Alternative names.

This system has also been described by the following terms: Imperial autocracy, Russian autocracy, Muscovite autocracy, tsarist absolutism, imperial absolutism, Russian absolutism, Muscovite absolutism, Muscovite despotism, Russian despotism, tsarist despotism or imperial despotism.

History.

The Tatar Yoke and the Sino-Mongol ideas and administrative system are credited with bringing the culture exhibiting some characteristics of an oriental despotism to Russia. Absolutism in Russia gradually developed during the 17th century and 18th centuries, replacing the despotism of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Ivan III built upon Byzantine traditions and laid foundations for the tsarist autocracy, a system that with some variations would govern Russia for centuries.  After a period of disorder known as a Time of Troubles, the first monarch of the Romanov dynasty, Michael of Russia, was elected to the throne by a Zemsky Sobor (or "assembly of the land"). During Michael's reign, when the Romanov dynasty was still weak, such assemblies were summoned annually. However, the Romanov dynasty consolidated absolute power in Russia during the reign of Peter the Great, who reduced the power of the nobility and strengthened the central power of the tsar, establishing a bureaucratic civil service based on the Table of Ranks but theoretically open to all classes of the society, in place of the nobility-only mestnichestvo which Feodor III had abolished in 1682 at the request of the highest boyars. Peter I also strengthened the state's control over the church (the Orthodox Church). Peter's reform caused a series of palace coups seeking to restore the power of the nobility. To end them, Catherine the Great, whose reign is often regarded as the high point of absolutism in Russia, in 1785 issued the Charter to the Gentry, legally affirming the rights and privileges they had acquired in preceding years, and the Charter of the Towns, establishing municipal self-government. This placated the powerful members of society; however, in fact, the real power rested with the state's bureaucracy. This was built on by later Tsars. Alexander I established the State council as advisory legislative body. Although Alexander II established a system of elected local self-government (Zemstvo) and an independent judicial system, Russia did not have a national-level representative assembly (Duma) or a constitution until the 1905 Revolution. The system was abolished after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Features.

The person of the tsar himself, a sovereign with absolute authority, stood at the center of the tsarist autocracy. The rights of state power in their entire extent belonged to the tsar. The autocrat further entrusted power to persons and institutions, acting in his name, by his orders, and within the limits laid down for them by law. The purpose of the system was to supposedly benefit the entire country of Russia. A metaphor existed likening the tsar to a father, and all of the subjects of the Empire, to his children; this metaphor even appeared in Orthodox primers. This metaphor is present in the common Russian expression "царь-батюшка", literally "tsar-dear father".  Furthermore, unlike the future theoretical separation of church and state in West European monarchies, the Russian Empire combined monarchy with the supreme authority on religious issues (see Church reform of Peter I and caesaropapism for details).  Another key feature related to patrimonialism. In Russia the tsar owned a much higher proportion of the state (lands, enterprises, etc.) than did Western monarchs.  The tsarist autocracy had many supporters within Russia. Major Russian advocates and theorists of the autocracy included writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Mikhail Katkov, Konstantin Aksakov, Nikolay Karamzin, Konstantin Pobedonostsev and Pyotr Semyonov. They all argued that a strong and prosperous Russia needed a strong tsar, and that philosophies of republicanism and liberal democracy did not fit Russia.

Influences.

Some historians see the traditions of tsarist autocracy as partially responsible for laying groundworks for the totalitarianism in the Soviet Union. They see the traditions of autocracy and patrimonialism as dominating Russia's political culture for centuries; for example, Stephen White is described as "the most consistent" defender of the position that the uniqueness of Russian political heritage is inseparable from its ethnic identity. In White's opinion, autocracy is the defining factor in the history of Russian politics. He wrote that Russian political culture is "rooted in the historical experience of centuries of absolutism." Those views had been challenged by other historians, for example, Nicolai N. Petro and Martin Malia (as cited by Hoffmann). Richard Pipes is another influential historian among non-specialists who holds the position about the distinctness of Russian history and political system, describing the absolutism of the Muscovite political system as "patrimonial", and saw the stability of the Soviet Union in the fact that Russians accepted the legitimacy of this patrimonial organization.  Some historians have pointed to a racial element in the concept. For example, American Cold War analysts, including George Kennan, linked the Soviet government's autocratic rule to Tatar influences during its history, and biographies of Russian leaders often stressed their possible Asiatic ancestries. They maintained that Asiatic influences rendered the Russians, along with the Chinese, untrustworthy.

Criticism of the concept.

Historians of different backgrounds have criticised the concept of tsarist autocracy in its various forms. Their complaints range from the different names of the model being too vague, to its chronological implications (it is impossible to consider Russia in different centuries the same) as well as to its content (the question how Russian or "tsarist" autocracy differs from "regular" autocracy or from European absolutism for that matter).  Regarding the substance of the autocracy model, its equation with despotism, its supposed origins in Mongol rule, as well as its supposed rise in medieval Muscovy have been heavily debated. For one, Marxist Soviet scholars were concerned with prerevolutionary absolutism and identified the boyar elites and the bureaucracy as its pillars. For example, Sergey M. Troitskii claimed that the Russian monarchs held sway of the nobility which was reduced to state service. According to Troitskii, absolutism in Russia was the same as everywhere else. This led to a difficult position within Marxism, because absolutism revolves around institutions and laws, which were fundamentally less important than the socioeconomic base of society. This raises the question how absolutism could be the same when socioeconomic circumstances in Russia were not the same as elsewhere.  In order to reconcile the non-socioeconomic nature of absolutism with Marxist theory, Soviet scholar Alexander N. Chistozvonov proposed to group the Russian monarchy with the Prussian and Austrian ones, forming a distinct mix of Western European absolutism and "oriental despotism". In the eyes of Chistozvonov, whatever absolutist or autocratic elements were indeed present in Russia, they were not unique and do not warrant Russia’s exclusive categorization.  Similarly struggling with Marxist conceptions, Soviet historians Petr A. Zaionchkovskii and his student Larisa G. Zakharova focused on the importance of political convictions of Russian officials and bureaucrats to explain nineteenth-century political decision-making. By showing that the state was not a unified and powerful whole (commanded by the economically dominant class), they likewise tackled common (Marxist) conceptions of Russian autocracy. While like Troitskii, they studied the nobility and bureaucracy (in a later period), Zaionchkovskii and Zakharova painted a different picture of the tsar's position. Coinciding with Western scholars like Robert Crummey, they lay bare the interdependence of monarch and nobility in the practice of rule.  Outside Russia and the Soviet Union, Hans-Joachim Torke among others tried to counter the notion of an all-powerful autocratic state by pointing at the mutual dependency of service elites and the state (coining the term "state-conditioned society"). Torke acknowledges that the tsars were not reined in by any form of constitution, but he emphasizes for example the limitations of Christian morality and court customs. The so-called "American school" of the 1980s and 1990s argued for the important role of elite networks and their power at court. Edward Keenan went even further in his well-known piece on Muscovite political culture, claiming that the tsar was merely a puppet in the hands of boyars who wielded the actual power behind the scenes.  For others, like David Ransel and Paul Bushkovitch, it goes too far to portray relations between tsar and nobility like Keenan does, because it does not appreciate their complexity. Bushkovitch argues that the theoretic lack of limitations on the power of the tsar is irrelevant and instead claims that the "crucial question" is where real power lay. In his view, this can only be shown by the political narrative of events. Bushkovitch placed the balance of power between the tsar, the individual boyars and the tsar’s favourites at the centre of political decision-making. In so doing, Bushkovitch found that on the one hand, the tsar's relative power fluctuated per monarch, and on the other hand, that the nobility was all but unified; the balance of power changed with each tsar as well as the rise of boyars and in the case of Peter I even shifted multiple times.  Charles J. Halperin cautioned against views that too easily claim tsar and state dominance in politics or society. While acknowledging the institutional differences between Muscovy and Western European monarchies, Halperin nevertheless stresses that these differences should not be considered absolute. In his view, the practice of rule, a matter of human interactions, is more important than theory and abstractions.

Notes.

a As used in those publications.  b The existing literature pairs the words "Russian, tsarist, Muscovite" and "imperial" with "despotism, absolutism" and "autocracy" in all possible combinations, rarely giving clear definitions. "Tsarist" can be indeed applicable to the entire period (see also historical usage of the term "tsar"), but "Muscovite" is applicable only to the period of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which was replaced by tsardom of Russia, a period for which the words "imperial" and "Russian" are applicable. Further, we can look at "Muscovite despotism" as a precursor for the "tsarist absolutism", however, the very use of the word despotism has problems (see following note). Finally, care should be taken with the term autocracy: today, autocrat is usually seen as synonymous with despot, tyrant and/or dictator, though each of these terms originally had a separate and distinct meaning. Overall, out of the available terms, "tsarist autocracy" is the one which seems most correct for the entire period discussed, but it is worth keeping in mind that there are no ideal types, and that the Russian political system evolved through time.  c As used in those publications.  d As used in those publications.  e As used in those publications.  f As used in those publications.  g As used in those publications.  h As used in those publications.  i As used in those publications.  j As used in those publications.  k The terms "oriental despotism" and its development, the "Muscovite" or "Russian despotism", have been criticized as misleading, since Muscovy, and Russia, never had characteristics of pure despotism, such as the ruler being identified with a god).  l As used in those publications.  m As used in those publications.  n As used in those publications.

Tsarist autocracy (, transcr. "tsarskoye samoderzhaviye") is a form of autocracy (later absolute monarchy) specific to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which later became Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire. In it, all power and wealth is controlled (and distributed) by the Tsar. They had more power than constitutional monarchs, who are usually vested by law and counterbalanced by a legislative authority; and more authority on religious issues compared to Western monarchs. In Russia, it originated during the time of Ivan III (1462−1505), and was abolished after the Russian Revolution of 1917.


Geography.

In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, and numerous border provinces (such as Roussillon, Cerdagne, Calais, Béarn, Navarre, County of Foix, Flanders, Artois, Lorraine, Alsace, Trois-Évêchés, Franche-Comté, Savoy, Bresse, Bugey, Gex, Nice, Provence, Corsica and Brittany) were autonomous or foreign-held (as by the Kingdom of England); there were also foreign enclaves, like the Comtat Venaissin. In addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families (like the Bourbonnais, Marche, Forez and Auvergne provinces held by the House of Bourbon until the provinces were forcibly integrated into the royal domaine in 1527 after the fall of Charles III, Duke of Bourbon).  The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion and an attempt to better integrate its provinces into an administrative

Demography.

The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent Hundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th-century levels.  With an estimated population of 11 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, until 1795 France was the most populated country in Europe (even ahead of Tsardom of Russia and twice the size of Britain or the Dutch Republic) and the third most populous

Language.

Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme. Before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects called Oïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remained Latin. By the 16th century, there had developed a standardised form of French (called Middle French) which would be the basis of the standardised "modern" French of the 17th and 18th century which in turn became the lingua franca of the European continent. (In 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts, Francis I of France made French alone

Administrative structures.

The Ancien Régime, the French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", "Old Kingdom", or simply "Old Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system established in France from (roughly) the 15th century to the 18th century under

Political history.

Background.

The Peace of Etaples (1492) marks, for some, the beginning of the early modern period in France.  After the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and the Treaty of Picquigny (1475)—its official end date—in 1492 and 1493, Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry VII of England,

Wars.

Despite the beginnings of rapid demographic and economic recovery after the Black Death of the 14th century, the gains of the previous half-century were to be jeopardised by a further protracted series of conflicts, the Italian Wars (1494–1559), where French efforts to gain dominance ended in the increased power of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany.  In 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on. The medieval division of society into "those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (everyone else)" still held strong and warfare was considered a domain of the nobles. Charles VIII marched into Italy with a core force consisting of noble horsemen and non-noble foot soldiers, but in time the role of the latter grew stronger so that by the middle of the 16th century, France had a standing army of 5000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. The military was reorganized from a system of legions recruited by

The Wars of Religion.

Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by the Protestant Reformation's attempt to break the unity of Roman Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed "Huguenots") faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's son King Henry II. After Henry II's unfortunate death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of

France in the 17th and 18th centuries.

France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. One of the most admired French kings, Henry was fatally stabbed by a Catholic fanatic in 1610 as war with Spain threatened. Troubles gradually developed during the regency headed by his queen Marie de Medici. France was expansive during all but the end of the 17th century: the French began trading in India and Madagascar, founded Quebec and penetrated the North American Great Lakes and Mississippi, established plantation economies in the West Indies and extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged their merchant marine.  Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (1624–1642) Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy against Spain and the German emperor during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) which had broken out among the lands of Germany's Holy Roman Empire. An English-backed Huguenot rebellion (1625–1628) defeated, France intervened directly (1635) in the wider European conflict following her ally (Protestant) Sweden's failure to build upon initial success.  After the death of both king and cardinal, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as the Fronde (1648–1653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (1653–1659). The Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory of Roussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace.  For most of the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Richelieu's successor (1642–1661) Cardinal Mazarin and the economic policies (1661–1683) of Colbert. Colbert's attempts to promote economic growth and the creation of new industries were not a great success, and France did not undergo any sort of industrial revolution during Louis XIV's reign. Indeed, much of the French countryside during this period remained poor and overpopulated. The resistance of peasants to adopt the potato, according to some monarchist apologists, and

Monarchs.

"After Charles VIII the Affable, the last king in the direct Valois line, three other branches of

Social history.

France in the Ancien Régime covered a territory of around, and supported 22 million people in 1700. At least 96% of the population were peasants. France had the largest population in Europe, with European Russia second at 20 million. Britain had nearly six million, Spain had eight million, and the Austrian Habsburgs had around eight million. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster.

Rural society.

In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guilds people and village

Women and families.

Very few women held any power—some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the Enlightenment, the writings of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau gave a political program for reform of the Ancien Régime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a "modern" society. Within early modern society, women of urban artisanal classes participated in a range of public activities and also shared work settings with men (even though they were generally disadvantaged in terms of tasks, wages and access to property.) Salic law prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could assure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.

Education for girls.

Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalized in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators. Girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were generally considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many small local schools

Stepfamilies.

A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.  The

The Kingdom of France in the early modern period, from the Renaissance ("circa" 1500–1550) to the Revolution (1789–1804), was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon (a Capetian cadet branch). This corresponds to the so-called "Ancien Régime" ("old rule"). The territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas.


Life.

Švejnar went into exile in 1970 and later on graduated from Cornell University with a B.S in Industrial and Labor Relations. At Cornell Švejnar resided at the Telluride House. He obtained a Ph.D. in Economics at Princeton University. His academic interests are in the areas of economic development and transition, labor economics and behavior of the firm. His research focuses on the determinants and effects of (a) government policies on firms and labor and capital markets, (b) corporate and national governance and performance, and (c) entrepreneurship. He is the author and editor of a number of books and has published widely in academic, policy and practitioner-oriented journals in advanced and emerging market economies, including "the American Economic Review, Econometrica, Economica, Economics of Transition, European Business Forum, European Economic Review, Journal of Comparative Economics, Journal of Development Economics", and many others.  In 2012, Švejnar was honored with a Neuron Prize for lifelong achievement from the Karel Janeček Endowment for Research and Science.

Run for Czech presidency.

On December 14, 2007 he announced his candidacy for the position of Czech president in the upcoming indirect presidential election. His nomination came from a proposal of 10 Senators (party affiliation - KDU-ČSL: 2, ČSSD: 3, SNK-ED: 1, independent: 4). In Parliament, his support was generally based on the Deputies and Senators elected for the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and the Green Party.  On February 8, 2008, Švejnar faced Václav Klaus, at that time the incumbent Czech president, in the first round of presidential election held within the both chambers of the Czech Parliament. In a second round on February 9, 2008, neither candidate gained the required majority of 140 votes in both chambers together. Václav Klaus received 139 and Jan Švejnar 113 votes out of 278 votes cast in both chambers together.  In a third round on February 15, Klaus was re-elected with 141 votes out of 279 lawmakers present, one more than the required minimum, while Švejnar received 111 votes. Klaus' victory margin was supplied by 3 MPs who were elected for the ČSSD.

Jan Švejnar (born October 2, 1952) is a USA-based, Czech-born economist. He was a candidate for the 2008 election of the President of the Czech Republic.


Background.

After the revolution of 1848 and its suppression, the cultural life of Czech people was weakened by the absolutism of the Austrian Empire's Bach government and also because a lot of intellectuals died. These included Ján Kollár, František Ladislav Čelakovský, Josef Kajetán Tyl, and Karel Havlíček Borovský. In 1853 two important masterpieces of Czech literature were published that avoided reflecting the political situation – "Babička (The Grandmother)" by Božena Němcová and "Kytice" by Karel Jaromír Erben. The first manifestation of the new generation of authors appeared in the literary almanac "Lada Nióla" published by Josef Václav Frič in 1856, which was the first to admire the legacy of Karel Hynek Mácha. The authors of the young generation did not have much to publish, and the only literary periodicals were in the hands of old and conservative writers (Jakub Malý, "Lumír" of Ferdinand Břetislav Mikovec).

The almanac.

The almanac was initiated by Jan Neruda, then a 24-year-old writer who had just entered his literary career with a collection of poems called "Hřbitovní kvítí" (Graveyard Flowers, 1857) which was not well received for its sorrowful scepticism. For this reason, Jan Neruda persuaded a journalist he knew, Josef Barák, who was on the contrary very popular for his tough attitude against the Bach system, to be the editor. The name for the almanac is said to come from Josef Václav Frič and shows the admiration for the imposing poem by Karel Hynek Mácha. The young authors gathered in the ballrooms of Karel Link and a café in Dominican Street (now Husova ulice 352/2), Prague. The almanac was published on 16 May 1858 (the feast of John of Nepomuk) by publisher Hermann Dominikus (another publisher who was suggested by Neruda and Hálek was not allowed to publish it by the police). The volume's first page had a dedication to Karel Hynek Mácha, and a portrait of the poet sketched to resemble a picture of John the Baptist by František Mašek (1836), in a little chapel in the compound of the ruins of Valdštejn Castle. Božena Němcová was the only author who was paid an honorarium for her contribution, which was motivated mainly by her difficult financial situation at the time.

Reception and following volumes.

The only extensive review was published in "Kritische Blätter" by Ignác Jan Hanuš. Other magazines either wrote nothing or just short reports. Jakub Malý wrote several diatribes against the young authors in a Písek magazine ("Poutník od Otavy") which provoked the authors' activity, and in the next three years three more volumes of Máj were published, edited by Vítězslav Hálek. The group received more and more attention and in the end totally seized Czech literary life. The group was called Májovci, and took on new members (e.g. Gustav Pfleger-Moravský), but after the last volume (1862) it gradually split up.

Máj was a Czech literary almanac published (in 1858, 1859, 1860 and 1862) by a group of authors centred around Jan Neruda and Vítězslav Hálek.


Biography.

Born in Varín, Gábor studied at the Bratislava Conservatory under Ida Černecká and then at the Academy of Performing Arts in Bratislava with Anna Korínska and in his final year of study Janko Blaho. He was a leading performer at the Slovak National Theatre for 35 years, making his debut at the house on New Years Day 1960. He particularly excelled in comic roles. Among his signature parts were Count Almaviva in "The Barber of Seville", Basilio in "The Marriage of Figaro", Triquet in "Eugene Onegin", Puk in "A Midsummer Night's Dream", the Minister in Juraj Beneš's "The Emperor's New Clothes", Smelkov in Ján Cikker's "Vzkriesenie", and Vašek in "The Bartered Bride". The biggest success of his career came in 1966 when he portrayed the title role in "Albert Herring".  Gábor was also active on the international stage, singing as a guest artist at the National Theatre in Prague, La Monnaie, and with opera houses in Germany, Greece, and Iran. He was notably committed to the Hamburg State Opera from 1967 to 1968 and performed at almost all of the opera houses in his home nation. He also toured with the Slovak National Theatre for performances in the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia.  In addition to his work in opera, Gábor was an active concert performer and recitalist. He performed with most of the major orchestras in his nation and Czech Republic during his career. He was also an admired performer of Slovak folk music and was interested in the traditional folk dances of his country.  Gábor gave his last public singing performance on New Year's Eve 1995. He died in Bratislava at the age of 70.

Pavol Gábor (1 December 1932 – 28 August 2003) was a Slovak operatic tenor who had an active international career during the 1960s through the 1990s. He had a lengthy and fruitful partnership at the Slovak National Theatre which lasted for over three decades.


History.

Following the move away from steam haulage on Czechoslovak railways, it was decided that heating of passenger cars would move from steam heat, where steam from a boiler is piped through the train, to electric train heat. To convert the locomotives to the 749 class, the steam boiler was removed, and replaced with an alternator to provide electric train supply for heating. This process also took place with the locomotives of the ČD Class 753, which were converted to the 750 class.  The prototype for the conversion took place in 1992, with locomotive 751 039 being converted, with a second locomotive being converted in 1993. Following these two, 60 locomotives were converted, with the process being carried out until 1996. The final locomotive was additionally modified with a new electrical control system. The locomotives chosen to be converted were selected from all production series, therefore the new numbers do not form a continuous series.  Especially after 2005 the locomotives were increasingly used in freight transport, mainly to replace the aging unrebuilt 751 and 753 classes, and due to increasing electrification rendering the diesel locomotives obsolete. In 2007, several locomotives were transferred to ČD Cargo, following the separation from České dráhy.

Current operations.

Today the remaining freight locomotives are based around České Budějovice, where they are used when freight trains are diverted away from the wires. At České dráhy several locomotives are still operational at Prague's Vršovice depot, working weekend services to Čerčany.

Technical Information.

Class 749 is a dual cab, four axle locomotive. The prime mover is a ČKD K 6 S 310 DR, a four stroke, six cylinder diesel engine, fitted with a PDH 50 V turbocharger.  All four axles are fitted with DC traction motors, manufactured by ČKD.

The ČD 749 class is a diesel electric locomotive, created through refurbishment of classes 751 and 752 (formally T 478.2 under ČSD).


Identities of the king.

Samten Karmay attempted to identify the different personages known as Indrabhutai.

Conflation of Indrabhuti related to conflation of Oddiyana.

The matter of the conflation of Indrabhuti and at least one evocation of the historicity of a particular personage by that name is intimately connected with the location of 'Oddiyana' (the locality denoted by the term 'Oddiyana' whether in each case cited is Swat Valley or Odisha or some other location is glossed with a suite of orthographic representations and near homophones which require further case-by-case examination and exploration), Odisha and the cult of Jaganath and a number of texts that inform the matter such as the "Sādhanamālā", "Kālikā Purāṇa", "Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti", "Jñānasiddhi" as Donaldson (2001: p. 11) frames an overview of some of the debate and then ventures further salience: In his argument, P. C. Bagchi states that there are two distinct series of names in Tibetan: (1) O-rgyān, U-rgyān, O-ḍi-yā-na, and (2) O-ḍi-vi-śā, with the first series connected with Indrabhūti, i.e., Oḍiyăna and Uḍḍiyāna, while the second series falls back on Oḍi and Oḍiviśa, i.e., Uḍra (Orissa) and has nothing to do with Indrabhūti. N.K. Sahu objects, however, and points out that these two sets of names are seldom distinguished in Buddhist Tantra literature, and opines that the words Oḍa, Oḍra, Uḍra, Oḍiviśa and Oḍiyāna are all used as variants of Uḍḍiyāna. In the "Sādhanamālā", he further points out, Uḍḍiyāna is also spelt as Oḍrayāna while in the "Kālikā Purāṇa", as indicated earlier, it is spelt either Uḍḍiyāna or Oḍra. There is also evidence, Sahu continues, that Indrabhūti is the king of Orissa rather than of the Swāt valley. The "Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti", for example, mentions him as the king of Oḍiviśa while Cordier, in his "Bṣtān-ḥgyur" catalogue, gives sufficient indications of his being the king of Orissa. Also, in his famous work "Jñānasiddhi", king Indrabhūti opens it with an invocation to Lord Jagannātha, a deity intimately associated with Orissa and with no other area of India.

King Ja, receiver of gifts from the sky.

According to Nyingma tradition, King Ja (also known as Indrabhuti) taught himself intuitively from "the Book" of the Tantric Way of Secret Mantra (that is Mantrayana) that magically fell from the sky along with other sacred objects and relics "upon the roof of King Ja" according to Dudjom (1904–1987)," et al." (1991: p. 613 History) this happened on the Tibetan calendar year of the Earth Monkey, which Dudjom " et al." identify as 853 BC[E]. King Ja taught Kukuraja, the "Dog King", from "the Book." This date of 853 BC[E] is problematic as it puts the event prior to the dates of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni circa 500 BCE as well as prior to the emergence of Tantra in any of its historical permutations according to modern Western peer-reviewed scholarship bar the lineages of the Bonpo (the dates are according to Bonpo tradition which are contended with) which not 'officially' tantric have many elements akin to tantra traditions. Moreover, it should be stated that the falling of Buddhadharma relics upon a Tibetan royal palace also happened in the case of Thothori Nyantsen and these two stories (i.e. the story of Thothori Nyantsen and the narrative of King Ja) may have influenced each other as they share a distinctive motif of magical realism.  Dudjom (1904–1987), "et al." (1991: p. 460 History) also include another important source that impacts on this story of King Ja and salient dates for the greater tantric tradition, particularly the dating of the emergence of the texts of Anuyoga with the provision of a quote of what Dudjom "et al." identify as a "prediction" found in the fifth chapter of the "<nowiki>'</nowiki>Tantra which Comprises the Supreme Path of the Means which Clearly Reveal All-Positive Pristine Cognition<nowiki>'</nowiki>" (Wylie: kun bzang ye shes gsal bar ston pa'i thabs kyi lam mchog 'dus pa'i rgyud," Nyingma Gyubum" Vol.3) which Dudjom, " et al.", render in English thus: The Mahayoga tantras will fall onto the palace of King Ja. The Anuyoga tantras will emerge in the forests of Singhala [Dudjom "et al." identify Singhala as located in Ceylon].

Indrabhuti, at the time of Tilopa, disciple of Kambalapada.

Choudhury (2007: p. 6) states in relation to Indrabhuti who was the disciple of Kambalapada (fl. 10th century):  The Sidhacharyas popularised the tenets of vajrayana by composing numerous texts. Indrabhuti, disciple of the saint Kambalapada, created a sensation by composing his famous treatise 'yajnasidhi'. Indrabhuti learned of 'insight' (Sanskrit: "prajñā") though the instruction of Tilopa (988–1069 CE).

Indrabhuti (alternatively King Ja) is a name attributed to a number of individuals that have become conflated in Vajrayana Buddhism. One Indrabhuti, considered a Mahasiddha, was a disciple of Lawapa.


Socio-political importance.

According to some observers, interlocks allow for cohesion, coordinated action, and unified political-economic power of corporate executives. They allow corporations to increase their influence by exerting power as a group, and to work together towards common goals. They help corporate executives maintain an advantage, and gain more power over workers and consumers, by reducing intra-class competition and increasing cooperation. In the words of Scott R. Bowman, interlocks "facilitate a community of interest among the elite of the corporate world that supplants the competitive and socially divisive ethos of an earlier stage of capitalism with an ethic of cooperation and a sense of shared values and goals."  Interlocks act as communication channels, enabling information to be shared between boards via multiple directors who have access to inside information for multiple companies. The system of interlocks forms what Michael Useem calls a "transcorporate network, overarching all sectors of business". Interlocks have benefits over trusts, cartels, and other monopolistic/oligopolistic forms of organization, due to their greater fluidity, and lower visibility (making them less open to public scrutiny). They also benefit the involved companies, due to reduced competition, increased information availability for directors, and increased prestige.  Some theorists believe that because multiple directors often have interests in firms in different industries, they are more likely to think in terms of general corporate class interests, rather than simply the narrow interests of individual corporations. Also, these individuals tend to come from wealthy backgrounds, socialize with the upper classes, and tend to have worked their way up the corporate hierarchy, making it more likely that they have internalized values that will cause them to personally support policies that are beneficial to business in general.  Furthermore, multiple directors tend to be more frequently appointed to government positions, and sit on more non-profit/foundation boards than other directors. Thus, these individuals (known as the "inner circle" of the corporate class) tend to contribute disproportionately to the policy-planning and government groups that represent the interests of the corporate class, and are the ones that are most likely to deal with general policy issues and handle political problems for the business class as a whole. These individuals and the people around them are often considered to be the "ruling class" in modern politics. However, they do not wield absolute power, and they are not monolithic, often differing on which policies will best serve the interests of the upper classes.  Interlocks not only occur between corporations, but also between corporations and non-profit institutions such as foundations, think tanks, policy-planning groups, and universities. They can also be seen as a subset of connections in a larger upper class social network which includes all of the aforementioned types of institutions as well as elite social clubs, schools, resorts, and gatherings. Multiple directors are "roughly twice as likely as single directors to be in the Social Register, to have attended a prestigious private school, or to belong to an elite social club."

Modern interlock networks.

Analyses of corporate interlocks have found a high degree of interconnectedness amongst large corporations. It has also been shown that inbound interlocks (i.e. a network link from external firms into a focal firm) have a much greater impact and importance than outbound interlocks, a finding that laid the foundation for further research on inter-organizational networks based on overlapping memberships and other linkages such as joint ventures and patent backward and forward citations. Virtually all large U.S. corporations are linked together in a network of interlocks. Most corporations are within 3 or 4 "steps" from each other within this network. Approximately 15–20% of all directors sit on two or more boards.  The largest corporations tend to have the most interlocks, and also tend to have interlocks with each other, placing them at the center of the network. Major banks, in particular, tend to be at the center of the network and have large numbers of interlocks. With the globalization of financial capital following World War II, multinational interlocks have become progressively more common. As the Cold War escalated, well-connected members of the CIA harnessed these interconnections to launder money through front foundations, as well as more substantial institutions such as the Ford Foundation. A relatively small number of individuals—a few dozen—bind this multinational network together by participating in transnational interlocks and sitting on the boards of multiple global policy groups (such as the Council on Foreign Relations).

Legality.

In the United States, the Clayton Act prohibits interlocking directorates by U.S. companies competing in the same industry, if those corporations would violate antitrust laws if combined into a single corporation. However, at least 1 in 8 of the interlocks in the United States are between corporations that are supposedly competitors.

1970 graphs.

In 1979 Levin and Roy reported on interlocking directors at 797 corporations in 1970 where the board of directors ranged from 3 to 47 members, with a mean size of 13. Only 18% of the 8623 directors were on more than one board, though the mean number of interlockers for a corporation was 8. The components of the graph were 62 isolated boards, four pairs of corporations interlocked by one or more directors, a triad of interlocked corporations, and the greater component of 724 corporations. For an arbitrary pair of corporations in this component the median path length was 3. Levin and Roy tested the graph for cut points and failed to find any with their search starting with corporations with large boards.  In a study of clustering in the graph, Levin and Roy demonstrated the use of a bipartite graph with corporations listed on one side and directors with multiple seats on the other. The clusters become evident in a physical model using elastic bands and paper clips. The directors and corporations are listed arbitrarily to begin and the elastic bands placed as edges of the bipartite graph. Then a perusal of the elastics may suggest a re-ordering on one side or the other with the elastics slightly less tense. After some iteration this procedure reveals a cluster structure in the bipartite graph.

Interlocking directorate refers to the practice of members of a corporate board of directors serving on the boards of multiple corporations. A person that sits on multiple boards is known as a "multiple director". Two firms have a "direct interlock" if a director or executive of one firm is also a director of the other, and an "indirect interlock" if a director of each sits on the board of a third firm. This practice, although widespread and lawful, raises questions about the quality and independence of board decisions.


Biography.

Born in Milan, in what is now northern Italy, he was the son of Prince Emanuel of Liechtenstein and Maria Anna Antonia, Countess of Dietrichstein-Weichselstädt, Baroness zu Hollenburg und Finkenstein (10 September 1706 – 7 June 1777). Franz Josef was the eldest of their thirteen children. He was a nephew of Joseph Wenzel I, whom he succeeded on 10 February 1772.  Franz Joseph had been recognised heir to Liechtenstein since 1723, when his uncle's only son had died. Joseph Wenzel took Franz Joseph under his wing and Franz Joseph accompanied him in a campaign in Northern Italy, fighting with Wenzel at the Battle of Piacenza. The battle was a victory for the Holy Roman Empire, of which Liechtenstein was a part.  He was the 802nd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria.  In 1763, Franz Josef traveled on behalf of the Emperor to Spain, to bring the bride of Archduke Leopold a picture of the Archduke. In 1767, he became Privy Councillor, and in 1771, he received the Order of the Golden Fleece.  Once Franz Joseph became Prince of Liechtenstein, he showed great interest in its economic problems and the ever-increasing Liechtenstein art collection. He died in Metz in 1781.

Marriage and issue.

Franz Josef married Marie Leopoldine Gräfin von Sternberg (Vienna, 11 December 1733 – Feldsberg, 27 June 1809), a member of the Bohemian nobility, on 6 July 1750 in Valtice or Feldsberg. The couple had 8 children:

Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein, born "Franz de Paula Josef Johann Nepomuk Andreas" (19 November 1726 – 18 August 1781), was the Prince of Liechtenstein from 1772 until his death.


Types of Cable Shielding.

There are many types of cable shields available commercially, and usage depends on the application.

Signal cables.

The best way to wire shielded cables for screening is to ground the shield at both ends of the cable. Traditionally there existed a rule of thumb to ground the shield at one end only to avoid ground loops. Best practice is to ground at both ends, but there is a possibility of ground loops. In airplanes, special cable is used with both an outer shield to protect against lightning and an inner shield grounded at one end to eliminate hum from the 400 Hz power system.

Applications.

The use of shielded cables in security systems provides some protection from power frequency and radio frequency interference, reducing the number of false alarms being generated. The best practice is to keep data or signal cables physically separated by at least 3 inches (75mm) from 'heavy' power circuits which are in parallel.  Microphone or "signal" cable used in setting up PA and recording studios is usually shielded twisted pair cable, terminated in XLR connectors. The twisted pair carries the signal in a balanced audio configuration.  The cable laid from the stage to the mixer is often multicore cable carrying several pairs of conductors.  Consumer use screened copper wire with one central conductor in an unbalanced configuration.  Also see: High-end audio cables

Power cables.

Medium and high-voltage power cables, in circuits over 2000 volts, usually have a shield layer of copper or aluminium tape or conducting polymer. If an unshielded insulated cable is in contact with earth or a grounded object, the electrostatic field around the conductor will be concentrated at the contact point, resulting in corona discharge, and eventual destruction of the insulation. Leakage current and capacitive current through the insulation presents a danger of electrical shock. The grounded shield equalizes electrical stress around the conductor, diverts any leakage current to ground. Stress relief cones should be applied at the shield ends, especially for cables operating at more than 2 kV to earth.  Shields on power cables may be connected to earth ground at each shield end and at splices for redundancy to prevent shock even though induced current will flow in the shield. This current will produce losses and heating and will reduce the maximum current rating of the circuit. Tests show that having a bare grounding conductor adjacent to the insulated wires will conduct the fault current to earth more quickly. On high-current circuits the shields might be connected only at one end. On very long high-voltage circuits, the shield may be broken into several sections since a long shield run may rise to dangerous voltages during a circuit fault. There is a risk of shock hazard from having only one end of the shield grounded. The maximum recommended shield potential rise is 25 volts. IEEE 422 and 525 lists the cable lengths that would limit shield potential to 25 volts for a single point ground application.

A shielded cable or screened cable is an electrical cable of one or more insulated conductors enclosed by a common conductive layer. The shield may be composed of braided strands of copper (or other metal, such as aluminium), a non-braided spiral winding of copper tape, or a layer of conducting polymer. Usually this shield is covered with a jacket.


Plot.

After spending most of his life alone and working hard to make ends meet, Frank Grimes is hired at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. He is assigned to Sector 7G, where he must work alongside Homer, Lenny and Carl. Grimes is aghast at Homer's laziness and incompetence. When Grimes prevents Homer from accidentally drinking a flask of sulfuric acid by knocking it from his hands, Mr. Burns admonishes Grimes and reduces his pay when the spilled acid destroys a wall. Seething, Grimes declares that he and Homer are now enemies.  At Moe Syzlak's suggestion, Homer invites Grimes to his home for a lobster dinner, hoping to make amends. Grimes only grows more incensed by Homer's ability to live such a comfortable life — despite his sloth and ignorance — while he has worked hard his whole life and has little to show for it. Denouncing Homer as a fraud, Grimes leaves in anger.  The next day, Homer tries to earn Grimes's respect by being a model employee, but his efforts fail. Grimes rants about Homer to Lenny and Carl, who insist that Homer is a decent person despite his many faults. To prove Homer's lack of intelligence, Grimes tricks him into entering a contest (intended for children) to design a nuclear power plant. Grimes's plan backfires when Homer's model wins the contest. After Homer's co-workers applaud instead of ridiculing him, Grimes snaps and runs amok at the plant, mocking Homer's stupid habits. When he grabs ahold of high-voltage wires without safety gloves, Grimes is electrocuted. At Grimes's funeral, Homer falls asleep and talks in his dream, making Reverend Lovejoy and the attendees laugh as Grimes's coffin is lowered into the earth.  In the subplot, Bart buys an abandoned factory for a dollar at a foreclosure auction. He and Milhouse spend their days wrecking the building until it collapses one night during Milhouse's watch, causing the rats in the building to swarm into Moe's Tavern.

Production.

"Homer's Enemy" was written by John Swartzwelder, directed by Jim Reardon and executive produced by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein. One of the goals of Oakley and Weinstein was to create several episodes in each season that would "push the envelope conceptually." The idea for the episode was first conceived by Bill Oakley, who thought that Homer should have an enemy. The thought evolved into the concept of a "real world" co-worker who would either love or hate Homer. The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results. The result was the character of Grimes, a man who had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it and is dismayed and embittered by Homer's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance.  "Homer's Enemy" explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment. In an essay for the book "Leaving Springfield", Robert Sloane describes the episode as "an incisive consideration of "The Simpsons"'s world. Although "The Simpsons" is known for its self-reflectivity, the show had never looked at (or critiqued) itself as directly as it does in ['Homer's Enemy']." In the episode, Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit; however, in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted. By the close of the episode, Grimes, a hard-working and persevering "real American hero," is relegated to the role of antagonist; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious. In an interview with "Simpsons" fan site NoHomers.net, Josh Weinstein said:  The animators and character designers had a lot of discussion about what Frank Grimes should look like. He was originally designed as a "burly ex-marine guy with a crew cut", but would later be modeled after Michael Douglas in the movie "Falling Down" and director Jim Reardon's college roommate. Hank Azaria provided the voice of Frank Grimes, even though such a role would normally have been performed by a guest star. The producers decided Azaria was more suitable because the role involved a great deal of frustration and required extensive knowledge of the show. Azaria felt that the role should instead go to William H. Macy. According to Azaria, "I based the character on William Macy. I can't really copy him vocally, but I tried to get as close as I could and copy his rhythms and the way he has that sort of seething passion underneath that total calm exterior." The producers worked a lot with Azaria to help him perfect the role, and gave him more guidance than they normally would. Azaria felt that it was the role he worked hardest on, adding "I think it's the one we did the most takes on, the most emotional, it felt like the one I worked on the hardest from a performance point of view, in preparation and in execution."  Josh Weinstein has expressed regret about killing off Grimes after only one episode, describing him as "such an amazing character." In an interview with "The Believer", producer George Meyer said, "Grimes's cardinal sin was that he shined a light on Springfield. He pointed out everything that was wrongheaded and idiotic about that world. And the people who do that tend to become martyrs. He said things that needed to be said, but once they were said, we needed to destroy that person. I'll admit, we took a certain sadistic glee in his downfall. He was such a righteous person, and that somehow made his demise more satisfying."  The subplot, where Bart buys a factory, was added so that there would be some lighter scenes to split up the main plot. According to Weinstein, "We wanted to have a Bart or Lisa kids' story to contrast the heaviness and reality of Frank Grimes."

Reception.

In its original broadcast on the Fox network, "Homer's Enemy" acquired a 7.7 Nielsen rating. It was viewed in approximately 7.5 million homes, finishing the week ranked 56th. "The Simpsons" was the sixth highest rated show on Fox the week it was broadcast, behind "The X-Files", a broadcast of the film "The Mask", "Melrose Place", "King of the Hill" and "Beverly Hills, 90210". According to Josh Weinstein, when the episode was first broadcast, many fans felt it was too dark, lacked humor and that Homer was portrayed as overly bad-mannered. Weinstein considers this episode one of the most controversial of the seasons he ran, as it involves sharp observational humor which he thinks many fans "didn't get." Weinstein also talks about a "generation gap"—he believes the episode was originally panned by viewers, but has since become a favorite among fans who grew up with the show.  Critical opinion of the episode is mixed.  Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, authors of "I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide", described the episode as "one of the series' darkest episodes [that] ends on a real downer but is nevertheless also one of the wittiest and cleverest in ages."  In 2007, John Orvted of "Vanity Fair" called "Homer's Enemy" the seventh best episode of "The Simpsons". He said it was, "the darkest Simpsons episode ever... To see [Grimes] fail, and ultimately be destroyed, once he enters Homer's world is hilarious and satisfying."  Comedian Rick Mercer called it a "great episode, and one of the darkest ever produced."  Entertainment.ie named it among the 10 greatest "Simpsons" episodes of all time.  Screen Rant called it the best episode of the eighth season as well as the greatest episode of "The Simpsons".  "The Guardian" named it one of the five greatest episodes in "Simpsons" history.  In 2019, "Time" ranked the episode eighth in its list of 10 best "Simpsons" episodes picked by "Simpsons" experts.  Jon Bonné of MSNBC used "Homer's Enemy" as an example of a bad episode of the eighth season and wrote "even now [in 2000], when subsequent episodes have debased Homer in new and innovative ways, the Grimes episode stands out as painful to watch."  In April 2007, former "Simpsons" executive producer Mike Reiss listed "Homer's Enemy" as one of his two least favorite episodes, stating, "I just think the episode was in bad taste."  In August 2014, writing for "The Verge", Chris Plante listed "Homer's Enemy" as one of his favorite episodes of "The Simpsons", and Homer falling asleep and talking in his dream at Grimes' funeral as one of the funniest moments in the show, but he cited the latter as the moment the series jumped the shark, because of the impact it "has on the show's character [Homer], and through that character, the world."  Several members of the staff have included the episode among their favorites. In a 2000 "Entertainment Weekly" article, Matt Groening ranked it as his sixth favorite "Simpsons" episode. It is a favorite of Josh Weinstein, who cites the scene when Grimes visits the Simpson home as one of his favorite scenes, while "The Office" creator Ricky Gervais has called it "the most complete episode." In her autobiography "My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy", Nancy Cartwright, the voice of Bart, praises Azaria's performance as Grimes, and uses it as an example of how "Accent, pitch, pacing, range and intention" can allow an actor to voice many characters. She writes, In October 2006, IGN.com released a list of "The Top 25 "Simpsons" Peripheral characters", in which they ranked Frank Grimes at number 17, making him the least-frequently shown character to appear in that list.

Legacy.

Frank Grimes has since been referenced many times in the show, often showing his tombstone, and occasionally mentioning him by name. In the season fourteen episode "The Great Louse Detective", it is revealed that he fathered a son named Frank Grimes Jr., who tries and fails to kill Homer. The footage of Grimes' death is also shown during that episode. In the non-canon season twenty-eight episode "Treehouse of Horror XXVII", the ghost of Frank Grimes joined Sideshow Bob's army of the Simpsons' enemies.  During the nuclear power plant design contest, one of the entrants is Ralph Wiggum, whose entry is rejected by Mr. Burns. When Ralph does not leave the stage, Chief Wiggum says "Ralphie, get off the stage, sweetheart." This line was later used as the chorus in the song "Ralph Wiggum" by the Bloodhound Gang. In February 2000, the cast of "The Simpsons" performed a live reading of the episode script at the US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, Colorado.

References.

Footnotes Bibliography

"Homer's Enemy" is the twenty-third episode in the eighth season of the American animated television series "The Simpsons". It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 4, 1997. In the episode, Frank Grimes is hired as a new employee at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. Despite Homer's attempts to befriend him, Grimes is angered by Homer's laziness and incompetence. He declares himself Homer's enemy and tries to expose his flaws through public humiliation. In the subplot, Bart buys a run-down factory for a dollar. "Homer's Enemy" was directed by Jim Reardon and written by John Swartzwelder, based on an idea pitched by executive producer Bill Oakley.


Principle of operation.

In aviation, a localizer is the lateral component of the "instrument landing system" (ILS) for the runway centerline when combined with the vertical glide slope, not to be confused with a locator, although both are parts of aviation navigation systems.  A localizer (like a glideslope) works as a "cooperation" between the transmitting airport runway and the receiving cockpit instruments. An older aircraft without an ILS receiver cannot take advantage of any ILS facilities at any runway, and much more importantly, the most modern aircraft have no use of their ILS instruments at runways which lack ILS facilities. In parts of Africa and Asia large airports may lack any kind of transmitting ILS system. Some runways have ILS only in one direction, this can however still be used (with a lower precision) known as "back beam" or "Back Course" which is not associated with a glide slope.

Carrier frequency pairings for localizer and glide slope.

Two signals are transmitted on one of 40 ILS channels. One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz. These are transmitted from co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a narrow beam.  "Localizer (LOC") and "glide slope (G/S)" carrier frequencies are paired so that the navigation radio automatically tunes the G/S frequency which corresponds to the selected LOC frequency. The LOC signal is in the 110 MHz range while the G/S signal is in the 330 MHz range.LOC carrier frequencies range between 108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz (with the 100 kHz first decimal digit always odd, so 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, etc., are LOC frequencies and are not used for any other purpose). See Instrument Landing System (ILS) Frequencies on even-numbered TACAN channels from 18X to 56Y.

Localizer in cockpit.

The localizer indicator is (on most aircraft manufactured from the late 1950s) shown "below" the Attitude Indicator, but is still a part of this instrument together with the glideslope indicator and the cross in the center of the instrument which is called Flight Director.  The glideslope scale is located to the right of the attitude sphere. On aircraft which have a mechanical gyro compass are both the localizer and glideslope indicated as a vertical and a horizontal arrow in the compass as well. But they are essentially read in the same way. On some aircraft is only the glideslope indicated on two main instruments, and the oldest version of ILS-instruments was an instrument of its own used instead. This used two dangling bars, fixed in the middle of the top (localizer indicator) and in the middle of the left side (glideslope indicator), and if the aircraft was located on the intended glidepath, the dangling bars formed a cross. This is, in theory, however, more difficult to learn—but even for pilots experienced with using such indicators, it added another instrument they needed to focus on. With the indicators added to the artificial horizon (and to the compass), the pilot can theoretically watch the attitude simultaneously with the localizer and glideslope.  In modern cockpits, the localizer is seen as a colored dot (usually in the shape of a diamond) at the bottom of the artificial horizon gauge. It does not appear during cruise, but comes up during the descent and approach to the selected runway, provided that the navigation radio is set to the ILS frequency of that specific runway. If the transmitted localizer beam, which usually, but not always, is directed in the heading of the runway extension. (exceptions exist, for instance, in Innsbruck, Austria and in Macao, China) If the aircraft is located on this line, the localizer dot will appear in the middle of the scale. But if the aircraft is located a little "left" of the beam, the marker will appear to the "right" on the localizer gauge scale in cockpit. The pilot then knows he or she must adjust the heading "towards" the dot. In older cockpits, the localizer scale below the artificial horizon is rather short. But in older style cockpit instrumentation, the localizer also appears as an arrow in the gyro compass below the artificial horizon. The top and bottom of this arrow "is one unit", which shows current heading. But the middle part of this arrow is moving independently of the aircraft's heading. The middle of that arrow could be described as being "stand alone", and moves to the left if the aircraft is located to the right of localizer beam and to the right if the aircraft is located to the left of the localizer beam. When the arrow is "united" to a straight line, then the aircraft is following the localizer beam. (This second "arrow-indicator" is omitted in modern cockpits, but the main compass is still located below the artificial horizon)  At previously mentioned exceptions of runways, where the ILS beam is not leading all the way to the runway, the runway needs to be visible before the final approach begins. The very first generation of localizer gauges had a different cockpit interface, and were not included in the artificial horizon nor any compass, but at a gauge of its own. The localizer was then represented as a dangling stick hanging from a fixed point at the top of a separate gauge, and the glideslope was represented by a similar, but horizontal, dangling stick, fixed at one of the sides of the gauge. When the aircraft was located exactly at the ILS-beam (or glidepath) the two sticks formed a cross. This interface resembles the flight director, which also forms a cross, but on the artificial horizon. This older ILS instrumentation system was omitted around the same time as jet airliners like Boeing 707 and DC 8 were introduced.  The expression "Catch the localizer" refers to runway approaches with the autopilot engaged. The angle between the aircraft heading and localizer beam should be less than 30 degrees, and the indicated airspeed at least below 250 knots (for jet airliners), then by pushing a button marked "APP" or "ILS", then the autopilot presumably will turn and then follow the localizer. The autopilot will then also automatically descend according to the glideslope. Normal procedure is to capture the localizer first and then follow the glideslope as well. If the angle is too large or the airspeed too high, capturing the localizer may be unsuccessful.  Modern aircraft can land "themselves", provided the runway ILS is of sufficient standard (class III C) and the cross wind component is low. Autolandings are mostly done in foggy weather.  The cockpit ILS indicators are not to be confused with the flight director, which also places vertical and horizontal lines on the artificial horizon. A flight director only shows how the autopilot would fly. If the localizer dot (or arrow) indicate runway is to be found to the left, but the flight director suggests a right turn, and the runway isn't visible, then the pilot in command is having difficulties.  Some runways have ILS beams intended for use in one direction only. However, as the localizer beam by its nature also goes backwards, it can still be of some use. This is called "back beam". It's of help during the approach, but the use of back beam localizer gives less precision compared to normal use.

Localizer at runways.

When the glideslope is unserviceable, the localizer element can often be conducted as a separate non-precision approach, abbreviated to 'LOC'. A standalone instrument approach installation without an associated glidepath carries the abbreviation 'LLZ'.  In some cases, a course projected by localizer is at an angle to the runway (usually due to obstructions near the airport). It is then referred to as a localizer type directional aid (LDA). The localizer system is placed about 1,000 feet from the far end of the approached runway. Usable volume extends to 18 NM for a path up to 10° either side of runway centerline. At an angle of 35° either side of runway centerline, the useful volume extends up to 10 NM. Horizontal accuracy increases as distance between the aircraft and localizer decreases. Localizer approach specific weather minimums are found on approach plates.

An instrument landing system localizer, or simply localizer (LOC), is a system of horizontal guidance in the instrument landing system, which is used to guide aircraft along the axis of the runway.


Overview.

Almost immediately following the release of "Dry As a Bone", the group re-entered the studio in August 1987 to begin production on its first full-length album, "Rehab Doll". The band initially started work on the album with producer Jack Endino at Reciprocal Recording in Seattle, Washington, however the band switched to producer Bruce Calder and changed its recording location to Steve Lawson Studios in Seattle. Band in-fighting, though, took center stage over the music. A stylistic division developed between bassist Jeff Ament and guitarist Stone Gossard on one side, and vocalist Mark Arm on the other. Ament and Gossard wanted to pursue a major-label deal, while Arm wanted to remain independent, viewing the duo as being too careerist. On October 31, 1987, Ament, Gossard and guitarist Bruce Fairweather stated their desire to quit the band.  Although the band members agreed to complete production of "Rehab Doll" during the next three months, Green River had by late October 1987 ceased as a band. The recording sessions for the album were completed in January 1988. The song "Swallow My Pride" originally appeared on the band's debut EP, "Come on Down", and the song "Together We'll Never" was previously released as a single through Tasque Force Records in 1986. Both songs were re-recorded for this album. The cassette version of "Rehab Doll" also contains a cover of the David Bowie song "Queen Bitch". The album's cover art was photographed by Charles Peterson and a small portion of the Frye Hotel in Seattle is seen in the background.  The album was released in June 1988 on Sub Pop Records. Ned Raggett of Allmusic called it "a record that sounded caught somewhere between grunge mania and metal/corp rock folly." It was reissued in 1990 as part of the "Dry As a Bone/Rehab Doll" compilation album.  In 2019, the album was re-released with a new mix by original producer Jack Endino, and 10 bonus tracks.

Rehab Doll is the first and only studio album by the American rock band Green River. It was released in June 1988 through Sub Pop Records.


Life cycle.

The life cycle of the parasite is direct, which means that no intermediate hosts are included in transmission. It includes a trophont stage residing in the fish surface (gill epithelia, skin and fin epidermis). This stage is the feeding stage which continuously ingests cellular debris and live host cells in its epidermal location, making the parasite able to grow rapidly over a short time - depending on temperature.  When the trophont has reached a certain size (100-1000 μm), it will break out of the host epidermis and swim freely as a tomont (also covered by cilia). After minutes to hours, the tomont attaches to any surface in the fishpond or fish tank and produces a thick, gelatinous cyst wall. This is termed the tomocyst stage.  Within the tomocyst, a series of mitotic cell divisions take place and, depending on temperature, up to 1000 resulting daughter cells (tomites) are produced. These escape the tomocyst by penetrating the cyst wall, whereafter they swim in the fish tank water searching for a fish host, which they will penetrate fast and efficiently if it is naïve and non-immunized.  This life cycle is highly dependent on water temperature, and the entire life cycle takes from approximately 7 days at 25 °C to 8 weeks at 5-6 °C.

Pathology and clinical signs.

Signs and symptoms.

The infection challenges hosts’ osmoregulation and respiration. Secondary bacterial and fungal infections are common due to the disturbance of epithelial linings. When trophonts burst out of the epidermis, non-protected (non-mucous cell lined) cells become accessible to other pathogens.

Clinical signs.

Typical behaviour of clinically infected fish includes:  · Anorexia (loss of appetite)  · Increased breathing rate (hyperventilation)  · Discoloration  · Abnormal behaviour (inactivity, isolation)  · Resting on the bottom  · Flashing (rubbing and scratching against objects)  · Balance disturbance. Upside-down swimming near the surface.  Theront penetration may elicit erratic swimming and movements reflecting irritation of fish surfaces. The trophont is not visible to the naked eye until it has fed on the fish and grown to a diameter of about 0.3-0.5 millimetres. The white spots may reach more than 1 mm in diameter and are easily recognized on skin and fins whereas trophonts attached to the gills are hard to see due to the gill cover (operculum).  Skin: ICH infections are usually visible as one or several characteristic white spots on the body or fins of the fish. The white spots are single cells called trophonts, which feed on host cells (epidermal cells and leukocytes attracted to the site) and may grow to 1 mm in diameter. Heavy infections with subsequent lesions following trophont escape leave the skin irregular, fluffy and greyish.  Gills: Gill infection may cause breathing at the surface and increased ventilation movements of operculae.

Impact.

Due to the low host specificity of the parasite, ICH infection is known from all freshwater fish systems examined. However, the susceptibility and the impact differ between host species. Rainbow trout, catfish and eels are highly susceptible fish species and uncontrolled infections will lead to almost 100% mortality. Some cyprinids, such as zebrafish, have a higher innate protection and may clear the infection faster than other species.

Diagnosis.

Macroscopically visible trophonts (white spots) on skin or fins is often the basis for a tentative diagnosis of "I. multifiliis" infection. The diagnosis can be confirmed by microscopic examination of skin and gill smears. Scrapings of skin, fins or gill surfaces (using a cover slip or scalpel) and subsequent mounting on a microscope slide with a few drops of water under a cover slip should be examined under the light microscope (20-400 x magnification). The trophont is slowly rotating, covered by rapidly beating cilia and has a prominent, horseshoe-shaped macro-nucleus. Molecular diagnosis can be based on knowledge of genes encoding the parasite’s i-antigen and is performed by PCR and quantitative real-time PCR.

Treatments.

Chemicals and medicines.

Various chemotherapeutants can be applied for the treatment of infected fish and infected fish farm systems but caution should always be observed during any treatment. Some drugs are toxic to certain fish species and any treatment method must take into account the species of fish (some will not tolerate certain medications). Malachite green was previously the drug of choice but, due to its carcinogenicity, this organic dye is now banned. Formalin when applied repeatedly (30–50 mg/L) will kill infective theronts and tomonts but, due to its carcinogenicity, other chemotherapeutants should be used. Copper-sulphate, methylene blue and potassium permanganate are effective but questionable from an environmental point of view. Copper may still be applied in some countries, but it is very easy to overdose with copper. The recommended dosage is 0.15-0.3 mg/L and the concentration should never exceed 0.4 mg/L. Copper is noticeably more toxic to fish in soft water than in hard water. Drugs such as metronidazole and quinine hydrochloride are effective as well, but require prescription from a veterinary authority.  Environmentally friendly products include hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen peroxide releasing products such as sodium percarbonate and peracetic acid. These compounds can be added to the fish tank water and eliminate theronts and tomonts but do not affect the trophont stage in the fish skin. The toxicity of hydrogen peroxide is increased at higher temperatures. Sodium chloride when applied in a concentration of at least 7.5 g/L will inhibit production of infective theronts in tomocysts. When used in a concentration of 10 g/L over 14 days, the parasite can be totally eliminated from a recirculated fish farm system.  Recently, a wide series of herbal extracts have been shown as effective, including garlic juice, which has a toxic effect on theronts. Biological control has also demonstrated its potential. A lipopeptide secreted as a surfactant from the bacterium "Pseudomonas" H6 has been shown to kill theronts, tomonts and tomocysts. It is not toxic to fish, which suggests that future control can be based on environmentally friendly, natural products.

Management.

Total fish removal and repeated transfer to clean tanks may be applied. Theronts, the motile and fish-infecting stage of the ICH life cycle, exit from the tomocyst at the bottom of the tank. However, without fish to re-attach to, theronts will die within 48 hours (at higher temperatures). An effective way to clear ICH from a fish population is to transfer all of the fish carrying trophonts in their skin, fins or gills to a non-infected tank every 24 hours. Then the fish will not get re-infected and after a number of days (dependent on temperature) the fish have cleared the infection because trophonts exit within this period. They do not have sufficient time to produce theronts as 24 h is too short time for released tomonts to develop via tomocysts releasing the infective stage. Under colder water conditions, these management procedures should be continued over a longer time. Another method is to use mechanical filtration of water using mesh sizes of 80 microns. This will remove the tomonts from the water before they settle and transform to the tomocyst stage (the multiplication step).

Heat treatment.

Increasing temperature (above 30 °C) can be effective, and it can be combined with other treatments. However, it can only be used on fish that can tolerate these high water temperatures, and is unsuitable for cold water fish like trout, salmon, koi and goldfish.

Other control strategies.

Prevention.

Priority should be given to avoid introducing the parasite in the first place. New warm-water fish should be quarantined for at least four weeks and cold-water fish for eight weeks. Recognition of biosecurity measures for fish farm personnel including using a biocide foot bath, separate dress for the unit, using separate equipment and disinfecting hands before and after maintenance of each tank, will reduce the risk of spreading the parasite between units.  The host response may provide some protection. Fish recovering from an infection are partly protected against reinfection and will be able to resist a new infection. Prevention of the disease by vaccination is, at present, not possible due to the lack of a commercially available vaccine. However, several studies have identified potential vaccine candidate proteins, e.g. i-antigens and others, of the parasite, which suggests that a vaccine can be produced in the future.

Research.

Due to the occurrence and impact of "I. multifiliis" in freshwater fish farm systems worldwide, considerable research efforts are being conducted in laboratories worldwide. New drugs and herbal extracts are being tested for their impact on various stages of the parasite.  In the European H2020 supported research project ParaFishControl, a series of control methods have been explored. The parasite can be propagated in the laboratory - most successfully in the hosts ("in vivo"), but also cell cultures can support part of the life cycle ("in vitro")"." Experimental vaccines are being tested for future control purposes. Surfactants (with a high parasiticidal effect) from naturally occurring bacteria, such as "Pseudomonas", are being explored and prepared for marketing. Herbal extracts have been demonstrated to stimulate immune responses of fish (and thereby partly inhibit development of the trophont), such as rainbow trout. Management procedures, based on a basic understanding of the life cycle, can reduce the infection pressure considerably. All together, these approaches can be applied for integrated control of "I. multifiliis" infections in aquacultured fish. Due to the development of aquaculture systems – affecting the life cycle and pathogenicity of the parasites - continued research is needed in order to secure control of this parasitosis also in the future.

"Ichthyophthirius multifiliis", often termed “ICH”, is a parasitic ciliate described by the French parasitologist Fouquet in 1876. Only one species is found in the genus which also gave name to the family. Directly translated the name means “the fish louse with many children”. The parasite can infect most freshwater fish species and, in contrast to many other parasites, shows very low host specificity. It penetrates gill epithelia, skin and fins of the fish host and resides as a feeding stage (the trophont) inside the epidermis. It is visible as a white spot on the surface of the fish but, due to its internal microhabitat, it is a true endoparasite and not an ectoparasite.


Observation history.

The Great Red Spot may have existed since before 1665, but the present spot was first seen only after 1830, and well-studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879. The storm that was seen in the 17th century may have been different than the storm that exists today. A long gap separates its period of current study after 1830 from its 17th century discovery. Whether the original spot dissipated and reformed, whether it faded, or if the observational record was simply poor is unknown.  For example, the first sighting of the Great Red Spot is often credited to Robert Hooke, who described a spot on the planet in May 1664. However, it is likely that Hooke's spot was in another belt altogether (the North Equatorial Belt, as opposed to the current Great Red Spot's location in the South Equatorial Belt). Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini's description of a "permanent spot" the following year. With fluctuations in visibility, Cassini's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713, but the 118-year observational gap makes the identity of the two spots inconclusive. The older spot's shorter observational history and slower motion than the modern spot makes it difficult to conclude that they are the same.  A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted in a 1711 canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican. Part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes, and all overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy, Creti's painting is the first known to depict the Great Red Spot as red. No Jovian feature was explicitly described in writing as red before the late 19th century.  In the 21st century, the Great Red Spot was seen to be shrinking in size. At the start of 2004, it had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago, when it reached a size of, about three times the diameter of Earth. At the present rate of reduction, it would become circular by 2040. It is not known how long the spot will last, or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations. In 2019, the Great Red Spot began "flaking" at its edge, with fragments of the storm breaking off and dissipating.  A smaller spot, designated Oval BA, formed in March 2000 from the merging of three white ovals, has turned reddish in color. Astronomers have named it the "Little Red Spot" or "Red, Jr." As of 5 June 2006, the Great Red Spot and Oval BA appeared to be approaching convergence. The storms pass each other about every two years but the passings of 2002 and 2004 were of little significance. Amy Simon-Miller, of the Goddard Space Flight Center, predicted the storms would have their closest passing on 4 July 2006. She worked with Imke de Pater and Phil Marcus of UC Berkeley and a team of professional astronomers since April 2006 to study the storms using the Hubble Space Telescope; on 20 July 2006, the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging. In May 2008, a third storm turned red.  The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the "Great Dark Spot", a feature observed near the northern pole of Jupiter in 2000 with the "Cassini–Huygens" spacecraft. There is also a feature in the atmosphere of Neptune also called the "Great Dark Spot". The latter feature was imaged by "Voyager 2" in 1989 and may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm. It was no longer present as of 1994, although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north.

Exploration.

On 25 February 1979, when the "Voyager 1" spacecraft was from Jupiter, it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot. Cloud details as small as across were visible. The colorful, wavy cloud pattern seen to the left (west) of the Red Spot is a region of extraordinarily complex and variable wave motion.  The "Juno" spacecraft, which entered into a polar orbit around Jupiter in 2016, flew over the Great Red Spot upon its close approach to Jupiter on 11 July 2017, taking several images of the storm from a distance of about above the surface. Over the duration of the "Juno" mission, the spacecraft will continue to study the composition and evolution of Jupiter's atmosphere, especially its Great Red Spot.

Structure.

Jupiter's Great Red Spot rotates anticlockwise, with a period of about six Earth days or fourteen Jovian days. Measuring in width as of 3 April 2017, Jupiter's Great Red Spot is 1.3 times the diameter of Earth. The cloud-tops of this storm are about above the surrounding cloud-tops.  Infrared data have long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder (and thus, higher in altitude) than most of the other clouds on the planet. The upper atmosphere above the storm, however, has substantially higher temperatures than the rest of the planet. Acoustic (sound) waves rising from the turbulence of the storm below have been proposed as an explanation for the heating of this region.  Careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the Great Red Spot's counter-clockwise circulation as far back as 1966, observations dramatically confirmed by the first time-lapse movies from the "Voyager" fly-bys. The spot is confined by a modest eastward jet stream to its south and a very strong westward one to its north. Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about, currents inside it seem stagnant, with little inflow or outflow. The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time, perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size.  The Great Red Spot's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records, typically varying by about a degree. Its longitude, however, is subject to constant variation. Because Jupiter does not rotate uniformly at all latitudes, astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude. System II is used for latitudes of more than 10 degrees and was originally based on the average rotational period of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s. Despite this, however, the spot has "lapped" the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early nineteenth century. Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance.

Color and composition.

It is not known what causes the Great Red Spot's reddish color. Hypotheses supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by chemical products created from the solar ultraviolet irradiation of ammonium hydrosulfide and the organic compound acetylene, which produces a reddish material—likely complex organic compounds called tholins. The high altitude of the compounds may also contribute to the coloring of the Great Red Spot.  The Great Red Spot varies greatly in hue, from almost brick-red to pale salmon or even white. The spot occasionally disappears, becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow, which is its location in the South Equatorial Belt (SEB). Its visibility is apparently coupled to the SEB; when the belt is bright white, the spot tends to be dark, and when it is dark, the spot is usually light. These periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals; from 1947 to 1997, the spot was darkest in the periods 1961–1966, 1968–1975, 1989–1990, and 1992–1993.

Mechanical dynamics.

There is no definitive theory as to what causes the formation or color of the Great Red Spot. Laboratory studies are examining the effects that cosmic rays or UV Light from the Sun have on the chemical composition of the clouds of Jupiter. One question is whether the Sun's radiation reacts with ammonium hydrosulfide in the planet's outer atmosphere to create the deep red color. Research suggests that the storm produces extreme amounts of gravity waves and acoustic waves, owing to the turbulence of the storm. The acoustic waves travel vertically upwards to a height of above the storm where they break in the upper atmosphere, converting wave energy into heat. This creates a region of upper atmosphere that is —several hundred Kelvin warmer than the rest of the planet at this altitude. The effect is described as being like "crashing [..] ocean waves on a beach". The reason the storm has continued to exist for centuries is that there is no planetary surface to provide friction (only a liquid core of hydrogen); circulating gas eddies persist for a very long time in the atmosphere because there is nothing to oppose their angular momentum.

The Great Red Spot is a persistent high-pressure region in the atmosphere of Jupiter, producing an anticyclonic storm, the largest in the Solar System, 22 degrees south of Jupiter's equator. It has been continuously observed since 1878. Earlier observations from 1665 to 1713 are believed to be of the same storm; if this is correct, it has existed for at least years.


History.

Origins (1995–2003).

Formed in 1995 in Hellerup, an upper-class suburb of Copenhagen, they had a profound impact on the Danish indie scene, emerging alongside the likes of Carpark North, Swan Lee and Saybia, amongst others, in 2003. They released their debut album A Triumph for Man in April 1997 and its follow-up Half the World is Watching Me in 2000. At the 2003 Danish Music Critics Award Show, Mew won the awards for "Album of the Year" and "Band of the Year".

"Frengers" (2003–2005).

Their first commercial success came with "Frengers", released in 2003, described as "a work of quiet brilliance, aiming for the epic without straying into the bombastic, offering cerebral arrangements while keeping things accessible." The album was well received. After a European tour supporting R.E.M. they began to attract wider attention.

"And the Glass Handed Kites" (2005–2009).

Their next album "And the Glass Handed Kites" was released in Denmark on 19 September 2005, in the United Kingdom and rest of Europe on 26 September, and in the United States on 25 July 2006. The album received critical acclaim, with Mew described as making "dreamy thunderstorm pop". They were MTV Asia "Buzz-Worthy" as of January, 2006, and at the DMA06 (Danish Music Awards) they took home 4 statuettes.  On 11 April 2006, Wohlert left the band to spend more time with his girlfriend (now wife), Pernille Rosendahl, of the now-dissolved band Swan Lee, who was to give birth to their son Tristan in May 2006. The two would later go on to form a duo, The Storm.  The band toured with Nick Watts (formerly of UK indie band Headswim) as their keyboardist, and Bastian Juel (who used to act as a studio and live bassist for Swan Lee and also played bass on Tina Dico's EP "Far") joined them as their live bassist. However, he was not an official replacement for Johan and the band returned to the studio with just the three original members for the next album.  The band finished touring for "And the Glass Handed Kites" in the summer of 2007. They returned to Brooklyn, New York in May 2008 in order to begin recording their next record, and tapped Rich Costey (who produced their breakthrough album, "Frengers") once again as producer.

"No More Stories..." (2009–2012).

The band's fifth album "No More Stories Are Told Today, I'm Sorry They Washed Away // No More Stories, The World Is Grey, I'm Tired, Let's Wash Away" was released on 17 August 2009 in Scandinavia, 24 August in the UK and 25 August in the US.  In 2009, the band supported Nine Inch Nails for various tour dates across Europe and the United States.  On 25 October 2010 Mew released their first compilation album entitled, "Eggs Are Funny", which featured 14 songs from previous albums as well as one new song, "Do You Love It?". The track list was compiled of what Mew consider to be their "best work".  On an episode of HBO's "Eastbound and Down" that aired on 31 October 2010, "Comforting Sounds" from the album "Frengers" played over the end of the show and into the closing credits.

"+ -" (2012–2017).

During summer 2012, Mew premiered two new songs, with the working titles "Boy" and "Klassen", that were in the running to feature on their sixth studio album, at shows in Scandinavia.  On 23 January 2013 Mew announced via their Facebook page that they were no longer signed to Sony and would release new music independently. On 9 April they confirmed, again via Facebook, that they had started preproduction on their 6th studio album with producer Michael Beinhorn. They commenced the recording of the album on 6 May with producer Michael Beinhorn and engineer Frank Filipetti, who engineered the bass and drums for the album. Christian Alex Petersen engineered and edited the rest of the record. Christian Alex Petersen went on to mix "Clinging to a Bad Dream" and "Interview the Girls").  On 25 September they released an iOS app entitled Sensory Spaces in conjunction with B&O Play. The app contained, amongst other things, a preview of a new song, "Making Friends", which will feature on the upcoming album. In November 2013 "Making Friends (13)" was made available to stream via Spotify and as a free download via the Sensory Spaces website. The band pointed out that it wasn't a single, but a thank you to their fans for waiting while they completed the upcoming album and that the album would contain a different version of the song.  On 6 May, guitarist Russell Lissack of the band Bloc Party visited Mew's studio and recorded parts for one or two songs to be featured on the record.  During a concert at NorthSide Festival in Aarhus, Denmark on 14 June 2014, Johan Wohlert was formally reintroduced as a member of the band and he played live with the band for the first time since 2006. While the band were onstage, fansite mewx.info posted an article confirming that he had been involved in the writing and recording of the upcoming album.  On 16 June 2014, Mew announced a Nordic tour for winter 2014 and that the album would be released in 2015.  As of the Northside show on 14 June 2014, the new songs that had been played live and were thought to be in the running to feature on the new album were tentatively titled "Making Friends", "Klassen", "Russle", which featured a guitar part by Russell Lissack, "Witness", "Changes" and "Boy". Aside from "Making Friends", it was unknown which songs would be featured on the album and what their official titles would be. With the release of the album, the official titles of these songs were confirmed, and "Boy" was not featured on the album. Some of the songs were released with different names; "Klassen" became "Satellites", "Russle" became "My Complications", and "Changes" became "Clinging To A Bad Dream".  On 13 August they announced via Twitter that they had begun mixing the album. On 19 September, they tweeted that they had finished the upcoming album and that release details would follow soon after.  The band announced on 19 January 2015 that the sixth album, "+ -", will be released on 27 April through Play It Again Sam. They also released the first single off the album called "Satellites" (previously known by the working title "Klassen").  Mew performed at South by Southwest in Austin, Texas on March 18, 2015.  On 1 July 2015 it was announced that guitarist Bo Madsen had left the band. Mew posted a statement on their official website saying, "After 20 years playing together in Mew, the band and Bo Madsen have decided to part ways for the time being." Speculations about Madsen's departure began circulating when the guitarist wasn't present at a concert in The Netherlands on 21 June 2015 and in Sweden on 26 June 2015.

"Visuals" (2017–present).

On Tuesday, 24 January 2017, Mew announced their first album following Bo Madsen's departure, entitled "Visuals", via their official website, while a song from the album, "Carry Me to Safety", was premiered on Danish radio station P6 Beat. On February 16 the album's first proper single, entitled "85 Videos", was made available to stream or download, while a video for the song, directed by Jonas Bjerre, was revealed on YouTube. "Visuals" was released on 28 April 2017.

Mew are a Danish alternative rock band, consisting of Jonas Bjerre (lead vocals), Johan Wohlert (bass) and Silas Utke Graae Jørgensen (drums). Johan Wohlert left the band in 2006 before the birth of his first child, but made a return in 2013 while the band were in the studio, before making his first live appearances since his departure in 2014. Guitarist Bo Madsen left the band in June 2015. This was confirmed in a statement on the band's official website on 1 July of the same year.