camino Real left the river to enter the Jornada del Muerto on the way north toward Santa Fe. By the time of the American Civil War the Mesilla Valley, around Las Cruces had developed a population base who valued the fertile land along the Rio Grande and were suffering from attacks by the Apache. Also travelers along Camino Real, that passed through the area, were uneasy about moving further north on the Jornada del Muerto for the same reason.

Camp Robledo.

In 1861, the Confederate Army established a post, Camp Robledo, at the Paraje de Robledo to guard the approaches from the north to the Mesilla Valley of Confederate Arizona along the Rio Grande and across the Jornada del Muerto on the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro. It was used as a base for cavalry patrols and operations against Fort Craig and other places in Union held New Mexico Territory.

Fort Selden.

Fort Selden was located in Doña Ana County, 12 miles north of Las Cruces, New Mexico. It was established in 1865 at the Paraje de Robledo in an effort to bring peace among the varied inhabitants in the south central region of present-day New Mexico. It was named in honor of Col. Henry Raymond Selden who had served many years in New Mexico Territory before and during the American Civil War and had died of illness in Doña Ana County, and buried at Fort Union on February 2, 1865. The primary intent of the fort was to protect settlers and travelers in the Mesilla Valley from attacks by desperados and Mescalero Apache Indians. Built near the banks of the Rio Grande, the adobe fort housed units of the California Volunteer Cavalry, U.S. Army Infantry and Cavalry.  The first troops to occupy the fort were Company M 1st Regiment of Cavalry, California Volunteers from 31 July 1865 to 31 August 1866, and subsequently companies of the 125th US Colored Infantry Regiment, a group of African-American enlisted soldiers from Kentucky who had been mustered into the Union Army near the close of the American Civil War. Several of the units assigned later, including the 38th Infantry Regiment, 9th US Cavalry and 10th US Cavalry, all composed of black troopers, sometimes referred to as Buffalo Soldiers. As a testament to their bravery, nine Buffalo Soldiers received the Medal of Honor while serving in New Mexico Territory. In 1884, Captain Arthur MacArthur, Jr., 13th Infantry, was assigned as post commander. With him was his wife and two young sons, Arthur MacArthur III, age 7, and Douglas MacArthur, age 4. In his memoirs, Douglas MacArthur wrote that it was at Fort Selden that he and his brother "learned to ride and shoot, even before we learned to read and write." The MacArthurs spent two years at Fort Selden before Captain MacArthur was transferred to Fort Wingate.  By late 1886, the frontier had rapidly changed. Geronimo's surrender to Brigadier General Nelson A. Miles at Skeleton Canyon in Arizona ended the nation's long Indian Wars.  As a result, Army commander-in-chief, Lt. General William Tecumseh Sherman, ordered a consolidation of six military posts in southern New Mexico and eastern Arizona. He favored a giant, one-square-mile installation large enough to accommodate six troops of cavalry and six companies of infantry. Sherman further ordered that the permanent post be located near the junction of the Santa Fe Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad in southern New Mexico. For a time, Fort Selden was the leading candidate for the site of the new post, but because the railroads had brought spectacular growth to the El Paso, Texas area, Fort Bliss, was selected.  By 1890, criminals and raiding parties were no longer considered a threat as hostilities eventually lessened and the fort was no longer needed. Like many small forts in the American Southwest, the government decommissioned the fort and it was abandoned for the last time in 1891. On 20 January 1891, Lt. James Brett, commanding a small caretaker force, filed the final post return, which reported:  "All public property from this post having been disposed of, it was abandoned on this date."

Fort Selden Historic Site.

For decades, the ruins of Fort Selden were consumed by the ravages of rain, snow and wind. Vandals, souvenir hunters and treasure-seekers added to its demise. In 1963, the land encompassing Fort Selden was donated to the state by Harry N. Bailey, a longtime resident of the area. In 1970, the fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1974, the fort was declared a New Mexico State Monument. It is overseen by the New Mexico Historic Sites (formerly State Monuments) Division of the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs.  The present day ruins are available for viewing via an interpretive trail. A visitor center offers exhibits on frontier and military life. Fort Selden Historic Site is located north of Las Cruces, New Mexico, off Exit 19 of Interstate 25, near Radium Springs, New Mexico.

Fort Selden was a United States Army post, occupying the area in what is now Radium Springs, New Mexico. The site was long a campground along the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro. It was the site of a Confederate Army camp in 1861. The U. S. Army established Fort Selden in 1865 for the purpose of protecting westward settlers from Native American raids, the post fell into disrepair after the American Civil War. It was ultimately abandoned in 1891, due in large part to the decision to expand Fort Bliss and the lack of any expenditures for repair of the facility.


History.

Spanish Colonial Era.

A lighthouse on Batag Island was on the first approved group of 42 lights in the Spanish Maritime Lighting Plan of the Philippine Archipelago. A first-order light was planned for the location but the project was terminated early on.

American Colonial Period.

Building the station.

In 1906, the Director of Navigation, J. M. Helm proposed the construction of two third-class lights, one on Batag Island and the other on Isabel Island in Romblon province. A temporary landing pier was constructed on the island to facilitate the landing of materials for the construction of the station. At the end of the year, there was practically no money available for the construction of new lights after adopting the permanent improvement policy wherein all timber structures were rebuilt with permanent materials like reinforced concrete as fast as they reach the limit of economical repair. The policy has resulted in the installation of fewer lights per annum, but which has rapidly reduced the cost of maintaining the system.

Act no. 1662.

On January 11, 1907, the Philippine Commission approved Act no. 1662 which authorized funding for several public works, permanent improvements and other purposes of the Insular Government, of which the building of several lights by the Bureau of Navigation was included. A budget of ₱100,000 was appropriated for the Bureau of Navigation to which ₱85,000 was set for the construction of a third-order light on Batag and ₱15,000, to be expended in the construction of minor light stations at San Miguel Island, Isabel Island, and Punta Pata.  With the third-order light on Batag Island, and when the lights on San Miguel and Isabel islands are in operation, a vessel "picking up" Batag light 26 miles at sea and passing through San Bernardino Strait will not lose sight of a light during the passage to Manila.

Temporary light.

A sixth-order port light was temporarily installed and lit during the construction of the light station. At the same time, the Bureau of Navigation contracted Barbier, Benard & Turenne of Paris for the third-order lighting apparatus.

Lighthouse design.

The American engineers used the same tower design as the Cape Bolinao Lighthouse which was finished the year before. The tower is cylindrical in shape and made with reinforced concrete which was used extensively throughout including the keeper's dwellings and roofing. The tower measuring 101 feet from base to focal plane is situated on top of Culipapa Hill at an elevation 218 feet above mean low water and with a focal height of 313 ft (95.4 m).  For stability against typhoon which is frequently occurring this side of the archipelago, the American engineers designed the Philippine lighthouse towers to withstand wind velocity of 120 miles per hour. The design of tower selected, consisting essentially of a long, hollow, concrete cylinder resting on a spreading base, each face of which was a plane surface, required comparatively few forms, and of such a simple character as to give little excuse for mistakes of any kind. The cornices, the door and window openings, and the bracketed balcony of the lantern room are the only features that relieve the simplicity of the design.  The heavy tower base serves the double purpose of increasing the arm about which the tower would tend to rotate, and of keeping the center of gravity of the entire structure as low as possible for stability during earthquakes. As an additional guard, all factors of safety were made large, and the quantities of concrete and of metal reinforcement were both increased beyond what would be required in ordinary construction.  The light station was in operation by January, 1908 at a completed cost is ₱91,579.07.

Original lighting apparatus.

The original illuminating apparatus of the Batag lighthouse was of Barbier, Benard & Turenne (Paris) manufacture, with incandescent lighting system of 3,000 candlepower. The third-order dioptric prismatic lenses revolving on mercury floats, which by the refraction and reflection of rays from the incandescent oil vapor lamps produce white flashes of approximately 100,000 candlepower which are clearly visible under ordinary conditions at the limit of their geographical ranges of 25 nautical miles (40.2 km).

Present condition.

A new solar-powered white tower was installed by the Philippine Coast Guard adjacent to the old lighthouse in the early 2000. When the region was hit by the Typhoon Milenyo on September 28, 2006, the modern lighthouse tower was toppled and destroyed rendering that part of the coast in the dark ever since.  Based on recent pictures, the old lighting apparatus on the original tower is gone and the structure was dilapidated and deteriorating. It was one of the lighthouses listed by the Philippine Coast Guard that are available for adoption for corporate or individuals, allowing the use of the property in exchange for the maintenance of the lighthouse.

Batag Island Lighthouse is a historic lighthouse on Batag Island off the coast of the town of Laoang in the province of Northern Samar in the Philippines. The light marks the northeastern point of Samar Island and lead international ships to the entrance of the San Bernardino Strait marked by the San Bernardino Light. One of the most traveled waterways in the archipelago, together with the Capul Island Light, these stations are invaluable to vessels coming from the Pacific Ocean and entering the country through the San Bernardino Strait on its way to Manila or any other ports of the Philippines.


Administration.

The Rason Special Economic Zone is administered by the Committee of External Economic Cooperation (CEEC). Foreign companies must be invited by the CPEEC to participate in the special zone.  The first joint North-South company, called Chilbosanmeri Joint Company, has been formally established in Rason Special Economic Zone.  Sources conflict over the date the zone was founded, either 1991 or 1993. Since its creation, laws governing the zone's status have been amended six times, the most recent revision being approved by the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly on 3 December 2011.  When Jang Sung-taek was purged in late 2013, the accusations against him included the charge that he had "made no scruple of committing such act of treachery in May last as selling off the land of the Rason economic and trade zone to a foreign country."

Geography.

The 746 km Rason Special Economic Zone is on the western side of the Tumen River in North Korea. It is between 42 08'-42 38'N and 130 07'-130 42'E. This location is in the easternmost end of the country, bordering Russia and China.  According to "North Korean Economy Watch", the area is surrounded by a long electrified fence.

Economy.

In 1996, 51 foreign businesses invested USD $37.3259 million into the Rason Zone. The UNIDO estimates the investment will increase to $150 million in the future.  In August 2012, an international trade fair was held, offering foreign investors and journalists a look at the work-in-progress. The zone is slated to be a manufacturing, tourism, and transportation hub. However, some analysts think the special zone is more of a project for North Korea to experiment with the capitalist economy rather than use it as basis of transforming North Korea's economy.

History of foreign business legislation.

From 1993 to 2012, there was one single law titled ‘Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea on the Rason Economic and Trade Zone’, which did not mention specific details of business environment, leaving foreign investors with many questions. The first Rason SEZ Law launched in 1993 contained chapters of Fundamentals, Duties and Rights of Operation Committee, Guarantee of Economy Activities, Customs Duties, Currency and Finance, Guarantee and Preferential Treatment and Settlement of Disputes. The basic framework was continued until 2011, when it made modifications on Development and Management of the Zone, Establishment of Enterprises, Economic and Trade Activities and Incentives and Preferential Treatment, providing more details of the environment for foreign-invested companies. However it still did not cover all basically required details for foreign-invest companies such as regulations of labor, tax, or financial management.  From 2014 on, NK started to acknowledge the necessity of a more complex and comprehensive legal framework. North Korea adopted more specific regulations regarding certain legal fields such as Labor Regulations for Foreign-invested Businesses and Regulations of Financial Management of Foreign-invested Businesses. Furthermore, bylaws for Taxation and Establishment and Operation of Businesses appeared. According to the latest Rason SEZ law published in 2016, there are total 16 regulations included in the collection of laws, with at least 3 additional regulations enacted.

Transport.

Chinese investors have renovated a road from Rason to China, and Russian railway workers have renovated the railway from Rason (which is on the Pyongra Line) to Russia, from where it continues onto the Trans-Siberian Railway.  There are three ports in the area: the Rajin Port (handling capacity of 3 million tons), the Sonbong Port (handling capacity of 2-3 million tons), and the Chongjin Port (handling capacity of 8 million tons).  Chinese companies operate two piers at the port, for coal export and for containers. A Russian company operates a third pier.

The Rason Special Economic Zone, earlier called the Rajin-Sonbong Economic Special Zone, was established in 1992 by the North Korean government near Rason to promote economic growth through foreign investment. It is similar to the Special Economic Zones set up by the People's Republic of China and elsewhere to pilot market economics in a designated controlled area. It is near the border with China and Russia and is a warm-water port for both countries.


Background.

The album was Humble Pie's first following the departure of guitarist Peter Frampton, which placed singer and co-founder Steve Marriott as the band's de facto leader. "Smokin"' is the band's best-selling album, due in large part to the success of the single "30 Days in the Hole".  "Smokin"' includes dramatically slowed down versions of Eddie Cochran's "C'mon Everybody", Junior Walker's "Road Runner", and the wah-wah laden slow blues "I Wonder". "You're So Good for Me", which begins as a delicate acoustic number, ultimately mutates into a full-bore gospel music rave-up, an element that would later influence bands like The Black Crowes.  Alexis Korner guests on the track "Old Time Feelin'", Marriott's vocals take a back seat as the main vocals are provided by Greg Ridley and Korner who also plays a Martin Tiple, mandolin-type guitar. Its sound is reminiscent of the song "Alabama '69" on their first album.  Stephen Stills guests on "Road Runner 'G' Jam" (the title is a nod to the band's habit of developing songs out of jam sessions), playing Hammond organ, and his backing vocals were over-dubbed on "Hot 'n' Nasty" a slow-burning and then dynamic R&B song, after he strolled in after recording his own sessions next door.  Marriott insisted on producing the album himself for the challenge of creating a compact R&B sound with a high-tech 24-track mixing board. Marriott collapsed with exhaustion in February. New Musical Express (NME) reported at the time: "Following intense recording sessions with Humble Pie, Steve Marriott collapsed with nervous exhaustion and doctors told him to rest".  With this album the group were seen as leaders of the boogie movement in the early 1970s.  Guests : Production :

Smokin' is the fifth studio album by the English group Humble Pie, released in 1972. The album peaked at #6 on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 album chart, and hit the UK Top 30.


Club career.

Ajax.

Acquired into the Ajax Youth Academy from local amateur side Amsterdamsche FC in 2007, Van der Hart worked his way up the youth ranks, and had an outstanding 2011–12 season with the Ajax A1 youth squad. That year, the under-20 team where he was first-choice keeper at the time, had won the national title (Nike Eredivisie), as well as finished as runners-up in that season's NextGen Series ("the Champions League equivalent for youth teams") when they lost to Inter Milan on penalties. Van der Hart was awarded his first professional contract when he was pronounced as the first team's third-choice goalkeeper, as well as receiving the award for Talent van De Toekomst ("Talent of the Future"). His first contract was a three-year deal, binding him to the club until June 2015.  The 2012–13 season was Van der Hart's first with the Ajax first team since the departure of former third keeper Jeroen Verhoeven, however with then first- and second-choice keepers Kenneth Vermeer and Jasper Cillessen each having an injury-free season, Van der Hart was unable to make his debut for the first team, meanwhile still playing in the Ajax A1 youth squad, where he was still eligible to participate due to his young age. On 8 April 2013, an opportunity presented itself for Van der Hart to appear as second choice keeper behind Jasper Cillessen, following a red card suspension to Kenneth Vermeer. That void would however be filled by Chiel Kramer, first keeper of the reserves team Jong Ajax, since Van der Hart was sidelined due to a groin injury at the time. Ajax would eventually go on to win the national title in what would be Van der Hart's first season as a professional.  The 2013–14 season saw Van der Hart maintain his position as Frank de Boer's third choice behind Kenneth Vermeer and Jasper Cillessen, as the season opened with Ajax winning the Dutch Super Cup (Johan Cruijff Shield). Van der Hart made his professional debut on 9 August 2013 in the Eerste Divisie keeping for Jong Ajax, where he is still eligible to play, having made less than 15 appearances for Ajax first team in the Eredivisie. The match against Oss in which he played the full 90 minutes ended in a 2–0 loss for the Amsterdammers, in what would be only Jong Ajax second match ever in professional football, with the team having moved up from the Beloften Eredivisie before the start of the season.

Go Ahead Eagles (loan).

On 9 June 2014, it was announced that Van der Hart would serve a season-long loan spell with Go Ahead Eagles in Deventer, joining the likes of Nick de Bondt and Sven Nieuwpoort who had transferred to the club from Ajax during the same transfer window as well.

PEC Zwolle.

On 14 August 2015, it was announced that Van der Hart had been sold to Eredivisie side Zwolle. He signed a one year-deal with the club, an extension option included.

Lech Poznań.

On 21 May 2019 he signed a three-year contract with Polish side Lech Poznań. He made his debut in Lech on 20 July 2019 in a game against defending champion Piast Gliwice.

International career.

Van der Hart has represented Netherlands U-18 and Netherlands U-19. On 11 November 2011, Van der Hart made his debut for Netherlands U-18 in a friendly encounter against Romania U-18. On 7 September 2012, Van der Hart made his debut for the under-19 team in a friendly match against Greece U-19. He was selected by head coach Wim van Zwam to participate in the 2013 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship in Lithuania. Van der Hart played in all the group matches, of which 1 was won, and 2 were lost, failing to advance past the group stage. On 2 August 2013, head coach of the Netherlands U-21 team Albert Stuivenberg selected Van der Hart for the 32-man provisional squad, ahead of the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. On 9 August 2013, however, it was announced that Van der Hart had not made the final 22-man squad selection for the tournament.

Personal life.

Van der Hart is the grandson of former Ajax central defender Cor van der Hart.

Mickey van der Hart (born 13 June 1994) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Lech Poznań in the Ekstraklasa.


Synopsis.

Erin Tieng, a new resident of Stony Stream, is a recently hired paper delivery girl. While out delivering newspapers in the early hours of the morning of November 1, 1988, Erin meets Mac, KJ, and Tiffany, a group of friends and fellow paper girls who invite Erin to join them.  The girls are soon attacked by a group of teenagers; one of the teens steals a walkie-talkie from Tiffany. The girls subsequently chase the group to a construction house and find what appears to be a time machine in the basement. They are then struck by mysterious energy emanating from the machine. The girls learn that the teenagers are time travelers from the distant future, who are engaged in an ongoing war with a group known as the "Old-Timers" (known as "The Battle of the Ages"). At the center of this conflict is the question of whether or not the past can and should be changed by future time travelers.  Throughout the series, the girls are frequently (and usually, inadvertently) time-displaced, traveling between the 20th and 21st centuries, as well as eras of the distant past and future. As they travel through time, they encounter future versions of themselves and are forced to come to terms with who they will later become. Their lives also become intertwined with those of Wari and Jahpo, two "Old-Timers" who lead the war against their future descendants.

Characters.

War Factions.

Old-Timers.

"Old-Timers" are the first generation following the invention of time travel. They strongly believe in preserving the original timeline and strictly enforce the rules regarding time travel. They cannot travel to their own futures. Their leader is known by the title of "Grand Father". A sub-sect of Old-Timers are known as "Restorers", who actively work to restore timelines altered by the events of the war. The Restorers have the ability to erase and alter a person's memory. Old-Timers speak in a modified version of English, heavily dependent on slang and similar to Old English in style. When Clone Erin (first generation) scatters the girls to separate past/present timelines, she causes the Old-Timers to become stuck inside the fourth dimension. The Old-Timer's base, "the Cathedral", is later destroyed when Grand Father misguidedly shoots an Editrix. However, all of the occupants of the Cathedral are saved and restored to their original time. They later come to a truce with the Teenagers via Grand Father, who agrees to ban time travel forever.

Teenagers.

The descendants of the Old-Timers, from the 71st century; Grand Father refers to them as this regardless of age. They believe in the idea of altering history. Unlike the Old-Timers, teenagers do not have any rules regarding time travel. They often seek the assistance of "locals" (people living in the present time) to provide them with information for the war effort. They speak in a futuristic language that is only decipherable through translation gadgets. They have the ability to clone humans. At some unknown point in time, a small group of clones and 2000-Tiffany gain the ability to transmit coded messages to the paper girls in the past via bizarre dreams. This was done in order to covertly guide the paper girls to their destiny. This group of clones and 2000-Tiffany help to end the war by convincing Grand Father to ban all time travel forever, believing such power should never be abused again. They then erase the memories of the paper girls and return the girls to their original timeline.

Reception.

"Paper Girls" won two Eisner Awards in 2016 for Best New Series and Best Penciller/Inker. In 2017 Wilson (Best Colorist) and Vaughan (Best Writer) both won Eisner Awards, in part because of their work on the series. In 2017, the first compilation was shortlisted for the Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story. In 2019, Wilson again won an Eisner Award for Best Colorist for his work on the series.  The series has received widespread acclaim from reviewers. Alex Abad-Santos at "Vox" proclaimed that ""Paper Girls" is the next great American comic book". Laura Hudson from "Slate" stated that the series "is a reminder of how fresh and accessible even the most familiar stories and tropes can feel when people who have been consigned to the sidelines of popular entertainment take center stage". Steven Padnick from "Tor" noted that "the real emotional theme of "Paper Girls" comes to the fore: the contrast between children’s fantastic hopes for adulthood and the disappointing banality of reality" and "[the series] is glorious and moving, and also awkward and funny".  The writing and artwork have been consistently praised: ""Paper Girls"' vivid color palette and Chiang's unique drawing style beautifully complement Vaughan's creative time-bending storyline". As David Barnett from "The Guardian" noted, "[Vaughan's] plotting on "Paper Girls" is second to none, and lays subplot trails with an artistry... the look of "Paper Girls" is utterly gorgeous as well." Abad-Santos also praised the creative team, saying "Vaughan's writing and Chiang's art — along with colors from Matt Wilson and letters from Jared K. Fletcher — all make for one gorgeous mystery."  "Paper Girls" is often favorably compared to the Netflix hit "Stranger Things". According to Barnett, fans of "Stranger Things" should "read this comic". Susana Polo for "Polygon" stated in her review of the comic series that "if you're a fan of "Stranger Things" but wish the show handled its female characters, or its queer coding, or its rosy-eyed love of 1980s pop culture with a little more nuance more frequently, you'll find a lot to like". While comparing "Paper Girls" to "Stranger Things" and "Super 8", Glen Weldon stated that "Paper Girls" "tell[s] its story from the point of view of young women, not boys, and it doesn't seem coincidental that its tone is harder, flintier, funnier, more pragmatic, and far less concerned with idealizing the "lost innocence" of childhood."

In other media.

On July 11, 2019, Deadline reported that Amazon had given a series commitment to a television adaption of "Paper Girls" from studios Legendary Television and Plan B. "Toy Story 4" co-writer Stephany Folsom is slated to pen the adaptation of the graphic novel. Executive producers will be series creator Vaughan, writer Folsom, and studio Plan B.

Publication history.

Creator Brian K. Vaughan, talking about the creation of the series, stated that "Cliff Chiang and I wanted to do a story about kids from the 20th century confronting their adult selves in a future that’s nothing like Marty McFly's world of flying cars and (actual) hoverboards, but a future that's equally amazing and terrifying for many different reasons." Vaughan elaborated in another interview: "I wanted to do something different... I wanted something more contained and grounded with some spectacular element to it. "Paper Girls" is the story of four 12-year-old newspaper delivery girls growing up, like me, in the suburbs outside Cleveland in the late 1980s. They stumble upon something extraordinary and it's a mystery and an adventure and a weird book. I didn't think it would appeal to anyone because it's too personal and offbeat."  Regarding the all-female main cast, Vaughan has said that he likes writing female characters. "I remember when I was doing "Runaways" at Marvel, that was a teen book that had more females than males in it... Now being at Image, where we could do anything we want. Here's a great opportunity to do what I always wanted to do, just a group of females and not have to defend it or explain it, and just get to write them." Vaughan went on to say, "I wanted to write a story about four kids who did not give a... about the opposite sex. They're aware of them, but it doesn't define their lives. They're these sort of hard-core gangsters that are much more interested in going around, shaking down the adults who owe them money so they can get their cassettes or buy their own Nintendo systems. It was avoiding the relationship traps that come up in those 1980 films... and just letting them and their friendship be the story."

Bibliography.

The series is subdivided into "arcs" of five issues each; between each group of five, the series went on pre-planned hiatuses for three months each, during which time the trade paperback collection of the preceding five issues is released. "Deluxe edition" hardcover volumes, consisting of 10 issues each, were also released.

Paper Girls is a mystery/science fiction comic book series written by Brian K. Vaughan and illustrated by Cliff Chiang, published by American company Image Comics. The colorist is Matt Wilson, the letterer and designer is Jared K. Fletcher, and the color flatter is Dee Cunniffe.


Biography.

He was born in Reggio di Calabria on 31 August 1893 to a banker's family. In 1914 he enlisted in the army for his national service. Named Lieutenant of Fortress Artillery in June 1915, Jacomoni participated in the campaigns of the Italian Front of World War I. At the same time, he pursued his studies in Law at the University of Rome, and graduated in July 1916.  In May 1919 he was appointed as a member of the Italian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, and worked as a liaison with the Austrian, Hungarian and later Bulgarian delegations. In October 1919 he was appointed as secretary in the Italian embassy at Bucharest, a post he held until recalled to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in August 1920. In the next few years he served in various diplomatic missions and delegations as a secretary, including a brief mission to Albania in April 1926, where he laid much groundwork for the Italo-Albanian Friendship and Mutual Assistance Treaty of November 1926.  On his return, he became a close associate of Dino Grandi, then Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs and soon to become Minister. Initially head of the Ministry's Historical Service but late rising to be deputy head of Grandi's ministerial office, he participated in a number of missions to the Italian delegations to international conferences regarding the Dawes and Young plans, or the London Naval Conference 1930.  In October 1932, Jacomoni married Maja Cavallero, the daughter of General (and later Marshal) Ugo Cavallero. During the next few years, he was engaged mainly in Geneva at the League of Nations. He was appointed as minister to the Kingdom of Albania from 9 September 1936 until shortly after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939. On 17 April he was promoted to ambassadorial rank and on 22 April he became the country's Viceroy ("Luogotenente del Re", "Lieutenant-General of the King"). Jacomoni retained this post, which made him the country's effective governor, during much of the Italian occupation.  He was replaced with General Alberto Pariani on 18 March 1943, after his policy of severe repression had failed to halt the growth of the Albanian Resistance movement.  After the war, he was tried along with other senior officials of the Fascist regime, and sentenced by the Italian High Court to 24 years imprisonment on 12 March 1945. He was however released with the general amnesty issued by the Italian government in June 1946, and his sentence was finally commuted altogether in March 1948.  He published his memoirs on his tenure in Albania under the title of "La politica dell'Italia in Albania" in 1965, and died in Rome on 17 February 1973.

Viceré Marchese Francesco Jacomoni di San Savino (31 August 1893 – 17 February 1973) was an Italian diplomat and governor of Albania before and during World War II.


History.

Background.

From the beginning of Christianity through the tenth century, Christian theologians saw the Eucharist as the church's participation in Christ's sacrifice. Christ was believed to be present in the Eucharist, but there were differences over the way in which this occurred. The School of Antioch in the Eastern Roman Empire, along with Hilary of Poitiers and Ambrose in the Western Roman Empire, taught a realist, metabolic, or somatic view, where the elements of the Eucharist were believed to be changed into Christ's body and blood. The influential fourth-century Western theologian Augustine of Hippo, on the other hand, held that Christ is really present in the elements of the Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in heaven. Augustine believed the Eucharist is a spiritual eating which allows Christians to become part of Christ's body. Western theologians in the three centuries following Augustine did not elaborate on the way Christ is present in the Eucharist, but emphasized the transforming power of the sacrament.  In the ninth century, Hrabanus Maurus and Ratramnus also defended Augustine's view of nonmetabolic real presence. During the high and late Middle Ages, the metabolic view became increasingly dominant to the exclusion of the nonmetabolic view, to the point that it was considered the only orthodox option. The doctrine of transubstantiation was developed in the high Middle Ages to explain the change of the elements into Christ's body and blood. Transubstantiation is the belief that the Eucharistic elements are transformed into Christ's body and blood in a way only perceivable by the intellect, not by the senses.

Reformation.

Martin Luther, leading figure of the Protestant Reformation and leader of the Protestant movement which would be called Lutheranism, rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, but continued to hold that Christ is bodily present "under the bread and wine". Luther insisted that Christ's words during the institution of the sacrament, "this is my body", be taken literally. He believed that anyone who ate and drank during the Eucharist (often called the "Lord's Supper" by Protestants) physically ate Christ's body and drank his blood, regardless of their faith.  Huldrych Zwingli, the first theologian in the Reformed tradition, also rejected the view of transubstantiation, but he disagreed with Luther by holding that Christ's body is not physically present in the Eucharist. He held that Christ's whole person (body and spirit) is presented to believers in the Eucharist, but that this does not occur by Christ's body being eaten with the mouth. This view has been labeled "mystical real presence", meaning that those who partake have a direct experience of God's presence, or "spiritual real presence" because Christ's presence is by his spirit. Zwingli also did not believe that the sacrament actually confers the grace which is offered in the sacrament, but that the outer signs of bread and wine testify to that grace and awaken the memory of Christ's death.  John Calvin, a very influential early Reformed theologian, believed the Lord's Supper fed Christians with the spiritual food of union with Christ. He believed that in the Supper Christians feed on Christ's flesh, which he saw as an inexplicable miracle. Calvin taught that the Supper confirms the promises communicated to Christians in the preaching of the Gospel. He also saw its purpose as provoking praise for God and love for other people. He believed it necessary for Christians to partake of Christ's humanity in the Supper as well as his Spirit, and that the bread and wine really present, rather than simply symbolize or represent, Christ's body and blood. Calvin spoke of the communication involved in the Lord's Supper as spiritual, meaning that it originates in the Holy Spirit. Calvin's teaching on the Lord's Supper was followed by many others in the Reformed tradition, including Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr Vermigli. Calvin, like Zwingli and against Luther, did not believe that Christ is bodily present in the elements of the Eucharist. He taught that Christ remains in heaven and that we commune with him in the Lord's Supper by being raised up to him rather than him descending to us. Calvin believed the elements of the Supper to be used by God as instruments in communicating the promises which they represent, a view called symbolic instrumentalism.  Heinrich Bullinger, Zwingli's successor, went beyond Zwingli by teaching that there is a union between the sacrament of the Supper and the grace symbolized in them. Bullinger's view was not identical to Calvin's, because he did not see sacraments as instrumental in communicating grace. Bullinger's view has been called "symbolic parallelism", because the inward feeding on Christ occurs at the same time as the outward eating of bread and wine, but is not caused by it in any way.  The Reformed confessions of faith, official statements of the beliefs of Reformed churches, followed the view that Christ is really present in the Supper. They either took Calvin's view that the signs of bread and wine are instrumental in communicating grace, or Bullinger's symbolic parallelism. Some of the German-language Reformed confessions seem hesitant to make the sacrament a means of grace, but they all maintain that there is a union between the outward signs of the sacrament and the inward grace signified. Reformed orthodox theologians also continued to insist on Christ's real presence in the Supper, while denying against Lutherans that his body is locally present.

Modern.

The influential eighteenth-century Reformed theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher saw problems with all of the Reformation positions on Christ's presence in the Eucharist, and hoped that a new articulation of the doctrine would be made. He emphasized the function of the Supper of confirming Christians' union with Christ as well as the union they have with one another.  In the nineteenth century, the doctrine of the Lord's Supper became a point of controversy between American Reformed theologians John Williamson Nevin and Charles Hodge. Nevin, influenced by German Lutheran Isaak August Dorner, wrote that through the Lord's Supper, Christians are mystically united to Christ's whole person, and that this union is through Christ's flesh. Hodge thought that Nevin overemphasized the idea of mystical union and argued that when Christians are said to commune with Christ in the Supper, it is Christ's virtue as a sacrifice for their sins which is meant rather than a mystical union with his flesh. Hodge also taught that nothing is communicated in the Lord's Supper which is not communicated in the preaching of God's word. American Presbyterians generally agreed with Hodge. Nineteenth-century Reformed Congregationalist followers of the New England theology generally held a symbolic, memorial view of the Lord's Supper.  Twentieth-century Reformed theologian Karl Barth did not follow the Reformed belief that sacraments are used by God as means of grace. Instead, he saw the Lord's Supper as purely symbolic and functioning to proclaim God's promises. His position has been called symbolic memorialism because he saw the sacraments function as memorializing Christ's death. Another twentieth-century Reformed theologian, Donald Baillie, took a position similar to that of John Calvin. Baillie argued that though God is omnipresent, he is present in a special way in the Lord's Supper because he is present by virtue of the believer's faith. Christ's presence is even more real to the believer in the sacrament than is physical reality.

Meaning.

In the Reformed confessions, the Lord's Supper is a meal that provides spiritual nourishment. Eating the body and drinking the blood of Christ in the sacrament is believed to spiritually strengthen Christians. Believers are already believed to be united with Christ, but the Supper serves to deepen and strengthen this union. The Supper is also a way to commemorate and proclaim the death and resurrection of Christ. Partakers are to express gratitude and praise to God in thanks for his death and the benefits it provides. The Supper is believed to assure Christians of their salvation and union with Christ, which has been communicated to them in the preaching of the gospel. The Supper is also believed to enhance Christians' union with one another. It calls Christians to love and obey Christ, and to live in harmony with other Christians.  Reformed confessions reject the Catholic doctrine that the Eucharist is a sacrifice of propitiation, or sacrifice to satisfy God's wrath and attain forgiveness of sins. Instead, they teach that Christ's body is only to be received, not re-presented to God as a sacrifice. The confessions do sometimes speak of the Supper as a sacrifice of thanksgiving for the gift of propitiation which has been received. In the twentieth century, Scottish Reformed theologian T. F. Torrance developed a strong doctrine of Eucharistic sacrifice. He argued that Christ's person and work could not be separated, and that the Eucharist mediated his sacrificial death.  In Reformed churches, only believing Christians are expected to partake of the Lord's Supper. Further, partakers are expected to examine and prepare themselves for the sacrament. This involves determining whether one acknowledges their sinfulness and has faith in Christ to forgive them. Christians may have some degree of doubt regarding their salvation, but they are at least to be aware of their sin and have a desire to have faith.

Christ's presence.

The Reformed confessions teach that Christ's true body and blood are really present in the Lord's Supper. Regarding what is received in the Supper, the Reformed tradition does not disagree with the position of Catholicism or Lutheranism. Reformed confessions teach that partakers of the Supper, in the words of the Belgic Confession, partake of "the proper and natural body and the proper blood of Christ". However, they deny the explanations for this eating and drinking made by Lutherans and Catholics. Against Catholics, Reformed confessions teach that the bread and wine of the Supper do not become the blood and body of Christ, as in the Catholic view of transubstantiation. Against Lutherans, Reformed confessions do not teach that partakers of the Supper physically eat Christ's body and drink his blood with their mouths (). While Reformed confessions teach that in the Supper Christ is received in both his divine and human natures, the manner of eating is believed to be spiritual (""). The body and blood of Christ remain fleshly substance, but they are communicated to the partaker in a spiritual manner.

In Reformed theology, the Lord's Supper or Eucharist is a sacrament that spiritually nourishes Christians and strengthens their union with Christ. The outward or physical action of the sacrament is eating bread and drinking wine. Reformed confessions, which are official statements of the beliefs of Reformed churches, teach that Christ's body and blood are really present in the sacrament, but that this presence is communicated in a spiritual manner rather than by his body being physically eaten. The Reformed doctrine of real presence is sometimes called mystical real presence or spiritual real presence.