Name.

The name Carpathian Ruthenia is sometimes used for a contiguous cross-border area of Ukraine, Slovakia and Poland occupied by Ruthenians. The local Ruthenian population has a problem with self-identification and a portion of them consider themselves to be part of bigger Ukrainian family, while the other – a separate and unique Slavic group of Rusyns. Some Carpathian Rusyns consider themselves part of a bigger Russian nation. In regards to the region most Rusyns, however, use the term "Zakarpattia" (Trans-Carpathia; literally "beyond the Carpathian mountains"). This is contrasted implicitly with "Prykarpattia" (Ciscarpathia; "Near-Carpathia"), an unofficial region in Ukraine, to the immediate north-east of the central area of the Carpathian Range, and potentially including its foothills, the Subcarpathian basin and part of the surrounding plains.  From a Hungarian, Slovak and Czech perspective the region is usually described as Subcarpathia (literally "below the Carpathians"), although technically this name refers only to a long, narrow basin that flanks the northern side of the mountains.  During the period in which the region was administered by the Hungarian states it was officially referred to in Hungarian as Kárpátalja (literally: "the base of the Carpathians") or the north-eastern regions of medieval "Upper Hungary", which in the 16th century was

Geography.

Carpathian Ruthenia rests on the southern slopes of the eastern Carpathian Mountains, bordered to the east and south by the Tisza River, and to the west by the Hornád and Poprad Rivers, which borders Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania, and makes up part of

History.

Prehistoric cultures.

During the Late Bronze Age in the 2nd millennium BCE, the region was characterized by Stanove culture, however, it only gained more advanced metalworking skills with the arrival of Thracians from the South with Kushtanovytsia culture in the 6th-3rd century BCE. Subsequently, in 5th-3rd century BCE from the West arrived

Slavic settlement.

By the 8th and 9th century, the valleys of the Northern and Southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains were "densely" settled by Slavic tribe of White Croats, who were closely

Hungarian arrival.

In 896 the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Range and migrated into the Pannonian Basin. Nestor chronicle wrote that Hungarian tribes had to fight against the Volochi and settled among Slavs when on their way to Pannonia. Prince Laborec fell from power under the efforts of the Hungarians and the Kievan forces. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Hungarians defeated a united Bulgarian and Byzantine army led by Salan in the early 10th century on the plains of Alpár, who ruled over territory that was finally conquered by Hungarians. During the tenth and for most of the eleventh century the territory remained a borderland between the Kingdom of Hungary to the south and the Kievan Rus' Principality of Halych to the north.  Slavs from the north (Galicia) and east – who actually arrived from Podolia via the mountain passes of Transylvania – continued to settle in small numbers in various parts of the Carpathian borderland, which the Hungarians and other medieval writers referred to as the Marchia Ruthenorum – the Rus' March. These new immigrants, from the north and east, like the Slavs already living in Carpathian Ruthenia,

Habsburg, Ottoman and Hungarian administration.

From 1526, the region was divided between Habsburg Monarchy (i.e. its Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary) and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. Beginning in 1570, the region was divided between the Habsburg Monarchy and Principality of Transylvania under Ottoman suzerainty. Part of Transcarpathia under Habsburg administration was included into the Captaincy of Upper Hungary, which was one of the administrative units of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. During this period, an important factor in the Ruthenian cultural identity, namely religion, came to the fore. The Unions of Brest-Lytovsk (1595) and of Ungvár (Uzhorod) (1646) were instituted, causing the Byzantine Orthodox Churches of Carpathian and Transcarpathian Rus' to come under the jurisdiction of Rome, thus establishing so-called "Unia", or Eastern Catholic churches in the region, the Ruthenian Catholic Church and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.  In the 17th century (until 1648) the entire

Transitional period (1918–1919).

After World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and the region was briefly (in 1918 and 1919) claimed as part of the independent West Ukraine Republic. However, the region was, for most of this period controlled by the newly formed independent Hungarian Democratic Republic, with a short period of West Ukrainian control.  On November 8, 1918, the first National Council (the Lubovňa Council, which was later reconvened as the Prešov Council) was held in western Ruthenia. The first of many councils, it simply stated the desire of its members to separate from the newly formed Hungarian state but did not specify a particular alternative — only that it must involve the right

Subcarpathian Rus' (1919–1938).

The Article 53, Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) granted the Carpathian Ruthenians autonomy, which was later upheld to some extent by the Czechoslovak constitution. Some rights were, however, withheld by Prague, which justified its actions by claiming that the process was to be a gradual one; and Ruthenians representation in the national sphere was less than that hoped for. Carpathian Ruthenia included former Hungarian territories of Ung County, Bereg County, Ugocsa County and Máramaros County.  After the Paris Peace Conference, Transcarpathia

Carpathian Ukraine (1938–1939).

In November 1938, under the First Vienna Award—a result of the Munich Agreement—Czechoslovakia ceded southern Carpathian Rus to Hungary. The remainder of Subcarpathian Rus' received, with Andrej Bródy as prime minister of the autonomous government. After the resignation of the government following a local political crisis, Avhustyn Voloshyn became

Governorate of Subcarpathia (1939–1945).

On March 23, 1939, Hungary annexed further parts of eastern Slovakia bordering with the west of the former Carpatho-Rus. The Hungarian invasion was followed by a few weeks of terror in which more than 27,000 people were shot dead without trial and investigation. Over 75,000 Ukrainians decided to seek asylum in the USSR; of those almost 60,000 of them died in Gulag prison-camps. Others joined the Czechoslovak Army.  Upon liquidation of Carpatho-Ukraine, in the territory annexed the Governorate of Subcarpathia was installed and divided into three, the administrative branch offices of Ung (), Bereg () and Máramaros () governed from Ungvár, Munkács and Huszt respectively, having Hungarian and Rusyn language as official languages.  Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population, however

Transition to Soviet takeover and control (1944-1945).

The Soviet takeover of the region started with the East Carpathian Strategic Offensive in the fall of 1944. It consisted of two parts Battle of the Dukla Pass in effort to support the Slovak National Uprising and Battle of Uzhgorod to breakthrough to the Hungarian plains and encircle German troops in Transylvania. On 28 October 1944 upon conclusion of the offensive campaign most territory of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was secured by the Workers-Peasants Red Army (RKKA).  The Czechoslovak government delegation led by minister František Němec arrived in Khust to establish the provisional Czechoslovak administration, according to the treaties between the Soviet and Czechoslovak governments on 8 May 1944. However, after a few weeks, the Red Army and NKVD started to obstruct the delegation's work. According to the Soviet–Czechoslovak treaty, it was agreed that once any liberated territory of Czechoslovakia ceased to be a combat zone of the Red Army, those lands are transferred under a full control of the Czechoslovak state power. Communications between Khust and the government center in exile in London were obstructed and the Czechoslovak officials were forced to use underground radio. On 14 November 1944 the underground radio "Vladislav" has transmitted

Transcarpathian Ukraine - Soviet Union (1945-1991).

On 29 June 1945, Czechoslovakia signed a treaty with the Soviet Union, officially ceding the region. Between 1945 and 1947, the new Soviet authorities fortified the new borders, and in July 1947 declared Transcarpathia as "restricted zone of the highest level", with checkpoints on the mountain passes connecting the region to mainland Ukraine.  As of December 1944 the National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine set up a special people's tribunal in Uzhgorod to try and condemn all collaborationists with the previous regimes - both Hungary and Carpatho-Ukraine. The court was allowed to hand down either 10 years of forced labour, or death penalty. Several Ruthenian leaders, including Andrej Bródy and Shtefan Fentsyk, were condemned and executed in May 1946. Avgustyn Voloshyn also died in prison. The extent of the repression showed to many

Transition to independent Ukraine (1991-).

In July 1991 the Ukrainian SSR adopted a law about referendums that lasted until 2012. Soon after the August Putch in Moscow (19–22), on 24 August 1991 the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) of the Ukrainian SSR proclaimed declaration about its independence and also prohibited the Communist Party in the republic. The local nomenklatura remained in confusion for several days following those events. The local People's Movement of Ukraine (Rukh) and other democratic activists were organizing protests across the whole oblast (region). Everywhere were adopting demands to prohibit the Communist Party. The local council of Uzhhorod city renamed the Lenin Square as People's Square. On 30 August 1991 during the multi-thousand protest in Uzhhorod was removed a monument of Lenin. Some other settlements also removed monuments of Lenin, while other resisted that. So was in Tiachiv the municipality

Demographics.

Religion.

According to a 2015 survey, 68% of the population of Zakarpattia Oblast adheres to Eastern Orthodoxy, while 19% are followers of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church

Issue with self-identity: Ukrainians or Rusyns.

Carpathian Ruthenia is inhabited mainly by people who self-identify as Ukrainians, many of whom may refer to themselves as Rusyns, "Rusnak" or "Lemko"). Places inhabited by Rusyns also span adjacent regions of the Carpathian Mountains, including regions of present-day Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. Ruthenian settlements exist in the Balkans

Hungarians.

The following data is according to the Ukrainian census of 2001. The 1910 Austro-Hungarian census shows 185,433 speakers of Hungarian language, while the Czechoslovak census of 1921 shows 111,052 ethnic Hungarians and 80,132 ethnic Jews, many of whom were speakers of Hungarian language. Much of the difference in these censuses reflects differences in methodology and definitions rather than a decline in the region's ethnic Hungarian (Magyar) or Hungarian-speaking population. According to the 1921 census, Hungarians constituted about 17.9% of the region's total population.  The end of World War II had

Jews.

Germans.

See Carpathian Germans for more information (mainly Germans from Bohemia, Moravia and

Czechs.

Czechs in Carpathian Ruthenia are ethnoculturally distinct from other West Slavic

Romani.

There are approximately 25,000 ethnic Romani in present-day Transcarpathia. Some estimates point to a number as high as 50,000 but a true count is hard to obtain as many Romani will claim to be Hungarian or Romanian when interviewed by Ukrainian authorities.  They are by far the poorest and least-represented ethnic group in the region and face intense

Romanians.

Today some 30,000 Romanians live in this region, mostly in northern

Greeks.

Also known

Armenians.

Descendants of Armenians who came and

Western views.

For urban European readers in the 19th century, Ruthenia was one origin of the 19th century's imaginary "Ruritania" the most rural, most rustic and deeply provincial tiny province lost in forested mountains that could be imagined. Conceived sometimes as a kingdom of central Europe, Ruritania was the setting of several novels by Anthony Hope, especially "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1894).  Recently Vesna Goldsworthy, in "Inventing Ruritania: the imperialism of the imagination" (1998) has explored the origins of the ideas that underpin Western perceptions of the "Wild East" of Europe, especially of Ruthenian and other rural Slavs in the upper Balkans, but ideas that are highly applicable to Transcarpathia, all in all "an innocent process: a cultural great power seizes and exploits the resources of an area, while imposing new frontiers on its mind-map and creating ideas which, reflected back, have the ability to reshape reality."

Carpathian Ruthenia, Carpatho-Ukraine or Zakarpattia (, or, ; ; Slovak and ;, ; ;, ; ) is a historic region in the border between Central and Eastern Europe, mostly located in western Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast, with smaller parts in easternmost Slovakia (largely in Prešov Region and Košice Region) and Lemkivshchyna in Poland. In the Middle Ages it was part of Kievan Rus'. Before World War I most of this region was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. In the interwar period, it was part of the First and Second Czechoslovak Republic. During World War II, the region was annexed by the Kingdom of Hungary once again. After the war, it was occupied by the USSR and became part of Soviet Ukraine.


Early life.

Hermann Kant was born on June 14, 1926, in Hamburg, Germany the son of a factory worker and a gardener born into poverty. His younger brother, Uwe Kant, became a well-known children's author. Because of the impending bombing of Hamburg during the Second World War, the family moved to Parchim in 1940, where his paternal grandfather lived as a master potter. After passing elementary school he began an electrician apprenticeship in Parchim, which he completed in 1944. On December 8, 1944, he was drafted into the German Military. He became a Polish POW, was held in Warsaw's Mokotów Prison and later was transferred to a labor camp, which was located on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto. He was the co-founder of the antifascist committee and teacher at the Antifa Central School. During this time he met the writer Anna Seghers, who would have a lasting impression on him. After being released as a prisoner of war in 1949, he moved to East Germany and joined the Socialist Unity Party of Germany.  Kant finished High School in 1952 at the "Workers' and Peasants Faculty" in Greifswald. From 1952 to 1956 he studied German literature at the Humboldt University of Berlin. His thesis was entitled "The representation of the ideological-political structure of the German fascist army in Pliviers novel Stalingrad." After graduating he worked until 1957 as a research assistant at the University and was also the editor of the student magazine, "Tua res", from 1957 to 1959. In 1960, Kant became a freelance writer and member of the Writers' Union of East Germany.

Writing career.

Kant's first book was published in 1962 as a collection of short stories entitled, "A Little South Seas". The book showed stylistic influences adopted from the American Short Story genre and authors such as O. Henry, giving the East German literature a new satirical and a plainly ironic style.  In his first novel, "The Aula" (1965), Kant described his own experiences at the "Workers and Peasants Faculty." In the book, the closure of the faculty is an occasion for a graduation, for which the main character is to deliver a speech, which determines the fate of their fellow students and thus a part of their own lives in the early days of East Germany. "Kant's most famous and best novel" made him famous overnight in both the East and the West, while the book also being considered controversial in both German states. In East Germany most viewed the book as a "partisan commitment" of Kantian protagonists devoted to the "socialist movement", Marcel Reich-Ranicki remarked that Kant was too timid to write about the real conditions that existed in East Germany.  In 1972, the novel was published in a second edition, where he perfected his writing style. The publication was always seen as a false depiction of parts of the East German cultural bureaucracy, and Kant was criticized for painting a misrepresentation of the social conflict. In 1976 he began developing the novel "Der Aufenthalt" in the Bildungsroman style. He tells the story of Mark Niebuhr, mistakenly labelled as a German war criminal. With the protagonist socialist Roman left Kant's "hero" with nothing to do. The story describes a "conversion" or "enlightenment", but also knowledge of "disenchantment". The writing was depicted in the 1983 DEFA film "The Turning Point".  In addition, Kant wrote occasionally scripts and screenplays, including for Günter Reisch's feature film "Ach du fröhliche..." (1962 - with supporting role) and, based on his own novel, turned into a made-for-TV movie; "Mitten im kalten Winter" (1968).  From the 1970s, Kant took despite its rather narrow view a "weighty significance" in the contemporary literature of East Germany, and had "helped shape minds." Heiner Müller described Kant's narrative "Bronze Age" (1986) in his autobiography as "the sharpest East German satire" which he had read in recent years. For many other colleagues, literary and social critic Kant was opposed to the "pattern and quintessential as maneuverable as windy compromise literati" become the bridge between conformism and confrontation; an impression that was reinforced by his vacillation as a literary functionary. So Kant remained in East and West "one of the most controversial figures in East German literature".

Hermann Kant (; June 14, 1926 – August 14, 2016) was a German writer noted for his writings during the time of East Germany. He won the Heinrich Mann Prize in 1967. He served the Stasi as an informer under the codename "IM Martin".


Biography.

Daniel (Dani) Karavan was born in Tel Aviv. His father Abraham was the chief landscape architect of Tel Aviv from the 1940s to the 1960s.  At the age of 13, he began studying painting. In 1943, he studied with Marcel Janco in Tel Aviv and from 1943-49 at the Bezalel School of Art in Jerusalem. After living on a kibbutz from 1948–55, he returned to art. From 1956-57, he studied fresco technique at the Accademia delle Belle Arti in Florence and drawing at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris.

Art career.

Karavan made permanent installations in the form of wall reliefs in Israeli courts and research institutions. Examples of his artwork for courts are the 1966 "Jerusalem City of Peace" wall relief in the Knesset assembly hall and the environmental sculptures comprising 35 wall reliefs & iron sculpture made between 1962 and 1967 at the Court of Justice in Tel Aviv. For the Weizmann Institute of Science he made the "From the Tree of Knowledge to the Tree of Life" wall relief in 1964 and the "Memorial to the Holocaust" in 1972. For performance groups he designed stage sets throughout the 1960s and 1970s. These included the Martha Graham Dance Company, the Batsheva Dance Company, and the Israel Chamber Orchestra among others. After representing Israel with his "Jerusalem City of Peace" sculpture at the 1976 Venice Biennale, he obtained more international commissions - including sculptures in France, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Spain, and Switzerland. One such project was a memorial entitled "Passages" for Walter Benjamin constructed between 1990 and 1994 in Portbou at the Spanish-French border in Catalonia where Walter Benjamin died in September 1940.  Karavan's advocacy of Tel Aviv's modern international style buildings encouraged their restoration and the inscription of The White City as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Along with an exhibition about the city's architecture at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art in the mid-1980s, Karavan convinced mayor Shlomo Lahat to form a jury of international architecture and art critics to review these buildings. The value they placed on the city's town planning and design led to conservation in the 1990s and acceptance by UNESCO in 2003.  In February 2016 Karavan got commissioned by Sigmund Rolat, the founder the organization "Remembrance and Future Foundation", to design the controversial monument "From Those You Saved" in Warsaw to commemorate Polish righteous gentiles who saved Jews during the Holocaust. Prior to commissioning Karavan, Rolat had denounced the design by Austrian architect Gabu Heindl and artist Eduard Freudmann which had won the preceding controversial monument competition. Karavan initially declined the commission after he had read an article written by Freudmann and Heindl, in which they criticize the foundation and their course of action. In April 2016 Karavan announced that he accepted the commission to build the monument, thereby sparking another furor. To this day the monument for the Polish righteous gentiles has not been built.

Daniel "Dani" Karavan (, born 7 December 1930) is an Israeli sculptor best known for site specific memorials and monuments which merge into the environment.


Early studies.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Wilhelm von Osten famously, but prematurely, claimed human-like counting abilities in animals on the example of his horse named Hans. His claim is widely rejected today, as it is attributed to a methodological fallacy, which received the name Clever Hans phenomenon after this case. Von Osten claimed that his horse could perform arithmetic operations presented to the horse in writing or verbally, upon which the horse would knock on the ground with its hoof the number of times that corresponded to the answer. This apparent ability was demonstrated numerous times in the presence of the horse's owner and a wider audience, and was also observed when the owner was absent. However, upon a rigorous investigation by Oskar Pfungst in the first decade of 20th century, Hans' ability was shown to be not arithmetic in nature, but to be the ability to interpret minimal unconscious changes in body language of people when the correct answer was approaching. Today, the arithmetic abilities of Clever Hans are commonly rejected and the case serves as a reminder to the scientific community about the necessity of rigorous control for experimenter expectation in experiments.  There were, however, other early and more reliable studies on number sense in animals. A prominent example is the work of Otto Koehler, who conducted a number of studies on number sense in animals between 1920s and 1970s. In one of his studies he showed that a raven named Jacob could reliably distinguish the number 5 across different tasks. This study was remarkable in that Koehler provided a systematic control condition in his experiment, which allowed him to test the number ability of the raven separately from the ability of the raven to encode other features, such as size and location of the objects. However, Koehler's work was largely overlooked in the English-speaking world, due to the limited availability of his publications, which were in German and partially published during World War II.  The experimental setup for the study of numerical cognition in animals was further enriched by the work of Francis and Platt and Johnson. In their experiments, the researchers deprived rats of food and then taught them to press a lever a specific number of times to obtain food. The rats learned to press the lever approximately the number of times specified by the researchers. Additionally, the researchers showed that rats' behavior was dependent on the number of required presses, and not for example on the time of pressing, as they varied the experiment to include faster and slower behavior on the rat's part by controlling how hungry the animal was.

Methodology.

Examining the representation of numerosity in animals is a challenging task, since it is not possible to use language as a medium. Because of this, carefully designed experimental setups are required to differentiate between numerical abilities and other phenomena, such as the Clever Hans phenomenon, memorization of the single objects or perception of object size and time. Also, these abilities are seen only from the past few decades and not from the time of evolution.  One of the ways that numerical ability is thought to be demonstrated is the transfer of the concept of numerosity across modalities. This was for example the case in the experiment of Church and Meck, in which rats learned to "add" the number of light flashes to the number of tones to find out the number of expected lever presses, showing a concept of numerosity independent of visual and auditory modalities.  Modern studies in number sense in animals try to control for other possible explanations of animal behavior by establishing control conditions in which the other explanations are tested. For example, when the number sense is investigated on the example of apple pieces, an alternative explanation is tested that assumes that the animal represents the volume of apple rather than a number of apple pieces. To test this alternative, an additional condition is introduced in which the volume of the apple varies and is occasionally smaller in the condition with a greater number of pieces. If the animal prefers a bigger number of pieces also in this condition, the alternative explanation is rejected, and the claim of numerical ability supported.

Approximate number and parallel individuation systems.

Numerosity is believed to be represented by two separate systems in animals, similarly to humans. The first system is the approximate number system, an imprecise system used for estimations of quantities. This system is distinguished by distance and magnitude effects, which means that a comparison between numbers is easier and more precise when the distance between them is smaller and when the values of the numbers are smaller. The second system for representation of numerosity is the parallel individuation system which supports the exact representation of numbers from 1 to 4. In addition, humans can represent numbers through symbolic systems, such as language.  The distinction between the approximate number system and the parallel individuation system is, however, still disputed, and some experiments record behavior that can be fully explained with the approximate number system, without the need to assume another separate system for smaller numbers. For example, New Zealand robins repeatedly selected larger quantities of cached food with a precision that correlated with the total number of cache pieces. However, there was no significant discontinuity in their performance between small (1 to 4) and larger (above 4) sets, which would be predicted by the parallel individuation system. On the other hand, other experiments only report knowledge of numbers up to 4, supporting the existence of the parallel individuation system and not the approximate number system.

Number sense by species.

Fish.

An approximate number system has been found in a number of fish species, such as guppies, green swordtails and mosquitofish. For example, preference for a bigger social group in mosquitofish was exploited to test the ability of the fish to discriminate numerosity. The fish successfully discriminated between different amounts up to three, after which they could discriminate groups if the difference between them also increased so that the ratio of the two groups was 1:2. Similarly, guppies discriminated between values up to 4, after which they only detected differences when the ratio between the two quantities was 1:2.

Rats.

Rats have demonstrated behavior consistent with an approximate number system in experiments where they had to learn to press a lever a specified number of times to obtain food. While they did learn to press the lever the amount specified by the researchers, between 4 and 16, their behavior was approximate, proportional to the number of lever presses expected from them. This means that for the target number of 4, the rats' responses varied from 3 to 7, and for the target number of 16 the responses varied from 12 to 24, showing a much greater interval. This is compatible with the approximate number system and magnitude and distance effects.

Birds.

Birds were one of the first animal species tested on their number sense. A raven named Jacob was able to distinguish the number 5 across different tasks in the experiments by Otto Koehler. Later experiments supported the claim of existence of a number sense in birds, with Alex, a grey parrot, able to label and comprehend labels for sets with up to six elements. Other studies suggest that pigeons can also represent numbers up to 6 after an extensive training.

Dogs.

A sense of number has also been found in dogs. For example, dogs were able to perform simple additions of two objects, as revealed by their surprise when the result was incorrect. It is however argued that wolves perform better on quantity discrimination tasks than dogs and that this could be a result of a less demanding natural selection for number sense in dogs.

Monkeys.

Rhesus monkeys seem to have an innate understanding of numbers up to 4. This is shown by the study on semi-free-ranging rhesus monkeys in their natural environment in which the monkeys spontaneously discriminated numbers from 1 to 3 but did not demonstrate a numerical ability beyond this number. In another study that included training, rhesus monkeys showed the ability to generalize this knowledge to numerosities up to nine.

Chimpanzees.

Chimpanzees are believed to have a sense of number, albeit an imprecise one. While they can correctly compare numbers such as 6 and 7 by choosing a tray with more pieces of reward, their performance is more error-free when the difference between the numbers is bigger and when the numbers are smaller; that is when the distance and magnitude effects take place. Chimpanzees also seem to have knowledge of proportions. In an experiment by Woodroof and Premack an adult chimpanzee correctly identified and performed operations on exemplars of numbers and proportions presented on a variety of objects, such as apples, wood disks and water containers. For example, when presented with of an apple and full water container, the chimpanzee chose of a wooden disk, suggesting an addition-like ability. The ability to add fractions has only been demonstrated in primates so far.

Ants.

Ants were shown to be able to count up to 20 and add and subtract numbers within 5. In highly social species such as red wood ants scouting individuals can transfer to foragers the information about the number of branches of a special “counting maze” they had to go to in order to obtain syrup. The findings concerning number sense in ants are based on comparisons of duration of information contacts between scouts and foragers which preceded successful trips by the foraging teams. Similar to some archaic human languages, the length of the code of a given number in ants’ communication is proportional to its value. In experiments in which the bait appeared on different branches with different frequencies, the ants used simple additions and subtractions to optimize their messages.

Wild rodents.

Striped field mice Apodemus agrarius demonstrated a sense of number consistent with precise relative-quantity judgment: some of these mice exhibit high accuracy in discriminating between quantities that differ only by one. The latter include both small (such as 2 versus 3) and relatively large (such as 5 versus 6, and 8 versus 9) quantities of elements.

Number sense in animals is the ability of creatures to represent and discriminate quantities of relative sizes by number sense. It has been observed in various species, from fish to primates. Animals are believed to have an approximate number system, the same system for number representation demonstrated by humans, which is more precise for smaller quantities and less so for larger values. An exact representation of numbers higher than 3 has not been attested in wild animals, but can be demonstrated after a period of training in captive animals.


Early history.

Numerous lake-side settlements from the Neolithic and Bronze Age have been found, such as those in the Zürich Pressehaus and Zürich Mozartstrasse. The settlements were found in the 1800s, submerged in Lake Zürich. Located on the then swamp land between the Limmat and Lake Zürich around Sechseläutzenplatz on small islands and peninsulas in Zürich, Prehistoric pile dwellings around Lake Zürich were set on piles to protect against occasional flooding by the Linth and Jona. Zürich–Enge Alpenquai is located on Lake Zürich lakeshore in Enge, a locality of the municipality of Zürich. It was neighbored by the settlements at Kleiner Hafner and Grosser Hafner on a then peninsula respectively island in the effluence of the Limmat, within an area of about in the city of Zürich. As well as being part of the 56 Swiss sites of the UNESCO Worl Heritage Site "Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps", the settlement is also listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as a "Class object". In 2004, traces of a previously unknown pre-Roman Celtic (La Tène culture) settlement were discovered, the center of which lay on the Lindenhof hill respectively the area around the Münsterhof square besides the Limmat. The Celtic Helvetians had a settlement when they were succeeded by the Romans, who established a custom station here for goods going to and coming from Italy. At the later Vicus "Turicum", probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the Lindenhof Oppidium. In 1890, so-called "Potin lumps" were found, whose largest weights at the Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement "Alpenquai". The pieces consist of a large number of fused Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants. Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the "Eastern Gaul", others are of the "Zürich" type, that were assigned to the local "Helvetii", which date to around 100 BC. There's also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former "Grosser Hafner" island. at the "Sechseläutenplatz" on the effluence of the Limmat on Lake Zürich lake shore. The Roman Vicus "Turicum" first belonged to the province of Gallia Belgica, and to Germania superior from AD 90. Following Constantine's reform of the Empire in 318, the border between the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy was just east of Turicum crossing the Linth between Lake Zürich and Walensee. Roman Turicum was not fortified, but there was a small garrison at the tax-collecting point, set up not exactly on the border, but downstream of Lake Zürich, where the goods entering Gaul were loaded onto larger ships. South of the castle, at the location of the St. Peter church, there was a temple to Jupiter. The earliest record of the town's name is preserved on a 2nd-century tombstone found in the 18th century on Lindenhof, referring to the Roman castle as "STA(tio) TUR(i)CEN(sis)".  Christianity was introduced early in the 3rd century by Felix and Regula, with whom Exuperantius was afterwards associated. According to legend, Felix and Regula were executed at the location of the Wasserkirche in 286.  The Alamanni settled in the Swiss plateau from the 5th century, but the Roman castle persisted into the 7th century. The earliest manuscript mention of the settlement, as "castellum turegum", describes the mission of Columban in 610. An 8th-century list of toponyms from Ravenna mentions "Ziurichi". There is a legendary account of an Alamannic duke "Uotila" residing on, and giving his name to, the Uetliberg.  A female who died in about 200 B.C found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.

Holy Roman Empire.

Zürich was part of Frankish-ruled Alemannia from 746, following the blood court at Cannstatt, lying in the "Turgowe" (Thurgau) dominated by Konstanz.  A Carolingian castle, built on the site of the now ruined Roman castle by the grandson of Charlemagne, Louis the German, is mentioned in 835 (""in castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci""). Louis also founded the Fraumünster abbey on 21 July 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed the Benedictine convent with the lands of Zürich, Uri, and the Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority.  In 1045, King Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city.  Zürich became "reichsunmittelbar" (direct control of the emperor) in 1218 with the extinction of the main line of the Zähringer family. A city wall was built during the 1230s, enclosing 38 hectares (about 94 acres). The Bahnhofstrasse marks the course of the western moat. The earliest citizens' stone houses at the Rennweg date to this period, using the dilapidated Carolingian castle as a quarry.  Emperor Frederick II promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of a duchess in 1234. The abbess assigned the mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. However, the political power of the convent slowly waned in the fourteenth century, beginning with the establishment of the "Zunftordnung" (guild laws) in 1336 by Rudolf Brun, who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not assigned by the abbess.  From this time, the city increasingly came under the domination of the "Zünfte", a process only fully completed in the 16th century with the suspension of the monasteries following the reformation. Predigerkirche was built in 1231 AD as a Romanesque church of the then Dominican "Predigerkloster" nearby the Neumarkt and the city's hospital. As the other convents in Zürich, it was abolished after the Reformation in Switzerland.  The Codex Manesse, a major source of medieval German poetry, was written and illustrated in the early 14th century in Zürich.  The Frankish kings had special rights over their tenants, were the protectors of the two churches, and had jurisdiction over the free community. In. 870 the sovereign placed his powers over all four in the hands of a single official (the Reichsvogt), and the union was still further strengthened by the wall built round the four settlements in the 10th century as a safeguard against Saracen marauders and feudal barons.  The Reichsvogtei passed to the counts of Lenzburg (1063–1173), and then to the dukes of Zahringen (extinct 1218). Meanwhile, the abbess of the Benedictine Frau Münster had been acquiring extensive rights and privileges over all the inhabitants, though she never obtained the criminal jurisdiction. The town flourished greatly in the 12th and 13th centuries, the silk trade being introduced from Italy.  In 1218 the Reichsvogtei passed back into the hands of the king, who appointed one of the burghers as his deputy, the town thus becoming a free imperial city under the nominal rule of a distant sovereign. The abbess in 1234 became a princess of the empire, but power rapidly passed from her to the council which she had originally named to look after police, but which came to be elected by the burghers, though the abess was still the lady of Zürich.  This council (all powerful since 1304) was made up of the representatives of certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the patricians), who excluded the craftsmen from all share in the government, though it was to these last that the town was largely indebted for its rising wealth and importance.

Old Swiss Confederacy.

In October 1291 the town made an alliance with Uri and Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt to seize the Habsburg town of Winterthur. After that Zürich began to display strong Austrian leanings, which characterize much of its later history. In 1315 the men of Zürich fought against the Swiss Confederates at the Battle of Morgarten.  The year 1336 marks the admission of the craftsmen to a share in the town government, which was brought about by Rudolf Brun, a patrician. Under the new constitution (the main features of which lasted till 1798) the Little Council was made up of the burgomaster and thirteen members from the "Constafel" (which included the old patricians and the wealthiest burghers) and the thirteen masters of the craft guilds, each of the twenty-six holding office for six months.  The Great Council of 200 (really 212) members consisted of the Little Council, plus 78 representatives each of the Constafel and of the guilds, besides 3 members named by the burgomaster. The office of burgomaster was created and given to Brun for life. Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of the branches of the Habsburg family, in consequence of which Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Zürich with the Swiss Confederation (May 1351).  The double position of Zürich as a free imperial city and as a member of the Everlasting League was soon found to be embarrassing to both parties. In 1373 and again in 1393 the powers of the Constafel were limited and the majority in the executive secured to the craftsmen, who could then aspire to the burgomastership. Meanwhile, the town had been extending its rule far beyond its walls, a process which began in the 14th, and attained its height in the 15th century (1362–1467). Zürich joined the Swiss confederation (which at that point was a loose confederation of "de facto" independent states) as the fifth member in 1351. Zürich was expelled from the confederation in 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zürich War). Zürich was defeated in 1446, and re-admitted to the confederation in 1450.  During the later half of the 15th century, Zürich managed to substantially increase the territory under its control, gaining the Thurgau (1460), Winterthur (1467), Stein am Rhein (1459/84) and Eglisau (1496). Zürich's position in the Confederacy was improved further with its role in the Burgundy Wars under Hans Waldmann. From 1468 to 1519, Zürich was the "Vorort" of the Federal Diet.  This thirst for territorial aggrandizement brought about the first civil war in the Confederation (the "Old Zürich War," 1436-50), in which, at the Battle of St. Jakob an der Sihl (1443), under the walls of Zürich, the men of Zürich were completely beaten and their burgomaster Stissi slain. The purchase of the town of Winterthur from the Habsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the territorial power of the city.  It was to the men of Zürich and their leader Hans Waldmann that the victory of Morat (1476) was due in the Burgundian War; and Zürich took a leading part in the Italian campaign of 1512–15, the burgomaster Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512). No doubt her trade connections with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy, traces of which are seen as early as 1331 in an attack on the Val Leventina and in 1478, when Zürich men were in the van at the fight of Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over 12,000 Milanese troops.  In 1400 the town obtained from the King Wenceslaus the Reichsvogtei, which carried with it complete immunity from the empire and the right of criminal jurisdiction. As early as 1393 the chief power had practically fallen into the hands of the Great Council, and in 1498 this change was formally recognized. (Derived from Free Public Domain: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition) This transfer of all power to the guilds had been one of the aims of the burgomaster Hans Waldmann (1483–89), who wished to make Zürich a great commercial centre. He also introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated the interests of the country districts to those of the town. He practically ruled the Swiss Confederation, and under him Zürich became the real capital of the League. But such great changes excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed. His main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498, by which the patricians became the first of the guilds, and which remained in force till 1798; some special rights were also given to the subjects in country districts. It was the prominent part taken by Zürich in adopting and propagating (against the strenuous opposition of the Constafel) the principles of the Reformation (the Fraumünster Abbey being suppressed in 1524) which finally secured for it the lead in the Confederation. The Augustiner and Prediger monasteries and Oetenbach nunnery and Rüti Abbey nearby Rapperswil were also disestablished in 1524. The aftermath of the Reformation in Zürich resulted also in the abolishment of the Zürich convent, the worship in the churches were discontinued, and the buildings and income of the monasteries were assigned to an according "Amt", a bailiwick of administratively function of the city's government ("Rat").

Reformation.

Zwingli started the Swiss reformation at the time when he was the main preacher in Zürich at the Grossmünster. He started his preaching there by preaching systematically through Matthew which was a huge difference from almost every other priest that preached through the liturgical cycle of readings issued by the Church.  He lived and preached in Zürich from 1484 until his death in 1531 at the defeat of Zürich in the second war of Kappel. Zwingli's Zürich Bible first appeared in 1531 and continued to be revised until the present day. Katharina von Zimmern (1478-1547), the last abbess of the Fraumünster Abbey, supported the peaceful introduction of the reformation in Zürich.

Early Modern history.

An important source for Zürich under Heinrich Bullinger is the "Wickiana", a collection of curious documents from 1560 to 1587. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the patriciate and council of Zürich adopted an increasingly aristocratic and isolationist attitude. A sign of this was the second ring of impressive city ramparts was built in 1642 under the impression of the Thirty Years' War.  The funds required for this ambitious project were imposed on the subject territories without consultation, resulting in revolts that were crushed by force. From 1648, the city changed its official status from "Reichsstadt" to "Republik", thus likening itself to city republics like Venice and Genova.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, a distinct tendency becomes observable in the town government to limit power to the actual holders. Thus the country districts were consulted for the last time in 1620 and 1640; and a similar breach of the charters of 1489 and 1531 (by which the consent of these districts was required for the conclusion of important alliances, war and peace, and might be asked for as to other matters) occasioned disturbances in 1777.  The council of 200 came to be largely chosen by a small committee of the members of the guilds actually sitting in the council by the constitution of 1713 it consisted of 50 members of the Little Council (named for a fixed term by the Great Council), 18 members named by the Constafel, and 144 selected by the 12 guilds, these 162 (forming the majority) being co-opted for life by those members of the two councils who belonged to the gild to which the deceased member himself had belonged.  Early in the 18th century a determined effort was made to crush by means of heavy duties the flourishing rival silk trade in Winterthur. It was reckoned that about 1650 the number of privileged burghers was 9000, while their rule extended over 170,000 persons. The first symptoms of active discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the lake, who founded in 1794 a club at Stäfa and claimed the restoration of the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down by force of arms in 1795. The old system of government perished in Zürich, as elsewhere in Switzerland, with the French invasion in the spring of 1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts obtained political liberty.

Napoleonic era.

Zürich lost much of its power in the Helvetic Republic, with territory lost to the Aargau, the Thurgau and the Canton of Linth. In 1799, the city became even a battlefield of the French Revolutionary Wars of the Second Coalition, at the First Battle of Zürich in June and the Second Battle of Zürich in September. Gottfried Keller became an intellectual influence on the Radical "free-thinking" side in the formation of Switzerland as a federal state.  The environs of Zürich are famous in military history on account of the two battles of 1799 (French Revolutionary Wars). In the first battle (4 June) the French under General André Masséna, on the defensive, were attacked by the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, Massena retiring behind the Limmat before the engagement had reached a decisive stage. The second and far more important battle took place on 25 and 26 September. Massena, having forced the passage of the Limmat, attacked and totally defeated the Russians and their Austrian allies under Korsakov's command.

Modern history.

In 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its rural subjects, following the Züriputsch of 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th centuries were torn down, without ever having been sieged, to allay rural concerns over the city's hegemony. The Limmatquai was built in several stages between 1823 and 1859 along the right side of the Limmat. From 1847, the "Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn", the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zürich with Baden, putting the Zürich Hauptbahnhof at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof dates to 1871. The emergence of the Sechseläuten as the city's (more properly, the "Zünfte"'s) most prominent traditional holiday dates to this period.  The Ötenbach monastery, founded 1285, fell victim to the increasingly grand city planning in 1902, with the entire Lindenhof hill it was built on removed to make way for the new Uraniastrasse and administration buildings. It had been serving as a prison, and the inmates were moved to the newly completed cantonal prison in Regensdorf. But under the cantonal constitution of 1814 matters were worse still, for the town (10,000 inhabitants) had 130 representatives in the Great Council, while the country districts (200,000 inhabitants) had only 82. A great meeting at Uster on 22 November 1830 demanded that two-thirds of the members in the Great Council should be chosen by the country districts. In 1831 a new constitution was drawn up on these lines, the town getting 71 representatives as against 141 allotted to the country districts, though it was not till 1837-38 that the town finally lost the last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as compared with the country districts.  From 1803 to 1814 Zürich was one of the six directorial cantons, its chief magistrate becoming for a year the chief magistrate of the Confederation, while in 1815 it was one of the three cantons, the government of which acted for two years as the Federal government when the diet was not sitting. In 1833 Zürich tried hard to secure a revision of the Federal constitution and a strong central government.  The town was the Federal capital for 1839–40, and consequently the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 (due to indignation at the nomination by the Radical government to a theological chair in the university of David Strauss, the author of the famous Life of Jesus) caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845–46, that town took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons.  It of course voted in favor of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and of 1874, while the cantonal constitution of 1869 was remarkably advanced for the time. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the "thirties" onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government.  First of all in 1860 the town schools, opened to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership.  The Quaianlagen and Quaibrücke are important milestones in the development of the modern city of Zürich, as by the construction of the new lake front, Zürich was transformed from the medieval small town on the Limmat and Sihl to an attractive modern city on the Lake Zürich lake shore, unter the guidance of the city engineer Arnold Bürkli.  The town and canton continued to be on the Liberal, or Radical, or even Socialistic side, while from 1848 to 1907 they claimed 7 of the 37 members of the Federal executive or Bundesrat, these 7 having filled the presidential chair of the Confederation in twelve years, no canton surpassing this record. From 1833 onwards the walls and fortifications of Zürich were little by little pulled down, thus affording scope for the extension and beautification of the town. In 1915 the tenant organization Mieterverband was founded in Zürich.  Zürich was accidentally bombed during World War II. An economic boom set in after World War II, lasting into the 1960s.  The further, for that time extremely high subventions, but lacking of alternative governmental cultural programs for the youth in Zürich, occurred in 1980 to the so-called "Opernhauskrawalle" youth protests – "Züri brännt", meaning "Zürich is burning", documented in the Swiss documentary film "Züri brännt (movie)". The most prominent politician involved was Emilie Lieberherr, then member of the city's executive ("Stadtrat") authorities. In 1982, communal elections resulted in the first conservative majority in 53 years (president Thomas Wagner 1982–1990), but in the early 1980s, Emilie Lieberherr and Ursula Koch where the first female politicians in Zürich's exekutive authority "Stadtrat", both representing the social-democratic "SP" political party.  From 1990, there has again been a leftist majority (presidents Josef Estermann 1990, Elmar Ledergerber 2002, Corine Mauch 2009, all of the Social Democratic Party). The introduction of liberal laws ("Gastgewerbegesetz" 1997) favoured the development of Zürich's role as regional center of nightlife; also during the 1990s, a liberalisation of zoning laws ("Bau- und Zonenordnung" 1992; "Stadtforum" 1996) led to a renewal of construction activity ("Technopark" 1991–93, "Steinfels-Areal" 1993, "Zürich West" 1998), Growing suburbanization since the 1960s had resulted in congestions due to commuting, partly eased with the Zürich S-Bahn, introduced 1990. Population declined during the 1980s to 1990s, but began to increase again in the 2000s, paired with significant gentrification of central areas.

Merger of municipalities.

In 1893, the city was extended ("grosse Eingemeindung") to include the (former) villages of Wollishofen, Enge, Leimbach, Wiedikon, Wipkingen, Fluntern and Hottingen, and the then-recently built-up areas of Aussersihl (formerly part of Wiedikon, a municipality since 1787), Oberstrass, Unterstrass, Riesbach and Hirslanden.  In 1934, the city borders were again extended, to the inclusion of the former villages, by that time de facto suburbs, of Albisrieden, Altstetten, Höngg, Affoltern, Seebach, Oerlikon, Schwamendingen and Witikon ("kleine Eingemeindung").  There were no changes between 1934 and 2013, but occurred in all two further mergers ("Eingemeindungen") of municipalities in the canton of Zürich. As per 1 January 2014 "Bertschikon bei Attikon" and "Wiesendangen" merged to Wiesendangen, and on 1 January 2015 "Bauma" and "Sternenberg" merged to Bauma. Therefore, the Canton of Zürich comprises now of 169 municipalities.

Demographic history.

Zürich during its period of territorial expansion and prosperity during the late 14th to early 15th century increased in population to an estimated 7,000 inhabitants. This figure decreased rapidly as a result of the Old Zürich War, to some 5,000, comparable to the population of Berne, Schaffhausen or Lucerne.  Population grew slowly but steadily during the 16th to 18th centuries, reaching 10,000 by 1800. Population then increased rapidly during the 19th century, due to industrialization, and the increased availability of building space after the destruction of the city walls in the 1830s, reaching 28,000 by 1888.  Counting the population within the modern city borders, the figures are 17'200 in 1800, 56,700 in 1871, 150,700 in 1900, and 251,000 in 1930. Population grew rapidly during 1945–1965, peaking at 440,000. After 1965, population declined due to suburbanization, to below 360,000 in the 1990s. After 2000, there has again been population growth, surpassing the 400,000 mark in 2014.

Zürich has been continuously inhabited since Roman times. The vicus of "Turicum" was established in AD 90, at the site of an existing Gaulish (Helvetic) settlement.


Temperature.

The United States Department of Agriculture recommends an internal temperature of at least for cuts of beef, veal, and lamb in order to prevent foodborne illness, and warns that color and texture indicators are not reliable. The same meats should be thoroughly cooked to when ground or tenderized by cutting, since these processes distribute bacteria throughout the meat.  The table below is from an American reference book and pertains to beef and lamb. The interior of a cut of meat will still increase in temperature 3–5 °C (5–10 °F) after it is removed from an oven or other heat source. The meat should be allowed to "rest" for a suitable amount of time (depending on the size of the cut or steak) before being served, which makes the meat easier to carve and its structure firmer and more resistant to deformation; its water-holding capacity also increases and less liquid is lost from the meat during carving. The whole meat and the center will also continue to cook slightly as the hot exterior continues to warm the comparatively cooler interior. The exception is if the meat has been prepared in a sous-vide process, as it will already be at temperature equilibrium. The temperatures indicated above are the peak temperature in the cooking process, so the meat should be removed from the heat source a few degrees cooler.

Color.

As meat is cooked, it turns from red to pink to gray to brown to black (if burnt), and the amount of red liquid, myoglobin (not blood), and other juices decreases. The color change is due to changes in the oxidation of the iron atom of the heme group in the myoglobin protein: raw meat is red due to myoglobin protein in the muscles, not hemoglobin from blood (which also contains a heme group, hence the color). Prior to cooking, the iron atom is in a +2 oxidation state, and bound to a dioxygen molecule (O), with a red color. As cooking proceeds, it loses an electron, moving to a +3 oxidation state, and coordinating with a water molecule (HO), turning brown in the process.  Searing raises the meat’s surface temperature to, yielding browning via different reactions: caramelization of sugars, and the Maillard reaction of amino acids. Raised to a high enough temperature, meat blackens from burning.

Drying.

Well done cuts, in addition to being brown, are drier and contain few or no juices. Note that searing (cooking the exterior at a high temperature) in no way "seals in the juices" – water evaporates at the same or higher rates as unseared meat. Searing does play an important role, however, in browning, a crucial contributor to flavor and texture.

Doneness is a gauge of how thoroughly cooked a cut of meat is based on the colour, juiciness, and internal temperature when cooked. The gradations of cooking are most often used in reference to beef (especially steak and roasts) but are also applicable to lamb, pork, poultry, veal, and seafood (especially fish).


Overview.

OLE allows an editing application to export part of a document to another editing application and then import it with additional content. For example, a desktop publishing system might send some text to a word processor or a picture to a bitmap editor using OLE. The main benefit of OLE is to add different kinds of data to a document from different applications, like a text editor and an image editor. This creates a Compound File Binary Format document and a master file to which the document makes reference. Changes to data in the master file immediately affect the document that references it. This is called "linking" (instead of "embedding").  OLE is also used for transferring data between different applications using drag and drop and clipboard operations.

History.

OLE 1.0.

OLE 1.0, released in 1990, was an evolution of the original Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) concept that Microsoft developed for earlier versions of Windows. While DDE was limited to transferring limited amounts of data between two running applications, OLE was capable of maintaining active links between two documents or even embedding one type of document within another.  OLE servers and clients communicate with system libraries using virtual function tables, or VTBLs. The VTBL consists of a structure of function pointers that the system library can use to communicate with the server or client. The server and client libraries, OLESVR.DLL and OLECLI.DLL, were originally designed to communicate between themselves using the WM_DDE_EXECUTE message.  OLE 1.0 later evolved to become an architecture for software components known as the Component Object Model (COM), and later DCOM.  When an OLE object is placed on the clipboard or embedded in a document, both a visual representation in native Windows formats (such as a bitmap or metafile) is stored, as well as the underlying data in its own format. This allows applications to display the object without loading the application used to create the object, while also allowing the object to be edited, if the appropriate application is installed.  The Object Packager, a component of OLE, shipping from Windows 3.1 up to Windows XP allows a non-OLE object to be "packaged" so it can be embedded into an OLE client.

OLE 2.0.

OLE 2.0 was the next evolution of OLE, sharing many of the same goals as version 1.0, but was re-implemented on top of the COM instead of using VTBLs directly. New features were OLE automation, drag-and-drop, in-place activation and structured storage. Monikers evolved from OLE 1 object names, and provided a hierarchical object and resource naming system similar to URLs or URIs, which were independently invented. Windows now has merged the two technologies supporting a URL Moniker type, and a Moniker URL scheme.

OLE custom controls.

OLE custom controls were introduced in 1994 as a replacement for the now deprecated Visual Basic Extension controls. Instead of upgrading these, the new architecture was based on OLE. In particular, any container that supported OLE 2.0 could already embed OLE custom controls, although these controls cannot react to events unless the container supports this. OLE custom controls are usually shipped in the form of a dynamic link library with the.ocx extension. In 1996 all interfaces for controls (except IUnknown) were made optional to keep the file size of controls down, so they would download faster; these were then called ActiveX Controls.

Technical details.

OLE objects and containers are implemented on top of the Component Object Model; they are objects that can implement interfaces to export their functionality. Only the IOleObject interface is compulsory, but other interfaces may also need to be implemented if the functionality exported by those interfaces is required.  To ease understanding of what follows, some terminology has to be explained. The view status of an object is whether the object is transparent, opaque, or opaque with a solid background, and whether it supports drawing with a specified aspect. The site of an object is an object representing the location of the object in its container. A container supports a site object for every object contained.  What follows is a list of interfaces, grouped by the object that usually needs to implement them. Interfaces usually implemented by the OLE object are usually called on by the OLE container, and vice versa. Note that in the following list indentation indicates interface inheritance. All non-indented interfaces derive from IUnknown.

Competition.

OpenDoc technology tried to compete with OLE. Some of Microsoft's competitors considered OpenDoc to be more robust and easier to use; however, OpenDoc does have some known problems. OpenDoc allowed users to view and edit information across applications, directly in competition with Microsoft's proprietary OLE standard. In 1993 some Microsoft competitors established a consortium called the Component Integration Laboratories ("CIL") to develop OpenDoc as an open standard for cross-platform linking and embedding.  Microsoft required OLE compatibility as a condition of Microsoft's certification of an application's compatibility with Windows 95. Microsoft initially announced that applications using OpenDoc would be deemed compatible with OLE, and would receive certification for Windows 95. Microsoft later reversed the decision and said that applications using OpenDoc might not receive certification at all. Microsoft withheld specifications and debugged versions of OLE until after it had released its competing applications.

Interoperability.

Use of Microsoft Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) objects limits interoperability, because these objects are not widely supported in programs for viewing or editing files (e.g. embedding of other files inside the file, such as tables or charts from a spreadsheet application in a text document or presentation file). If software that understands an OLE object is not available, the object is usually replaced by a picture (bitmap representation of the object) or not displayed at all.

Object Linking & Embedding (OLE) is a proprietary technology developed by Microsoft that allows embedding and linking to documents and other objects. For developers, it brought OLE Control Extension (OCX), a way to develop and use custom user interface elements. On a technical level, an OLE object is any object that implements the codice_1 interface, possibly along with a wide range of other interfaces, depending on the object's needs.


Characteristics.

The Geoffroy's cat is about the size of a domestic cat, but has numerous black spots and dark bands on the cheeks, head and neck as well as on the tail and limbs. The background colour of its fur varies from a brownish-yellow coat in the northern part of its range to a more grayish coat in the south. The underbelly hair is cream-coloured or even white. The backs of the ears are black with white spots. Black individuals are common.  Its size is about in head and body with a relatively short tail of about. It weighs between, though individuals up to have been reported. Males are usually larger than females, and Geoffroy's cat in the south are larger than those from the north.

Distribution and habitat.

The Geoffroy's cat occurs in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. It inhabits pampas and savanna landscapes in the Gran Chaco from southern Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan. In the Andes it occurs up to altitudes of. It prefers open woodland or scrubland with plenty of cover. It also occurs in grasslands and marshy areas. It seems to be common in central South American regions. In Bolivia, it is the second most common cat after the ocelot.

Ecology and behaviour.

The Geoffroy's cat is nocturnal and a solitary hunter that contacts conspecifics only during the mating season. Geoffroy's cats have been observed to stand up on their hind legs to scan the surrounding landscape and use their tail as a support, an unusual behaviour among cats. It is able to climb trees but rarely does, except to leave faeces to scent mark its territory.  It is at the top of the food chain in its range and preys primarily on rodents, hares, small lizards, insects, and occasionally frogs and fish. Females maintain home ranges about in size, while males range over up to.

Reproduction.

The breeding season for Geoffroy's cats lasts from October to March. During this time, the female comes into estrus for periods of up to twelve days, between three and five weeks apart. Mating during this time is brief and frequent, often taking place on a high ledge or similar site.  Gestation lasts for 72–78 days. Most births occur between December and May. Litters consist of one to three kittens, and one or two is more common.  The kittens are born blind and helpless, weighing about, and develop rather more slowly than in the domestic cat. The eyes open after from eight to nineteen days, and they begin to eat solid food at six or seven weeks. Kittens become independent of their mother at around eight months, but are generally not sexually mature until 18 months for females and 24 months for males.  The oldest recorded captive Geoffroy's cat was at least 20 years old.

Taxonomy.

Geoffroy's cat is named after the 19th century French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844). It was identified as "Felis geoffroyi" in 1844 by French naturalists Alcide d'Orbigny and P. Gervais on the basis of three specimens that d'Orbigny had collected on the banks of the Rio Negro in Patagonia during his travels in South America between 1826 and 1833. Five subspecies have been described based on geographic dispersement:  Since 2017, Geoffroy's cat is considered a monotypic species.  Genetic studies have shown that Geoffroy's cat is most closely related to the kodkod.

Conservation.

From the 1960s to the 1980s, Geoffroy's cats were hunted extensively for their pelts for the international fur trade, but little trade took place after 1988 and the species was upgraded to CITES Appendix I status in 1992. Legislation introduced in the late 1980s made hunting and domestic trade of their pelts illegal in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. International trade in Cites Appendix I listed species is now prohibited, except for non-commercial purposes.

Geoffroy's cat ("Leopardus geoffroyi") is a wild cat native to the southern and central regions of South America. It is about the size of a domestic cat. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because it is widespread and abundant over most of its range.


Childhood and youth.

Hugo Kükelhaus grew up as the oldest of five children in a household that was closely connected to the crafts, his father being chairman of the association of carpenters of the town of Essen and involved in reorganising the associations of vocational professions of the German crafts. In 1919 Hugo Kükelhaus finished his Abitur in Essen, began an apprenticeship as a carpenter in Essen and, as a travelling journeyman (Geselle), travelled through Germany, Scandinavia and the Baltics. In 1925, he received his master carpenter's certificate from the chamber of crafts of Arnsberg. In the following years, he read Sociology, philosophy, Mathematics/Logic and Physiology at Heidelberg, Münster and Königsberg.

Writing.

The close relationship between practice was a central theme in every one of Kükelhaus's life achievements. In 1932, he published his first book "Das Gesetz des Ebenmasses" (The law of Structure) where he developed on the golden section to canonical figures by which furniture could be constructed to a humane scale. His main work, "Urzahl und Gebärde" (Primordial Number and Gesture) was published in 1932. This work on numbers as the psychological and physiological foundation of being received great recognition.  Numerous other publications followed as Kükelhaus was still closely related to the crafts: In 1931, following the death of his father, he became the editor of the trade journal "Das Tischlergewerk" (The Carpenting Trade), where he stayed until 1956. From 1934, he was also a member of staff at the Alfred Metzner publishing house in Berlin, which published the Schriften zur deutschen Handwerkskunst (Writings to the German Arts and Crafts) series (1935 ff) as well as "Deutsche Warenkunde" (German Journal of product trade), a news service on excellently designed products of trade and industry. He organised exhibitions and gave lectures as well as workshops. At the same time he was a prolific freelance writer and designer.

Kükelhaus as designer.

Through his involvement with Fröbelschen Spielgaben, a toy manufacturer, and in a dialogue with Fröbel researcher Erika Hoffmann, he designed the "Allbedeut" toys, dexterity toys for infants, from 1939. Their importance was later underscored by Jean Piaget’s developmental psychology, earning him the Federal "Gute Form" (Good Form) award in 1971. In 1950, he became an educator at the School of Arts and Crafts in Münster (Werkschule Münster, heute Fachhochschule für Design), and from 1954 on he devoted his efforts to freelancing. As a furniture designer, illustrator, glass artist and sculptor, he was involved designing the interior and exterior of buildings both worldly and sacred. He settled in the mediaeval town of Soest, North Rhine-Westphalia.

Kükelhaus as a critic of inhuman architecture.

From 1960 onwards, Kükelhaus intensified his research and experimental studies into the sensory modalities. He took great care in observation and concluded that modern humankind had, in its technical advancement, robbed itself of the fundamental experiences necessary for the development of the body and the senses. He critiqued the increasingly inhumane tendencies of modern architecture of the Seventies, and developed basic principles of "organological" building. He worked on principles of development for spaces for all aspects of life according to the "Functioning principles of the human body." This commitment resulted in the accredited publication "Unmenschliche Architektur" (1973) (Inhumane architecture), and in consultancy work and artistic involvement regarding appropriate "organic" architecture in schools, kindergartens and factories.

Kükelhaus gained international recognition through his Experience field for the development of the senses, presented at the 1967 World Expo in Montreal in form of 30 different experience exhibits. At the centre of these exhibits stands experiencing the world with the senses and an awareness for the body, as opposed to a purely intellectual engagement with the world. In the foreground is the corporeal and physical engagement with roundabouts, swings or the texture of the ground beneath the visitors feet. These experiential exhibits are manifestations of his phenomenology of consciousness regarding the learning process as a psycho-physiological experience: Learning through the body.

Quotes.

"What exhausts us is "not" making use of the possibilities of our organs and senses, their subjugation and suppression. What constitutes them is development. Development through the engagement with a world that wholly challenges me."  "The development of man is optimally supported by that environment which provides multifarious well-proportioned stimulations. Notwithstanding the question if this world of stimuli consists of physical or social circumstances and factors – its multifariousness is life’s condition."  "We have for centuries sought to replace experience with knowledge. What a spare world we now live in!"

External links.

1. Andreas Luescher (2006) Experience Field for the Development of the Senses: Hugo Kükelhaus' Phenomenology of Consciousness International Journal of Art & Design Education 25 (1), 67–73 Full text available at:

Hugo Kükelhaus (March 24, 1900 – October 5, 1984) was a German carpenter, writer, pedagogue, philosopher and artist. Hugo Kükelhaus is best known for his infant toys "allbedeut" and the "Experience field for the development of the senses." Throughout his life he presented his views for a humane-scaled living environment in talks and publications. Besides this he is regarded as a harbinger for infant toy designs that fulfil the requirements of pedagogy and developmental psychology. He gained international recognition for his design of 30 "Experience stations" at the German Pavilion of the Expo 1967 in Montreal. His ideas are relevant for contemporary theories of intelligence, educational technology and the design of learning environments.


History.

The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches indicate that methods of keeping accounts have existed from the remotest times of human life in cities. Babylonian records written with styli on small slabs of clay have been found dating to 2600 BCE. The term "waste book" was used in colonial America, referring to the documenting of daily transactions of receipts and expenditures. Records were made in chronological order, and for temporary use only. Daily records were then transferred to a daybook or account ledger to balance the accounts and to create a permanent journal; then the waste book could be discarded, hence the name.

Process.

The bookkeeping process primarily records the "financial effects" of transactions. An important difference between a manual and an electronic accounting system is the former's latency between the recording of a financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account. This delay, which is absent in electronic accounting systems due to nearly instantaneous posting to relevant accounts, is characteristic of manual systems, and gave rise to the primary books of accounts—cash book, purchase book, sales book, etc.—for immediately documenting a financial transaction.  In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs. Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements (deposits) are made to a bank account. Checks (spelled "cheques" in the UK and several other countries) are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these "source documents" into multi-column "journals" (also known as "books of first entry" or "daybooks"). For example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal; all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account. In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, and most personal-finance software follows this approach.  After a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or "account book". For example, the entries in the Sales Journal are taken and a debit entry is made in each customer's account (showing that the customer now owes us money), and a credit entry might be made in the account for "Sale of class 2 widgets" (showing that this activity has generated revenue for us). This process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called "posting". Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the "T" format undergo "balancing", which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.  As a partial check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an "unadjusted trial balance" is created. In its simplest form, this is a three-column list. Column One contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance. If an account has a "debit" balance, the balance amount is copied into Column Two (the "debit column"); if an account has a "credit" balance, the amount is copied into Column Three (the "credit column"). The debit column is then totalled, and then the credit column is totalled. The two totals must agree—which is not by chance—because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting. If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made, either in the journals or during the posting process. The error must be located and rectified, and the totals of the debit column and the credit column recalculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.  Once the accounts balance, the accountant makes a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts. These adjustments must still obey the double-entry rule: for example, the "inventory" account and asset account might be changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stocktake. At the same time, the "expense" account associated with usage of inventory is adjusted by an equal and opposite amount. Other adjustments such as posting depreciation and prepayments are also done at this time. This results in a listing called the "adjusted trial balance". It is the accounts in this list, and their corresponding debit or credit balances, that are used to prepare the financial statements.  Finally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:

Entry systems.

Single-entry system.

The primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the "cash book", which is similar to a checking account register (in UK: cheque account, current account), except all entries are allocated among several categories of income and expense accounts. Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses. To save time and avoid the errors of manual calculations, single-entry bookkeeping can be done today with do-it-yourself bookkeeping software.

Double-entry system.

A "double-entry bookkeeping system" is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different nominal ledger accounts.

Daybooks.

A "daybook" is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions; it is also called a "book of original entry". The daybook's details must be transcribed formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers. Daybooks include:

Petty cash book.

A "petty cash" book is a record of small-value purchases before they are later transferred to the ledger and final accounts; it is maintained by a petty or junior cashier. This type of cash book usually uses the imprest system: a certain amount of money is provided to the petty cashier by the senior cashier. This money is to cater for minor expenditures (hospitality, minor stationery, casual postage, and so on) and is reimbursed periodically on satisfactory explanation of how it was spent. And also the balance of petty cash book is Asset.

Journals.

"Journals" are recorded in the general journal daybook. A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits. A company can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (e.g., sales, cash receipts, revenue, etc.), making transactions easier to summarize and reference later. For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to maintain a balanced accounting equation.

Ledgers.

A "ledger" is a record of accounts. The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting Journals which list individual transactions by date. These accounts are recorded separately, showing their beginning/ending balance. A journal lists financial transactions in chronological order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be charged in each account. A ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records it into the corresponding account for every transaction listed. The ledger also sums up the total of every account, which is transferred into the balance sheet and the income statement. There are three different kinds of ledgers that deal with book-keeping:

Chart of accounts.

A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger. The equity section of the chart of accounts is based on the fact that the legal structure of the entity is of a particular legal type. Possibilities include "sole trader", "partnership", "trust", and "company".

Computerized bookkeeping.

Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper "books" that are used to record the financial transactions of a business entity; instead, relational databases are used today, but typically, these still enforce the norms of bookkeeping including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems. CPAs supervise the internal controls for computerized bookkeeping systems, which serve to minimize errors in documenting the numerous activities a business entity may initiate or complete over an accounting period.

Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by an individual person or an organization/corporation. There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems. While these may be viewed as "real" bookkeeping, any process for recording financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.


2016.

The 20th anniversary of the Hanfparade took place on August 13, 2016. The motto was "Legalization is in the air".

2010.

The next Hanfparade took place on Saturday August 7, 2010. It started at 1:00 p.m. with a speech between TV tower and railway station Alexanderplatz in Berlin under the slogan "Cannabis is (World) Culture". The Hanfparade requests that the entire hemp culture, both the art of using hemp as raw material, as food, as stimulant and as medicine, is allocated to the intangible cultural heritage of UNESCO and removed from the present authorities, which are focused solely on criminal prosecution.

2009.

Hanfparade took place August 1, 2009 in Berlin. The motto was "For free choice". The demonstration started at Alexanderplatz and went to Brandenburger Tor.

2008.

The 12th Hanfparade took place on August 2, 2008 from TV Tower at Alexanderplatz to Leipziger Platz, next to Potsdamer Platz. The motto was "Youth protection, Consumer protection, Legalize".

2007.

The 11th Hanfparade took place on August 25, 2007 in Berlin.

2006.

The 10th Hanfparade took place on August 5, 2006 in Berlin. It took place under the motto, "Legalization now! Reorient your opinion instead of giving billions away!" and led a march down Unter den Linden to the Brandenburger Tor from the Alexanderplatz across the Oranienburger. Intermediate demonstrations took place in front of Kunsthaus Tacheles and the British embassy. Approximately 1500 participants took part in the parade. At the Brandenburger Gate there was a hemp market with several hemp panels and hemp plants. The police managed to cut several thousand hemp plants down at the Brandenburger Gate, although the organizers had permission for it. At the conclusion of the demonstration there was a six-hour closing speech at the.

2005.

The Hanfparade took place on August 13, 2005 in Berlin. It took place under the motto, "We are the hemp!"—a play on the slogan ""Wir sind das Volk!"" used by the East Germans before the opening of the inner German border. The demonstration started at 12:00 at the city hall Rotes Rathaus accompanied by five parade floats and by the citizens of Berlin city center. The parade was again smaller than in the previous years with 1000 to 1200 participants. This was because (among other things) the closing speech was forbidden at short notice by the office responsible for green area.  The police enacted substantial controls and wrote 24 announcements because of offenses against the "" (German narcotic law).

2004.

The Hanfparade took place on August 14, 2004 at the Alexanderplatz in Berlin at 12:00. About 3,500 people attended the demonstration, and at the meeting area about 8000 were present.

2003.

The Hanfparade began at 12:00 on August 23, 2003 with a 60-minute demonstration before the Federal Ministry of Finance at the William route (between Leipziger road and Niederkirchnerstrasse) in Berlin. The parade of 13 floats ran peacefully. There were announcements however due to offenses against the Betäubungsmittelgesetz.  About 5,000 demonstrators, including Hans-Christian Ströbele (a Green Party member of the German Bundestag), representatives of the Green Party Youths, The Left Party and the Grey Panthers Party, participated in the demonstration.

2002.

The 2002 Hanfparade included a march to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church with about 10,000 people. The participants motto was "For hemp use! Against hemp abuse! Education instead of prohibition!"  An excerpt from a speech of Hans Christian Ströbele was used in the song "Gebt das Hanf frei!" from Stefan Raab.

2001.

"No war against plants" was the slogan of the 5th Hanfparade. The visitors celebrated with a party before marching on the Berlin City Hall. "I'm a stoner and it is good to be it!", people were saying.

2000.

For the millennium "Hanfparade" participants from all over the world demanded, "Legalize it globally." Only a storm could impair the good tendency of 10,000 of the participants somewhat.

1999.

Hopes of a new and better millennium drove several tens of thousands of people to the hemp parade. Their motto was, "Into the future with hemp." For the first time, representatives of all parties except the Christian Democratic Union spoke.

1998.

In the election year, nearly 50,000 people flew into Berlin under the slogan, "The fight continues," they demanded the legalization of hemp from the new Federal Government.

1997.

Ten thousand followed the call "of the Herumschweifenden Haschrebellen" and H.A.N.F., a registered association for the first country wide demonstration for hemp. With their route to the Brandenburger Gate they demanded "Legalization now!"

The Hanfparade () is a hemp legalization demonstration in Berlin. It has taken place each year in August since 1997.


Origin.

The word "parvenu" typically describes a person who recently ascended the social ladder, especially a "nouveau riche" or "new money" individual. The famous Margaret Brown, who survived the "Titanic" sinking in 1912, was portrayed as a "new money" individual in the "climbing social classes" musical "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" because of her impoverished Irish immigrant roots and lack of social pedigree.  The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines a "parvenu" as: "A person from a humble background who has rapidly gained wealth or an influential social position; a nouveau riche; an upstart, a social climber. Also in extended use. Generally used with the implication that the person concerned is unsuited to the new social position, esp. through lacking the necessary manners or accomplishments."  The term designates individuals not socially accepted by individuals already established in their new class. It expresses a form of classism.

Social climber.

A social climber is a derogatory term that denotes someone who seeks social prominence through aggressive, fawning, or obsequious behavior. The term is sometimes used as synonymous with parvenu, and may be used as an insult, suggesting a poor work ethic or disloyalty to roots.

Examples.

Several examples might include athletic and entertainment professionals born and raised in poverty and suddenly finding themselves with significantly higher income due to their new-found celebrity status.  Established royal families of Europe regarded the Bonaparte family as "parvenu" royalty. Napoleon III tried to marry into Swedish and German royalty, but was unsuccessful because he was a "parvenu". For instance, his plan to marry Anna Pavlovna, one of the sisters of the Emperor Alexander, did not push through because the Empress Mother objected to the union on account of Napoleon's status as a parvenu. The reason given for the misalliance was difference of religion. This was also said to be the case with the marriage of Egyptian Princess Fawzia to the future Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. One of the reasons speculated for their divorce is that Fawzia's family, including King Farouk I, viewed the Pahlavis as "parvenus". Though the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt and Sudan, to which Fawzia belonged, had humble beginnings, it had solidified its status in Egypt and the Arab World since 1805. In contrast, the Pahlavis were a far more recent dynasty, owing their position entirely to the "coup d'état" of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's father, Reza Khan, in 1921.  Many "parvenus" in the United States arrived there as poor immigrants, then worked their way up the social ladder. Beginning as laborers, they took advantage of better economic opportunities in the U.S., moving on to become civil servants, "white collar" (business/office) workers and finally members of respectable society. Such an example might be John Jacob Astor, whose family once skinned rabbits for a living. With his brother, he went on to build such icons of New York City as the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. His grandson moved to England, where he eventually became the first Viscount Astor.  In the 19th century, the French aristocracy viewed Jewish women who converted to Christianity upon marriage as parvenus. Professor Catherine Nicault of the University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne has argued that this exemplified the way in which the French aristocracy was hostile toward Jews.

Literature.

"Vanity Fair"'s Becky Sharp is considered an archetype of the social climber, having flirted her way up the British upper class. The character was not born to affluence or the aristocracy but, on the strength of personal ambition, have climbed the social ladder through opportunism.

A parvenu is a person who is a relative newcomer to a socioeconomic class. The word is borrowed from the French language; it is the past participle of the verb "parvenir" (to reach, to arrive, to manage to do something).


Symbols.

There are three symbols for NOR gates: the American (ANSI or'military') symbol and the IEC ('European' or'rectangular') symbol, as well as the deprecated DIN symbol. For more information see Logic Gate Symbols. The ANSI symbol for the NOR gate is a standard OR gate with an inversion bubble connected. The bubble indicates that the function of the or gate has been inverted.

Hardware description and pinout.

NOR Gates are basic logic gates, and as such they are recognised in TTL and CMOS ICs. The standard, 4000 series, CMOS IC is the 4001, which includes four independent, two-input, NOR gates. The pinout diagram is as follows:

Availability.

These devices are available from most semiconductor manufacturers such as Fairchild Semiconductor, Philips or Texas Instruments. These are usually available in both through-hole DIP and SOIC format. Datasheets are readily available in most datasheet databases.  In the popular CMOS and TTL logic families, NOR gates with up to 8 inputs are available:  In the older RTL and ECL families, NOR gates were efficient and most commonly used.

Implementations.

The diagrams above show the construction of a 2-input NOR gate using NMOS logic circuitry. If either of the inputs is high, the corresponding N-channel MOSFET is turned on and the output is pulled low; otherwise the output is pulled high through the pull-up resistor.  The diagram below shows a 2-input NOR gate using CMOS technology. The diodes and resistors on the inputs are to protect the CMOS components from damage due to electrostatic discharge (ESD) and play no part in the logical function of the circuit.

Functional completeness.

The NOR gate has the property of functional completeness, which it shares with the NAND gate. That is, any other logic function (AND, OR, etc.) can be implemented using only NOR gates. An entire processor can be created using NOR gates alone.  As NAND gates are also functionally complete, if no specific NOR gates are available, one can be made from NAND gates.  Note that the above figure depicts a NAND construction of a NOR gate, which only implies the functional completeness of NOR under the correct assumption that NAND is functionally complete. However, a figure representing the decomposition of all the other logical functions into compositions of NORs would show this directly, without the assumption that NAND is functionally complete.

The NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical NOR - it behaves according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of the negation of the OR operator. It can also in some senses be seen as the inverse of an AND gate. NOR is a functionally complete operation—NOR gates can be combined to generate any other logical function. It shares this property with the NAND gate. By contrast, the OR operator is "monotonic" as it can only change LOW to HIGH but not vice versa.