History.

Between 1551 and 1552, Diego Fernández de Proaño embarked on several explorations in the Zacatecas region, searching for a legendary hill purported to contain great mineral wealth. He discovered a hill, which despite not matching the descriptions given, bore evidence of rich mineral deposits, which he named "Cerro de Proaño" ("Proaño's Hill"). He returned to the city of Zacatecas to report his findings to the Viceroy, but apparently there was not much interest in his discovery and Proaño's Hill was forgotten over the years.  A second expedition, headed by 15-year-old Francisco de Ibarra, arrived on September 2, 1554 at a place where there was a freshwater spring, in whose border was a "Pequeño Fresno" (small ash). They decided to spend the night, and Francisco de Ibarra wrote his name for the place in his daily journal: "Ojo de Agua del Fresnillo (spring of the small ash)".  In the early years after its foundation, the town suffered incursions by Guachichil Indians who were nomadic and bellicose. Due to the heavy losses suffered by the settlers in those early years, the Viceroy, Martín Enríquez de Almanza, ordered the construction of a presidio in the town. Boner Captain Rodrigo Río de Loza was assigned to lead the garrison of eight soldiers. The military outpost was built where the current municipal palace stands today. Among the first mayors of Fresnillo were Captain Diego Núñez de Miranda, Cristóbal Caldera and Juan de Avellaneda.  Between 1682 and 1757, the mines were worked constantly. There were several mines, mostly on the foothills of Proaño's Hill. In 1757, the mine shafts had reached fifty meters in depth and flooding began to be a major problem. The mines were abandoned as it was economically unviable to mitigate the flooding and the area went into an economic crisis. The mine owners lost their mines as a result of seizure by the Spanish Crown for failure to repay loans. The Crown named a new administrator for the mines, but they continued to lie idle.  In 2013, Fresnillo became the first municipality in Mexican history to elect an openly gay mayor, with the election of Benjamín Medrano.

The Coat of Arms of Fresnillo.

In the superior part of the shield is the Latin phrase: "Orat Atque Laborat Ab Urbe Condita", which means: "Since its Founding a City that Works and Prays." The lower part reads, "Real de Minas del Fresnillo (Royal Mine of Fresnillo)." In the center the horizontal bar reads: "2 de Septiembre de 1554."  The coat of arms is divided into three boxes: first in the left superior part, there appears the Virgin of Candlemas, Pattern of Fresnillo, which is identified by the candle in her right hand. In the box on the right superior part, there is a rodela or shield and the arms used by the natives and the Spaniards during the Conquest. In the inferior part (the third box) there appears a spring, in whose margin there is an Ash tree, and a depiction of the bottom of the Proaño Hill with some clouds, symbolizing the rainy month of September. "2 of September of 1554".

Plateros.

Fresnillo, Zacatecas is often connected with Plateros, a central church which attracts many religious followers to the area. The church was built in the late 1690s in commemoration of Spanish miners finding a miraculous silver crucifix. The crucifix is said to have appeared in a wooden crate without knowledge of its creation. Spiritual devotion and respect resulted in the cross-Atlantic travel of a statue of the Our Lady of Atocha. The statue has the Virgin Mary carrying an infant Jesus in her arms. This infant statue became known as the Holy Child of Atocha.  Many claim that miracles result from the devout prayer to this Holy Child. Those who truly believe that the Holy Child worked in their favor will often bring back a gift in gratitude. In 1883, a separate building was constructed to house the various gifts followers brought back to him.  Today, many families who have religious connections to this saint will travel far in pilgrimage and attend mass as they visit the shrine. The saint itself is said to be a Zacatecas iconic piece, as well as a guardian of miners.

Agriculture.

Agriculture is of great importance. The city is a great producer of various crops, including corn, pepper, tomato, among others. The neighboring towns and villages will focus on exporting its goods to the main city, as well as others. Economic sustainability is often connected to its agricultural success, along with silver mining.

Regional Fair of Fresnillo.

In commemoration of the discovery of the city in the month of September in 1954, the city is home to a large celebration which celebrates culture and the arts. People from all over the world come to Fresnillo to celebrate, bringing along traditions native to their home countries. Many will choose to participate in the folkloric dances and athletic competitions. In 2004, Fresnillo celebrated the 450th year of its establishment.

Fresnillo /fres'nijo/ (2005 census pop. 110,892), founded in 1554 by Francisco de Ibarra, is the second largest city in Zacatecas state, north central Mexico and the seat of Fresnillo municipality. As a rail and highway junction, Fresnillo is the center of a rich mining area known especially for silver, and the location of one of the world's richest silver mines, the Mina Proaño or Fresnillo Mine, which belongs to the Peñoles mining company. It has a mining school, and agriculture (cereals, beans) and cattle raising are other important economic activities. Fresnillo is also the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name which surrounds it. The municipality had a population of 196,538 and an areal extent of.


Why is it needed?

Foundations and their funders are increasingly working across borders. However, a number of legal and administrative barriers are hampering foundations' current work. The lack of appropriate legal tools means that new European initiatives by foundations are delayed or abandoned.  A European Foundation Statute would offer an appropriate legal tool to perform and increase foundations' work and operations across Europe, while reducing costly administrative burden.

Status.

On 8 February 2012, the European Commission presented a proposal on a European Foundation Statute. This proposal has been shared with the Council of Ministers representing the governments of the 27 Member States for review and approval, as well as to the European Parliament for its consent.  The European Parliament pledged support to European statutes for foundations, associations and mutual societies with the signatures by a majority of its members of a written declaration in February 2011.  The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), the EU's official advisory body on social and economic matters, has given a clear and strong backing to the Statute by approving, by a large majority, the opinion drafted by EESC member Mall Hellam on 28 April 2010. The opinion urges the European Commission to present a proposal for a Regulation on a European Foundation Statute to support public-benefit activities for its adoption by the Council and the European Parliament in due course.  The campaign to implement the European Foundation Statute is led by the European Foundation Centre and the Donors and Foundations Networks in Europe (DAFNE).  In January 2015, the European Commission confirmed its withdrawal of the legislative proposal for the European Foundation Statute in its 2015 work programme.

The European Foundation Statute is a simple, proposed tool that helps foundations better channel their resources into improving the lives of people in a wide range of areas. It aims to establish the legal form of a European Foundation which would be additional - but also complementary - to existing national forms. It would be legally recognised in all Member States, and would operate under the same set of conditions across the EU.


Background.

Radcliffe was born on a farm at Lloyds, near Cambridge, Maryland. He attended both public and private schools in his youth and later graduated from Cambridge Seminary in 1893, from Johns Hopkins University in 1897, from the graduate school of Johns Hopkins University in 1900, and from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1903.

Career.

Following college, Radcliffe took the position of principal of the Cambridge Seminary he had attended as a youth. After a stint as a teacher in the Baltimore City College in 1901 and 1902, Radcliffe was admitted to the bar in 1903 and commenced practice in Baltimore, Maryland with an interest in banking and farming.  During the First World War, Rafcliffe joined the Liquor License Commission in Baltimore, serving from 1916–1919, and also served as a member of the Maryland State Council of Defense.

State Government.

In 1919, Radcliffe was selected as Secretary of State of Maryland and served until 1920.

Federal Government.

In 1933 and again in 1934, Radcliffe was chosen regional adviser of the Public Works Administration for Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and the District of Columbia.

U.S. Senate.

In the election of 1934, Radcliffe was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate, and was subsequently reelected in the 1940 election. Radcliffe failed to achieve re-nomination for his party in the election of 1946, losing to fellow Democrat Herbert R. O'Conor.

Personal and death.

Radcliffe resumed banking and farming interests following his tenure as senator and was actively involved in civic life.  He resided in Baltimore until he died on July 29, 1974. He is buried at the Cambridge Cemetery in his hometown.

Miscellaneous.

In 1935, Alger Hiss attorney and close friend, William L. Marbury, Jr. wrote to Radcliffe to secure his support for the appointment of Hiss to the U.S. Solicitor General's office. (Hiss and Radcliffe were both from Baltimore, graduates of Johns Hopkins University, and officials in FDR's New Deal government.)

George Lovic Pierce Radcliffe (August 22, 1877July 29, 1974) was a Democratic member of the United States Senate, representing the State of Maryland from 1935-1947.


Terminology.

"Annular" means formed as a ring and "penannular" formed as an incomplete ring; both terms have a range of uses. "Pseudo-penannular" is a coinage restricted to brooches, and refers to those brooches where there is no opening in the ring, but the design retains features of a penannular brooch—for example, emphasizing two terminals. Some pseudo-penannular brooches are very similar in design to other penannular brooches, but have a small section joining the two terminals. Others have fully joined terminals, and emphasize in their design the central area where the gap would be—for example the Tara Brooch. Pseudo-penannular brooches may also be described as "annular", or as "ring brooches". The terms "open brooch" or "open ring brooch" are also sometimes used for penannular brooches. There is a scheme of classification originally set out, in relation to earlier types, by Elizabeth Fowler in the 1960s, which has since been extended in various versions to cover later types.  Brooches of either penannular or annular type, where the pin is very large in relation to the ring, so that the ring cannot play any part in the fastening of the brooch, may be called "ring brooches", "pin brooches", or "brooch-pins"; or, especially where the ring is small and plain, "ringed pins". In these, the design of the pin head typically shows that the pin is intended to sit underneath the ring (seen from the front), rather than on top of it as in the larger brooches.  "Celtic" is a term avoided by specialists in describing objects, and especially artistic styles, of the Early Middle Ages from the British Isles, but is firmly fixed in the popular mind. The term Insular art is used to describe the distinct style of art originating in the British Isles and combining Germanic, Celtic, Pictish and Mediterranean elements. Although some simpler and relatively early penannular brooches are found in Anglo-Saxon contexts, and some sub-types predominantly so, as far as is known the Anglo-Saxons did not use these brooch styles for prestige elite jewellery. However, there are elements in the style of Irish and Scottish brooches deriving from Anglo-Saxon art, and related to Insular work in other media, especially illuminated manuscripts.  "Fibula" is Latin for "brooch" and is used in modern languages to describe the many types of Roman and post-Roman Early Medieval brooches with pins and catches behind the main face of the brooch. The brooches discussed here are sometimes also called "fibulae", but rarely by English-speaking specialists.

Fastening the brooches.

With a penannular brooch, the pin is pushed through folds of the cloth, which are then pulled back inside the ring; the free end of the pin passes through the gap in the ring. The pin is then rotated around the ring by 90 degrees or so, so that as long as the pin is held down by slight pressure it cannot escape over the terminals, and the fastening is secure.  With pseudo-penannular brooches, things are not so simple and the manner in which they were used is still debated; the method was probably not the same for all brooches. One method may have been to pull folds of the cloth through the ring until they could be pierced by the pin, and then pull the cloth back until the pin rested on the ring. This would work best with brooches with a pin not much longer than the diameter of the ring, which some have, but others do not. The second method might have been simply to pin the cloth vertically, leaving the ring hanging unattached to the cloth; this does not seem very secure. The third method relied on a length of chain or cord attached to the ring near the "terminals" (which in pseudo-penannular brooches do not actually terminate), which was used to secure the pin by tying it down, perhaps with a small pin at the end, which was also put through the cloth. The Tara Brooch was probably fastened in this way. In some cases the pin was fitted with a bolt or rivet to make it removable. A further complication is that in some pseudo-penannular brooches the pin is fixed to lie in front of the ring, as in the Londesborough Brooch (below), but in others it crosses through the ring, starting with the head end in front of the ring, but the middle of the pin behind the ring by the point where it crosses at the other side; the Tara Brooch has been displayed set up in both ways. The latter arrangement seems more common in later brooches, of the 9th century.  It is fair to say that scholars remain slightly puzzled that the effective and simple penannular brooch developed in this direction, though it is presumed that the reuniting of the terminals of pseudo-penannular brooches was partly to strengthen the brooch. In many penannular brooches, the gap between the terminals is now too narrow for the pin to pass through; whether this was always the case is uncertain.

History.

Roman and early Insular period.

Small and simple penannular brooches in bronze, iron, and, rarely, silver were common in the Roman period as a practical fastener, but were not used for high-status objects, and any decoration was normally limited to bands around the ring or other simple patterns. Often the extra thickness at the terminal, necessary to prevent the pin just falling off, is achieved simply by turning back the ends of the ring. In the late Roman period in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries, a type of penannular brooch with zoomorphic decoration to the terminals appeared, with human or animal heads, still not much wider than the rest of the ring. Some examples had enamel decoration, and the pin did not extend much beyond the ring. These are found especially in southwestern Britain and Wales, and seem to have developed in these areas. This type fell from favour in southern Britain by the 5th century, but was developed in Ireland by the 6–7th centuries. These types considerably extended the size of the terminals, which now presented a flattish area often decorated with enamel or glass inlay, mostly using abstracted patterns but sometimes zoomorphic decoration. The length of the pin is now often about twice the diameter of the ring. The Irish cultural zone in this period included much of Western Scotland, and in Pictish East Scotland a similar development took place, though the forms are somewhat different here. The decoration paralleled that on other metalwork fittings such as pieces of harness-tackle, and the few remaining early Christian reliquaries and other pieces of church metalwork.

Golden Age.

By shortly after 700, highly elaborate, large brooches in precious metal and gems were being produced. These were clearly expressions of high status for the wearer, and use the full repertoire of goldsmith's techniques at a very high level of skill. They continued to be produced for about 200 years; the Pictish brooches are much more homogeneous in design than the Irish ones, which may indicate a shorter period of production, possibly from "the mid-eighth to the beginning of the ninth centuries". Each surviving design is unique, but the range of types established in the more modest earlier brooches are developed and elaborated upon. There was no previous tradition of very ornate brooches in Ireland, and this development may have come from contact with Continental elites who wore large "fibulae" as marks of status. Such contacts were certainly made, especially by travelling monks.  Archaeological, and some literary, evidence suggests that brooches in precious metal were a mark of royal status, along with wearing a purple cloak, and it is probably as such that they are worn by Christ on a high cross at Monasterboice and by the Virgin Mary on another. All surviving examples, numbering over 50 (not all complete) in the case of the Irish ones, have been recovered by excavation, or at least finding in the ground, but where the detailed circumstances of the find are known, few are from graves, and finds in hoards are much more common. When they were in graves, the burials are often much later than the date of the brooch, as in a brooch in the Irish 8th century style found in a Norse burial in Westray, Orkney, and possibly the Kilmainham Brooch. Elaborate brooches often have one or more names—presumed to be those of owners—scratched on the reverse, often in runes. Plainer brooches in bronze and similar alloys continue to be found in much larger numbers.  The most elaborate Irish brooches are pseudo-penannular, while the Scottish ones mostly retain true penannular forms. Most are silver-gilt, the gilding often partial. Some are gilded base metal, of bronze or copper-alloy; only one solid gold Irish brooch is known, a 9th-century one from Loughan, County Londonderry, which is less elaborate than most of the series, though the standard of work is very high. However, some brooches have a hidden recess which may have contained small lead weights to make the precious metal used seem more valuable than it actually was.  In Ireland, the head of the pin might be turned into a focus for decoration, sometimes using a "kite"-shaped plate, such as that on the Tara Brooch; in Scotland, the pin-heads were simple circles formed by bending the pin back on itself. Scottish terminals are more often distinct lobed or square shapes extending beyond the circle of the ring on both sides, while in Irish examples, the terminals typically extend inside the ring forming another curve, but not much outside it, or sometimes form a straight line across the interior of the ring. Irish brooches may only join the two terminals by narrow strips, or not only eliminate the gap entirely, but have a central zone of decoration where the gap between the terminals would have been; the brooches found with the Ardagh Chalice show both types. The main body was normally cast, and a number of elements of two-piece moulds have been found. Many brooches have cells for studs or bosses that are most often round hemispheres, but may be square, lozenges or other shapes; very often the studs themselves are now missing. These are in a variety of materials including glass, enamel, amber, and gemstones found locally, although not including any of the classic modern "precious stones", or even the garnets found in Anglo-Saxon jewellery. However the "millefiori" glass rods sometimes used appear to have been imported from Italy, like those used in the Anglo-Saxon jewellery from Sutton Hoo; examples of the rods have been excavated in both Ireland and England.  Like the Insular chalices and other metalwork, the very ornate Irish brooches were mostly made in many pieces which are pinned or slotted together. Filigree decoration was often made on "trays" which fitted into the main ring — on the Tara Brooch many of these are now missing (most were still in place when it was found in 1850). Techniques include chip-carving, cast "imitation chip-carving", filigree, engraving, inlays of various types including niello, glass and champlevé enamel, and various hammering and chasing techniques: "the range of materials and techniques is almost the full range known to man." Two techniques that do not appear are the "true pierced openwork "interasile", much used in Byzantine jewellery", and the cloisonné work that typified much Western European jewellery, and especially large fibulae, at the time, whether in enamel or stone inlays like the garnets used so effectively at Sutton Hoo and in the Anglo-Saxon Staffordshire Hoard. In the gilded brooches, enamel is restricted to studs that punctuate the composition like gems; the larger areas of champlevé found on the flared terminals of earlier types perhaps continue in simpler types, though dating is difficult.  On some brooches the decoration is too detailed to be appreciated when the brooch is being worn, and some of the most elaborate brooches have their backs, invisible when worn, decorated almost as elaborately as their fronts. The Tara Brooch shows both features, and in addition, shares with some others a difference in decorative styles between front and back, with "Celtic" triskeles and other spiral motifs restricted to the back, while the front has more interlace and zoomorphic elements. These features are also shared by the most ornate brooches in London and Edinburgh, respectively the Londesborough and Hunterston Brooches. This may be because decoration on the backs relies more on engraving than filigree, which would risk wires getting caught in the clothing on which the brooch was worn.  Few of the major brooches, or indeed other metalwork, have been found in contexts that can be easily dated, and much of the dating of at least the earlier ones comes from comparison with Insular illuminated manuscripts, though the dating of these is often itself far from certain. The Tara Brooch has long been recognised as having clear stylistic similarities to the Lindisfarne Gospels, thought to date to about 698–715. Many of the similarities are to the carpet pages, highly detailed ornamental pages filled with decoration, which share with the brooch a certain "horror vacui" that leaves no area unembellished, and also complex decoration that is extremely small and perfectly executed, and best appreciated when seen at a larger than actual scale, whether in the original or in photographs. Both combine elements from many stylistic origins into a style that is distinctly Insular: La Tène Celtic art, Germanic animal style, and classical and other Mediterranean styles.

Later brooches, and the Vikings.

The Vikings began to raid Ireland from 795, with catastrophic effect for the monasteries in particular. However, although the Vikings established several longphorts, initially fortified encampments for over-wintering, and later towns like Dublin, Wexford, Cork, and Waterford (the first real urban centres in Ireland), the native Irish were more successful than the English and Scots in preventing large-scale Viking takeovers of areas for settlement by farmers. By about the year 1000, the situation was relatively stable, with a mixed population of Norse-Gaels in the towns and areas close to them, while the Gaelic Irish, whose elite had often formed political alliances, trading partnerships and inter-marriages with Viking leaders, remained in control of the great majority of the island, and were able to draw tribute from the Viking towns.  The period is characterised by a greatly increased availability of silver, presumably the result of Viking raiding and trading, and most brooches are made from silver throughout, as gilding and decoration in other materials nearly disappears. The brooches are often large and relatively massive, but plainer than the most elaborate earlier ones, neither using older local decorative styles nor the Viking styles that were adopted in other media. This continues a trend that can be detected in later brooches from the preceding period, before much Viking influence can have made itself felt. The 9th century Roscrea Brooch is one of a number of transitional brooches; though its form is highly ornate, with a large flat triangular pin head, the ring is thick plain silver, the gold filigree panels occupy relatively small areas, and their workmanship is a "coarse" or "crude" imitation of that of earlier works. The Kilamery Brooch is a comparable example, with a marked emphasis on plain flat silver surfaces. There are rare exceptions in which a highly decorated brooch shows Scandinavian stylistic and technical influence, notably an Irish brooch from Rathlin Island, with areas stamped where the Irish tradition would have used casting.  The brooches appear to have been made by "native" metalworkers, but worn by both Vikings and Gaels. The very popular thistle brooches have terminals and often pin-heads that are like thistle flowers, with a ball topped by a round projection, often flared; they are called by the term regardless of whether or not the ball is "brambled"—that is, formed with a regular pattern of small tapering projections, like the two lowest brooches from the Penrith Hoard illustrated here. These, and other globular endings to terminals and pin-heads, were common, but flattened terminals continued to be made, now ornamented by round silver bosses amid simple repeated patterns, or interlace that is larger in scale than in the earlier ornate badges. In these, the ring often ends in a "gripping beast" biting the terminal plate. The mixture of types seen in the 10th century Penrith Hoard is typical. Insular brooches had been taken back to Scandinavia, and began to be produced there in the 10th century for wearing singly by men at the shoulder; Viking women wore pairs of characteristic oval brooches on the upper breast. Most were simpler than Insular examples, and several hundred examples in "tinned bronze rather than silver" are known. The 10th century Danish Møllerløkken Brooch is the most elaborate example known, with a simple overall design with ball terminals and pin-head, but with rich detailing such as interlace panels on the ring and filigree sections on the balls. Other Insular types were also produced in Viking areas of England, especially Scandinavian York. The penannular brooch fell from common use by the end of the 11th century, a time when Ireland and Scotland, and Scandinavia, were adopting general Western European styles in many areas of both art and life.  A distinctly Irish type of brooch found at the end of the Viking period is the kite brooch, whose name derives from the almond shape called a "kite" in heraldry, though the shapes of the heads are actually highly variable. They were apparently worn, like the larger brooches, singly with the pin pointing upwards. Only "about half a dozen" exist in silver, including examples that are much larger than average, with pins up to 7.9 cm long. In these, there is no ring, but the elaborate head is connected to a pin of very variable length by a short tab of metal that can move on joints at both ends; there is also usually a cord for winding round the pin to secure it. Only 14 of these brooches have been found to date in Ireland, many incomplete, and none elsewhere; five of these are from Dublin, the earliest from the 940s. They appear for about a further two centuries; by around 1200, typical medieval ring brooches that have little distinctively Irish about them are found instead.

Celtic Revival.

The brooches we have today have been discovered since the 17th century, and their odds on their survival once found have increased greatly over that period, as their value as artefacts has overtaken their scrap value. In the 19th century, as part of the Celtic Revival, many brooches copying or inspired by earlier styles were made.  Much of the responsibility for the fashion for high-quality Celtic Revival jewellery belongs to George Waterhouse, a jeweller from Sheffield, England, who moved to Dublin in 1842. Before the end of the decade, he and the long-established Dublin firm West & Son of College Green (later moving to Grafton Street) were finding it necessary to register their designs to prevent copying. Of the various types of objects made, the brooches were both the "most resonant" and those which could be sold with the least alteration to the original form and design, although the jewellers generally reduced their size and fitted them with conventional pins and catches behind, even though the Kashmir shawls that were also fashionable at the time were often loosely woven and not unsuitable for fastening in the original way. Different versions were made at different price levels, though even the most expensive struggled to recreate the full intricacy of the originals.  The National Museum of Ireland is clearly not correct in saying that the fashion began after Queen Victoria was presented with a replica of the "Cavan Brooch" on her visit to Dublin to see the Great Industrial Exhibition in 1853; the Royal Collection has two brooches that Prince Albert bought for her from West & Son in 1849 on an earlier visit to Dublin, which were already being made in editions. Albert presented them in November and at Christmas that year: "...such beautiful souvenirs, both made after those very curious old Irish ornaments we saw in the College in Dublin, one a silver shawl brooch, in smaller size than the original" was her reaction to the November gift. A later gift from Albert included a setting of a cairngorm he had picked up when walking in the Scottish Highlands, a more authentic type of gem than the brightly coloured foreign stones used in much Celtic Revival jewellery. The discovery of the Tara Brooch in 1850 could therefore not have been better timed in terms of attracting public interest. The brooch was immediately recognised as the culminating masterpiece (though early in date) of the Irish development of large and superbly worked ornate brooches, a status it has retained ever since. The brooch was soon acquired by George Waterhouse, who used it as the centre of displays of his replicas and imitations of Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, also exhibiting it at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and the Paris Exposition Universelle (1855), as well as the Dublin exhibition visited by the Queen in 1853 (Victoria had already seen it; it had been specially sent to Windsor Castle for her inspection).  Waterhouse had invented the brooch's name; in fact, it has nothing to do with the Hill of Tara, but the true circumstances of its find still remain unclear (essentially to avoid a claim by the landowner), and Waterhouse chose to link it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed the Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them". By the time the brooch passed to what is now the National Museum of Ireland in the 1870s, "Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were now being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe. Replicas, very rarely fully accurate, and imitations of Celtic brooches have continued to be made to the present day, at varying levels of quality.

Modern North Africa.

Penannular brooches are part of traditional dress to the present day among Berber women in the Maghreb, usually worn in pairs and apparently pinning straps of a dress to the bodice, with the pins pointing straight up. They are usually large, fairly plain, brooches, not unlike some Viking examples, though another style has a very elaborately decorated head to the pin, which can dwarf the ring. A heavy necklace often hangs between the two brooches, sometimes attached to a ring hanging from the head of the pin. Most of the women are identified as Berber. Local names for the brooches apparently include "melia", "melehfa", "bzima", "kitfiyya", and "khellala" in Arabic, and "tabzimt", "tizerzay", and "tazersit" in Berber. Such styles are believed to have been in use since pre-Islamic times.

The Celtic brooch, more properly called the penannular brooch, and its closely related type, the pseudo-penannular brooch, are types of brooch clothes fasteners, often rather large; penannular means formed as an incomplete ring. They are especially associated with the beginning of the Early Medieval period in the British Isles, although they are found in other times and places—for example, forming part of traditional female dress in areas in modern North Africa.


Company history.

Eagle Air was founded in 1970 by Hörður Guðmundsson and his family as a transportation and security link in the Westfjords, one of the most remote parts of Iceland. The airline's initial focus was on ambulance and mail services. Propeller-driven aircraft operated by Eagle Air included the Helio Courier, Britten-Norman Islander, Piper Aztec, Piper Chieftain, Cessna Titan, de Havilland Canada DHC-6-300 Twin Otter, Cessna 206 and Cessna 185. Eagle Air also had a domestic charter flight component, which moved into the international arena in the early 1980s. Eagle Air flew charters to airports in Iceland, Greenland, Scandinavia and Europe.  In the early 1990s, Eagle Air accepted key assignments from the International Red Cross to operate in Kenya, Sudan, Mozambique and Angola, delivering aid supplies to civil war stricken regions.  In 1995, Eagle Air moved is headquarters from Ísafjörður to Reykjavík after most of its airmail contracts where discontinued due to the opening of the Vestfjarðagöng tunnel. It later sold off most of its airplanes and turned in its air operator's certificate (AOC) but kept one plane along with other assets. was refounded in Reykjavík in 2003, In 2006 it reapplied for an AOC took over service to destinations where Air Iceland stopped flying. It began scheduled services to Árneshreppur, Bíldudalur, Höfn, and Sauðárkrókur, and in August 2010 to Heimaey in the Westman Islands.  On 27 February 2018, Birna Borg Gunnarsdóttir, the granddaughter of founder Hörður Guðmundsson, became the first female pilot in the airlines history.

Scheduled flight destinations.

From Reykjavík Airport to:

Air charter services.

Ambulance flights.

Eagle Air has decades of experience in ambulance flights, and flies aircraft with pressurised cabins that can fly above weather for patient comfort. Oxygen and oxygen masks are on board, and a doctor and/or medical crew can be arranged if requested.

Freight.

Eagle Air operates freight flights to any location in Iceland, overseas or at sea.

Aerial photography.

Eagle Air has aircraft which are well suited for aerial photography, livestock inventory, and other similar projects. These assignments can be undertaken in Iceland or abroad, over land or sea.

Eagle Air (Icelandic name: Flugfélagið Ernir) is an Icelandic airline. It is based at Reykjavík Airport and offers domestic flights, charter services, and adventure tours in Iceland.


History.

Budapesti Atlétikai Klub was founded in 1900 by a group of athletes who had decided to leave their previous sports club MTK Budapest because, at that time, there was no football section at MTK. It debuted in the 1906–07 season of the Hungarian League and finished fourth. The club remained in the top flight for 15 years, before being relegated in 1921. BAK eventually folded in 1947.

Reforming of the club.

The club was reformed for the first time in more than 70 years ahead of the 2018/19 season by a group of local enthusiasts inspired by the story of one of BAK's most famous former players, Ernő Egri Erbstein, who played for the original club from 1916 to 1924. Led by club president Bertalan Molnar, BAK merged with an existing team called Respect and took that club's place in BLSZ III, the sixth tier of Hungarian football. The club is commonly referred to by the acronym BAK, and as the word 'bak' means 'ram' in Hungarian, a ram's head appears on the club's new logo.

Friendships.

In November 2018, the newly re-established BAK announced the rekindling of a friendship with the English amateur club Corinthian-Casuals FC, based on shared values and a history that goes back to the days when the original Corinthian Football Club visited Budapest to play a series of games in 1904. They established a trophy called the Corinthian Cup, in which the original incarnation of BAK competed several times, and a visit of Corinthian-Casuals supporters and officials in November 2018 sparked the renewal of the friendship between the two clubs.  BAK's friendship with Corinthian-Casuals led to the inauguration of a new international competition, called the Egri Erbstein Tournament, and designed to be an invitational event for like-minded, grass-roots football clubs from all over the world. The club announced that the first edition of the tournament would be held at the Szőnyi úti Stadion, in the Zugló district of Budapest, where BAK were originally based, in June 2019. The four competing clubs were announced as BAK, Corinthian-Casuals, Budapesti EAC and Testvériség SE and it was confirmed that the winner would be awarded the Corinthian Cup, a new trophy named after that which was originally presented to the amateur football clubs of Budapest by Corinthian FC in 1905.

Budapesti Atlétikai Klub, also known as BAK, is a Hungarian football club from the town of Budapest that competes in the BLSZ III.


Method.

Animals are subjected to two trials during which they are forced to swim in an acrylic glass cylinder filled with water, and from which they cannot escape. The first trial lasts 15 minutes. Then, after 24-hours, a second trial is performed that lasts 5 minutes. The time that the test animal spends in the second trial without making any movements beyond those required to keep its head above water is measured. This immobility time is decreased by various types of antidepressants and also by electroconvulsive shock. Another common variant of this behavioural test specifically used for mice is conducted only for one trial and lasts six minutes. Modern implementations of the test score swimming and climbing behaviours separately, because swimming behaviour has been shown to be increased by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, while climbing behaviour is increased by selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as desipramine and maprotiline.

Controversy in interpretation.

Classically, immobility in the second test has been interpreted as a behavioural correlate of negative mood, representing a kind of hopelessness in the animal. Rodents given antidepressants swim harder and longer than controls (which forms the basis for claims of the test's validity). However, there is some debate between scientists whether increased immobility instead demonstrates learning or habituation, and would therefore be a positive behavioural adaptation: the animal is less fearful because it is now familiar with the environment of the test. This interpretation is supported by the fact that even rats who are first put into a container from which they can escape (and therefore do not experience despair) show reduced mobility in the second test.  The term "behavioural despair test" bears an anthropomorphic connotation and is a somewhat subjective description as it is uncertain whether the test reliably gauges mood or despair. Strictly speaking, the descriptive term "forced swimming test" is preferred by researchers. The use of forced swimming tests is criticised by animal rights groups, notably PETA.

The behavioural despair test (or Porsolt forced swimming test) is a test, centered on a rodent's response to the threat of drowning, whose result has been interpreted as measuring susceptibility to negative mood. It is commonly used to measure the effectiveness of antidepressants, although significant criticisms of its interpretation have been made.


Action.

The opera is about the seizure of power by the Seleucid king Demetrius II Nicator after his return from exile. The action takes place in Seleucia. The roles in the opera are:  The following plot summary is based on the 1734 libretto used in the Brunswick version by Antonio Caldara.

Act 1.

Private room: Cleonice has ruled Syria since her father Alexander died in battle: her people expect her to choose a husband who will become the new king. Her councillor Olinto offers himself, but she rejects him as she loves the shepherd Alceste who has also been missing since the battle. Barsene advises her that even if he is still alive she cannot marry him as there are many more deserving suitors. Mitrane arrives and warns that the people are close to starting an uprising. Mitrane loves Barsene, who rejects him as she is secretly also in love with Alceste. Fenicio tells Mitrane that Prince Demetrio, son of the previous king Demetrio, is still alive, although thought to be dead, and is none other than his foster son Alceste. External help is needed to place him on the throne, and Fenicio’s plan is to marry him to Cleonice. Unfortunately Alceste cannot be found and Cleonice has to choose another husband.  Magnificent hall with a throne: Cleonice enters, and still has not made up her mind. Fenicio advises her to give herself another three months to think about it. They are interrupted by Mitranes, who reports the arrival of Alceste. Alceste now recounts where he has been: After Alexander lost the battle, almost his entire army was destroyed. He himself survived badly wounded and drifted in the water until he was rescued by a fisherman who took good care of him.  Olinto presses for a new king to be chosen, and tries to prevent Alceste from joining them, as he is a mere shepherd. Cleonice responds by appointing him general and keeper of the grand seal. Before Cleonice announces her choice, she extracts an oath from those present that they will accept their choice. Since Olinto refuses, Cleonice declares that she wants to give up her crown and leaves without announcing her choice. Mitrane, the nobles and the people also leave the room. Fenicio, Olinto and Alceste remain. Fenicio blames his son. Olinto is disappointed that he doesn't support him, but Fenicio doesn't think he would be a good king. Olinto recognizes a dangerous rival in Alceste despite his poor background.  Inner garden of the royal palace: Fenicio reports to Cleonice and Barsene that the council has refused to accept Cleonice's abdication. Everyone agrees to let her choose her spouse completely freely. Cleonice is not sure however, fearing both to risk putting a shepherd on the throne and losing Alceste if she does not. Alceste arrives and assures her of his love. Concerned that she has placed her personal feelings before her duty, Cleonice dismisses him. When Alceste asks Barsene why Cleonice's behavior has changed, she advises him to find another mistress.

Act 2.

A gallery leading to the Queen’s chamber: Olinto denies Alceste access to Cleonice and Mitrane confirms that the order comes from Cleonice herself. Alceste leaves disappointed. Olinto still hopes for the throne. Mitrane, however, advises him against it. After Olinto leaves, Cleonice and Barsene arrive. Cleonice writes a farewell letter to Alceste. Fenicio comes and asks Cleonice for pity on Alceste, who only wants to see her again once and then die. She tears up the letter and wants to let Alceste come. However Olinto has already ordered Alceste in Cleonice’s name to leave the city, and he has left. Cleonice orders the guard to have Alceste found and brought back. Olinto asks Barsene if she still loves him. She answers mockingly that he has already given up on her. She herself also saved her love for someone else. Olinto is determined not to be dissuaded from his goal.  One of the queen’s rooms: Alceste has returned and Cleonice explains her rejection - they must part for the good of the people. They say their farewells. After Alceste leaves, Barsene and Fenicio arrive. Barsene praises Cleonice, but Fenicio blames her. Cleonice leaves and Fenicio accuses Barsene of pursuing her own plans, suspecting that she loves Alceste herself. Barsene admits it. Fenicio realizes that everything is against his plans.

Act 3.

Outer court of the palace: Olinto is excited about the forthcoming departure of Alcests. In vain, Fenicio asks that he delay. Cleonice confesses to Alceste that she would rather give up the crown and live in a hut than lose him. She then asks him to follow her to the palace, where she will announce her choice of husband. Olinto, believing Cleonice has chosen Alceste, decides to take revenge.  Fenicio’s room in the palace: Fenicio is concerned about the success of his plan to help Alcestis/Demetrio to power. Mitrane assures him that the ships of his allies are already in sight and Alceste's true identity can soon be revealed. Fenicio instructs Mitrane to secretly gather their troops. Then Olinto brings the news that Cleonice has chosen her husband but it is not Alceste. Alceste and two servants bring Fenicio a cloak, crown, and scepter - Cleonice has chosen Fenicio and is waiting for him in the temple for the ceremony. Despite their age difference, Alceste thinks it is a wise choice. Fenicio sends Olinto to the temple to announce his arrival. After he leaves, Fenicio reveals to Alceste that he is Demetrio, the true heir of Syria. Barsene hopes that Alceste will now turn to her and confesses her love to him. However, Alceste's thoughts are elsewhere. Barsene gives up her hope of winning him.  Temple of the Sun: Cleonice and Fenicio enter the temple with their retinue and the two servants, still carrying the mantle, crown and scepter. Fenicio assures Cleonice that Alceste is Syria's true heir. Alceste and Mitrane arrive. Cleonice now asks Alceste to ascend his ancestors' throne. He will only do so with her at his side. Barsene arrives and reports of unrest in the city. A hundred ships have landed and Olinto has spread a rumor that Fenicio is planning a trick to seize power.  Olinto comes with an emissary from the ships and brings a sealed letter from the older Demetrio, written shortly before his death. It clearly names Alceste as his son - Fenicio has raised him under an assumed name. Olinto finally recognizes Alceste as king and regrets his previous ambitions. Alceste and Cleonice ascend the throne. At the end of the opera, the chorus praises the couple's virtue, honor and love.

Background.

The historical model for Alceste/Demetrio was Demetrius II Nicator whose history was recounted in the eleventh book of Appian’s "Rhomaika", in the 32nd volume of the "Bibliotheca" by Diodorus Siculus and in Justin’s extract from volumes 35 and 36 of Pompeius Trogus’ "Historiae Philippicae". The young Demetrius was exiled to Crete by his father Demetrius I Soter to avoid the usurper Alexander Balas. Later, with the help of Greek mercenaries he was able to return and regain his throne.  The action in Metastasios drama had an antecedent in Pierre Corneilles comédie héroïque "Dom Sanche d’Aragon" (1649). "Demetrio" was his first work written for the court in Vienna and the 1731 performance was a great success with music by Antonio Caldara. In 1732 the castrato Antonio Bernacchi played the role of Alceste in two versions, one by Johann Adolph Hasse in Venice (with Faustina Bordoni as Cleonice) and the other by in Milan (where Antonia Negri sang Cleonice). The role of Alceste was later played by other famous castrati including Carestini, Farinelli, Senesino und Venanzio Rauzzini.

Settings to music.

The following composers have composed operas using this libretto:

Demetrio is an opera libretto in three acts by Pietro Metastasio. It was first performed to music composed by Antonio Caldara on 4 November 1731 during celebrations of the name day of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in Vienna. Different composers later used it when composing operas named "Alceste", "Cleonice" and "Demetrio, rè della Siria". With over fifty settings it was one of Metastasio’s most popular works.


Early life.

McNally was born and raised in the Pound Loney area of west Belfast and was the first person from Belfast and the first Irish boxer to win an Olympic medal.  In 1953, John McNally won a bronze medal at the European championships, and won the Golden Gloves Championships representing Europe against the US in Chicago. McNally, within the space of a year, beat three American Golden Gloves champions and was awarded an honorary pair of Golden Gloves in recognition of this achievement. In 1953, he was made the official bantamweight champion of Germany in recognition of his feat of having defeated that country's three former bantamweight champions in the space of a year.

1952 Olympic results.

Below are the results of John McNally, a bantamweight boxer from Ireland, who competed at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics:

Pro career.

In 1954 McNally turned professional but his pro career did not reach the heights of his amateur days. He fought only 25 times and finished with a record of 14 wins, 9 defeats and 2 draws.

Honours.

On 25 October 2007 John McNally was recognised by the Sports Council of Northern Ireland for his contribution to Irish sport at a gala event held at Stormont in Belfast.

Boxing Hall of Fame.

On 4 January 2008 John McNally was inducted into the Irish Boxing Hall of Fame by RTÉ's Jimmy Magee at an awards night held in the National Stadium in Dublin. A biography of McNally's life and career has been published by Appletree Press.

John McNally (born 3 November 1932) is a retired Irish boxer who won a silver medal at the 1952 Summer Olympics in the bantamweight division. In the final McNally lost a split decision to Pentti Hämäläinen of Finland.


History.

The club has its roots in Cambridge in 1855, where fellows at Trinity College began to discuss ghosts and psychic phenomena. Launched officially in London in 1862, it counted Charles Dickens and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle among its members. One of the club's earliest investigations was of the Davenport brothers and their "spirit cabinet" hoax, the club challenging the Davenports' claim of contacting the dead.  The group continued to undertake practical investigations of spiritualist phenomena, a topic then in vogue, meeting to discuss ghostly subjects. The Ghost Club dissolved in the 1870s following the death of Dickens.

1882 revitalisation.

The club was revived on All Saints Day 1882 by the medium Stainton Moses and Alaric Alfred Watts. initially claiming to be the original founders, without acknowledging its origins. In 1882, the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), with whom there was an initial overlap, was founded at a similar time.  While the SPR was a body devoted to scientific study, the Ghost Club remained a selective and secretive organization of convinced believers for whom psychic phenomena were an established fact. Stainton Moses resigned from the vice presidency of the SPR in 1886 and thereafter devoted himself to the Ghost Club. Membership was small (82 members over 54 years) and women were not allowed but during this period it attracted some of the most original and controversial minds in psychical research. These included Sir William Crookes Sir Oliver Lodge, Nandor Fodor and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.  The archives of the Club reveal that the names of members, both living and dead, were solemnly recited each November 2. Each individual, living or dead, was recognized a member of the Club. On more than one occasion deceased members were believed to have made their presence felt.  Also involved were the poet W. B. Yeats (joined 1911) and Frederick Bligh Bond (joined 1925), who became infamous with his investigations into spiritualism at Glastonbury. Bligh Bond later left the country and became active in the American Society for Psychical Research. He was ordained into the Old Catholic Church and rejoined the Ghost Club on his return to Britain in 1935.  The Principal of Jesus College, Cambridge, Arthur Grey fictionalized the Ghost Club in 1919 as "The Everlasting Club" in a ghost story that many still believe to be true.

Early 20th century.

The 20th century's move from séance room investigation to laboratory-based research meant the Ghost Club fell out of touch with contemporary psychic research. Harry Price, famous for his investigation into Borley Rectory, joined as a member in 1927 as did psychologist Nandor Fodor who represented the changing approach to psychical research taking place. With attendance falling, the club closed in 1936 after 485 meetings. The Ghost Club records were deposited in the British Museum under the proviso that they would remain closed until 1962 out of respect for confidentiality.  Within 18 months, Price relaunched the Ghost Club as a society dining event where psychic researchers and mediums delivered after-dinner talks. Price decided to admit women to the club, also specifying that it was not a spiritualist church or association but a group of skeptics that gathered to discuss paranormal topics. Members in this period included, Sir Julian Huxley, Algernon Blackwood, Sir Osbert Sitwell and Lord Amwell.  Following Price's death in 1948, the club was again relaunched by members of the committee, Philip Paul and Peter Underwood. From 1962 Underwood served as President; many accounts of club activities are found in his books.  In the early 1960s two young men, Theodore Cary and Patrick Hewitt, brought the club back to national prominence, when they established a chapter in Harrison Township, Michigan.  Tom Perrott joined the club in 1967 and served as Chairman from 1971 to 1993.  In 1993, the club underwent a period of internal disruption, during which Underwood left to become Life President of another society he had revived called "The Ghost Club Society".  The Ghost Club later expanded its remit to include the study of UFOs, dowsing, cryptozoology and similar topics.

Recent history.

In 1998, Perrott resigned as chairman (although he remained active in club affairs), and barrister Alan Murdie was elected as his successor. Murdie has written a number of ghost books including "Haunted Brighton" and regularly writes for "Fortean Times". In 2005 he was succeeded by Kathy Gearing, the club's first female chairperson. Gearing announced her resignation in the club's Summer 2009 newsletter.  The club continues to meet monthly at the Victory Services Club near Marble Arch, in London. Several investigations are performed in England every year. In recent times, investigations have been organised in Scotland by the club's Scottish Area Investigation Coordinator.

Bibliography.

The club has been mentioned in numerous books, the most notable being "No Common Task" (1983), "This Haunted Isle" (1984), "The Ghosthunters Almanac" (1993) and "Nights in Haunted Houses" (1994), all by Peter Underwood, "Some Unseen Power" (1985) by Philip Paul, "The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits" (1992) by Rosemary Ellen Guiley, "Will Storr Versus the Supernatural" (2006) by Will Storr, "The Guide to Mysterious Glasgow" (2009) by Geoff Holder, "Ghost Hunting: a Survivor's Guide" (2010) by John Fraser and "A Brief Guide to Ghost Hunting" (2013) by Dr Leo Ruickbie.

The Ghost Club is a paranormal investigation and research organization, founded in London in 1862. It is widely believed to be the oldest such organization in the world. Since 1862 it has primarily investigated ghosts and hauntings.


Appearance and taxonomy.

The Prevost's squirrel is a medium-sized squirrel, but one of the larger species in its range, although clearly surpassed by the giant squirrels and giant flying squirrels. The head-and-body of the Prevost's squirrel typically is long and the tail length is about the same; it weighs. Individuals from small islands tend to be smaller in size than those from medium-small islands, but on large islands this pattern is reversed.  In general, the subspecies of the Prevost's squirrel have been described based on their colour patterns. While there are significant geographical variations, there are also some individual variations within each region. The underparts are always reddish-orange to rich rufous. The typical form, including the subspecies of the Thai-Malay Peninsula ("C. p. prevostii" and others), is among the most colourful mammals in the world with its black upperparts and tail, reddish-orange underparts, whitish thighs and flanks, and grey to grey-white cheeks. Some subspecies from elsewhere are quite similar, like the grey-cheeked "C. p. rafflesii" of southern Sumatra and black-cheeked "C. p. melanops" of eastern Sumatra, as well as those from southwestern Borneo. Several others differ noticeably, especially in northern, central and eastern Borneo where some have grey or olivaceous-greyish thighs, orange cheeks, grizzled or olivaceous-greyish upperparts, or a greyish or greyish-banded tail. Four subspecies are uniquely dark and bicoloured: "C. p. caedis" from Banggi and nearby islands, "C. p. piceus" from northern Sumatra, "C. p. pluto" from northeastern Borneo and "C. p. rufonigra" from Labuan are black above, including tail, thighs and cheeks, and rich rufous below (no whitish to thighs, flanks or cheeks).  As many as 44 subspecies have been named for the Prevost's squirrel, but recent authorities have generally recognized far less. For example, in 2005 "Mammal Species of the World" only recognized 6, listing the rest as synonyms of these subspecies or as undefined synonyms (synonyms of the species but not associated with any subspecies). In 2012, 32 subspecies were recognized in "Squirrels of the World". The situation is particularly complex in Borneo. There has been no recent detailed taxonomic review and it remains unclear how many subspecies should be recognized.

Behavior.

The Prevost's squirrel is active during the day and mostly stays in trees, only occasionally moving on the ground. The 1–3 young are born after a gestation that lasts around seven weeks. The nest is made of sticks, bark and grass.

Feeding.

This squirrel eats fruits, nuts, seeds, buds, flowers, insects and bird eggs. They have been observed feeding on durians such as "Durio graveolens". These squirrels carry the fruits far from the tree and drop the seeds when finished with their meal. This seed distribution away from the parent plant increases survival for the fruiting plant species.

Prevost's squirrel or Asian tri-colored squirrel ("Callosciurus prevostii") is a colourful species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in forests in the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and nearby smaller islands, with an introduced population in northern Sulawesi. Although the Prevost's squirrel is declining is some regions because of habitat loss and hunting, the species is not considered threatened since it generally remains common and widespread. It can live in somewhat disturbed habitats and often visits plantations or gardens. It mostly feeds on plant material, especially fruits, but also takes insects.


Mill community.

Harnessing power from the abundant water sources of the Moodus and Salmon rivers, the little hamlet became the center of twine production in Connecticut. The twine was primarily used for fishnets, and was sold on both coasts and the Great Lakes.  In 1832, the Neptune Mill was constructed beside a dam just North of the Salmon River Cove. The Card Company, as it was then known also made stocking yarn and carpet warp. New cord wrapping machines filled these mills and twine was produced on a massive scale. Over the years, the Neptune Mill expanded until it reached its 100x100 ft dimensions. Three stories tall, it was a massive edifice, architecturally resembling a church with its steeple and bell that would call workers into the factory each morning.  In 1862, Emory Johnson built the Triton Mill at the northern end of the Millpond; tenements and worker housing soon cropped up in the ensuing years, and Johnsonville was born. The Neptune Mill also came into Johnson's possession in 1867. The Triton Mill was destroyed in a fire in 1924.  One of the jewels of Johnsonville is the Emory Johnson homestead. Built in 1846, the four-bedroom house has three fireplaces, pillared porches, a formal garden and original Victorian-era details.

Tourist attraction.

In 1965, Raymond Schmitt, the controversial owner of AGC Corporation, an aerospace equipment manufacturer, bought the Neptune Mill from the Johnson family. He also purchased other vintage buildings and had them moved to Johnsonville, including a Victorian stable and chapel, which hosted weddings.  Nostalgic for the bygone modes of transit of the 19th century, Schmitt brought a sternwheeler to Johnsonville in 1966. For many years, the boat was reported to be "The American" from the Freedomland U.S.A. theme park (1960-1964) in New York City. This has proven to be an error. Research by Freedomland historians discovered that the boat was the twin sternwheeler from Freedomland known as "The Canadian." Connecticut newspaper articles include pictures of "The Canadian" on the millpond. Schmitt bought it at auction and had it towed up the Connecticut River and then carried by truck to Moodus, where it would sit in the Johnson Millpond for more than thirty years. In 1972, the Neptune Mill was struck by lightning and burned to the ground.  In 1993, Billy Joel filmed part of his "River of Dreams" music video at the village.

Ghost town.

In 1994, Schmitt got into a disagreement with local zoning officials and shut down the attraction, putting the property up for sale. Schmitt died in 1998, and his estate started selling off many of the antiques and other pieces of the property, including some of the buildings. Some suggest that the ghost of Schmitt roams the grounds of Johnsonville.  A hotel developer, MJABC LLC, bought the 64-acre property in 2001. In 2004, MJABC filed plans for a mixed-use development on the site that included 133 upscale, single-family houses and townhouses, all built in Victorian style and with an age restriction for owners, and for keeping and restoring most of the original dozen or so buildings. That proposal fell apart, however, because the housing component was deemed too high-density. MJABC LLC still owns the property and continues to pay taxes on it. As of April 2013, Chozick Realty, Inc. of Hartford had listed the village for just under $3 million.  The village, which has now fallen into disrepair, was featured in an episode of the National Geographic TV series "Abandoned". The village went up for sale at an online auction on 28 October 2014. The winning bid was 1.9 million USD on October 30, 2014, but the deal fell through. In July 7, 2017, the Philippine-based independent Christian organization, Iglesia ni Cristo bought the village for $1.85 million dollars.

Johnsonville Village, once a thriving mill community, then a Victorian Era tourist attraction, was an abandoned ghost town in East Haddam, Connecticut, United States. On July 7, 2017, the property was acquired by the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ), an independent, nontrinitarian Christian denomination based in the Philippines.


Early life and education.

Danny Porush, the son of a doctor, was raised in a Jewish family in Lawrence, Nassau County, New York. Porush graduated from Lawrence Woodmere Academy. He attended Dickinson College and Boston University but did not graduate. According to "New York" magazine, Porush then "bounced from job to job, working for, and starting up, a variety of small businesses."

Career.

Stratton Oakmont.

In the late 1980s, Porush helped Jordan Belfort found Stratton Oakmont, a Long Island, New York "over-the-counter" (OTC) brokerage house in which Belfort was chairman and Porush was president. Stratton Oakmont specialized in selling "penny stocks" and underwriting initial public offerings for small companies, including for Steve Madden (a childhood friend of Porush), Master Glazier's Karate International Inc., Dualstar Technologies, Select Media Communications, United Leisure Corporation and Questron Technology. In 1994, Porush took over as chairman and CEO of Stratton after Belfort was barred from the industry.  Beginning in 1989, Stratton Oakmont became the subject of numerous disciplinary actions by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). It was determined that Stratton Oakmont was involved in pump and dump stock fraud that involved artificially inflating the price of stocks through false and misleading positive statements, in order to sell cheaply purchased stock at a higher price. Once the operators of the scheme "dumped" their overvalued shares, the price fell and investors lost their money. In December 1996, the NASD permanently expelled Stratton Oakmont and barred Porush as well as fined him $250,000. The NASD rejected Porush's claim that he was only "a figurehead," citing him as the salesperson with the largest individual allocation. In their decision to bar Porush and his head trader, Steven P. Sanders, the NASD wrote that "[they] continue to deny responsibility and exhibit no remorse for [their] misconduct, and, but for the bar, would continue to pose an on-going risk to the investing public."  Following a federal indictment, Porush and Belfort pleaded guilty to 10 counts of securities fraud and money laundering in 1999. In an exchange for reduced sentences, Porush and Belfort cooperated with the federal investigations of their colleagues. Porush was "convicted of insider trading, perjury, conspiracy and money laundering and ordered to pay $200 million in restitution." He was sentenced to four years in prison and Belfort was sentenced to two years. Porush was released on probation in 2004 after serving 39 months.  In 2013, the story of Stratton Oakmont as told by Jordan Belfort in his 2007 memoir was made into Martin Scorsese's "The Wolf of Wall Street". In the film, Jonah Hill portrays a character named Donnie Azoff, loosely based on Porush. Porush has stated that many of the movie's incidents are fictional. The character's name was changed during movie development after Porush threatened to sue Paramount Pictures if he was depicted.

Medical supplies.

Following his release from prison in 2004, Porush became involved with a Boca Raton, Florida-based medical supply and medical equipment company which, according to "Forbes" magazine, has operated under the names Med-Care Diabetic & Medical Supplies, Christian Diabetics and the Christian Healthcare Network. The Med-Care company was the subject of a congressional hearing on Medicare fraud in April 2013. In May 2014, Porush's involvement with Med-Care was cited as reason for a portion of the federal "Stop Scams Act of 2014" which would require Medicare providers to disclose their ownership interests. According to Med-Care's attorney, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services had been informed and had previously reviewed, and approved, Porush's role with the company.  In 2014, Porush and five other personnel of the Med-Care company were named in a whistleblower lawsuit alleging fraudulent Medicare claims. The case was initially dismissed in federal court for lack of specific proof. However, the lawsuit was refiled and was accepted for federal court when the initial whistleblower was joined by two more former Med-Care employees alleging the company of defrauding the federal government. The lawsuit alleged that telemarketers, under the guidance of Porush, made unsolicited calls to citizens and used high-pressure sales tactics to push them to accept medical supplies they may not want nor need. On January 14, 2015, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents, Florida fraud department, and local police "raided the offices of Med-Care Diabetic & Medical Supplies" in Boca Raton and removed boxes of files. On January 16, 2015, the attorneys for Med-Care filed a motion in court to disqualify the whilstleblowers' attorneys for professional conflict of interest.

Personal life.

In 1986, Porush married his cousin, Nancy, and they had three children together. They divorced in 2000.  Porush married his second wife, Lisa Krause, with whom he had one child and four step-children. They live in Boca Raton, Florida.  In 2006, Porush was sued by his first wife for failure to pay child support. Porush said that he owned no assets and that everything belonged to his second wife.

Daniel Mark Porush (born February 1957) is an American businessman and former stock broker who ran a "pump and dump" stock fraud scheme in the 1990s. In 1999, he was convicted of securities fraud and money laundering at the Stratton Oakmont brokerage, for which he served 39 months in prison. The character of Donnie Azoff portrayed by Jonah Hill in the 2013 film "The Wolf of Wall Street" was loosely based on Porush, although Porush described the portrayal as inaccurate. After prison, Porush became involved with a Florida-based medical supply company, Med-Care, which was the subject of federal investigations.


Amateur career.

Corley was an amateur standout, and won the National Golden Gloves Light Welterweight Championship in 1995.

Professional career.

Corley began boxing professionally on May 17, 1996, knocking out Aaron Smith in the first round.

WBO light welterweight champion.

He would not lose a match until 1999, against Daniel Lujan. Later that year in his 22nd bout with a record of 21 wins 1 defeat (11KO) he faced Ener Julio for the USBA light welterweight title, he won via a 12-round split decision. He later defeated Ener Julio again to defend his WBO light welterweight belt (which he would later lose to future undisputed welterweight champion Zab Judah).

Inactive period and return.

He took 2002 off from boxing to recover from the murder of his brother. He returned to the ring on January 4, 2003.  In 2006 he fought Junior Witter for the vacant WBC light welterweight championship, losing a wide decision in a very tactical bout.

Later career.

After many consecutive losses, Corley took on Damian Fuller in 2010 and improved his record to 37-13-1 (21 KO's) with a 4th-round TKO.  On August 28, 2010 he lost to Marcos Maidana by unanimous decision in a fight in which was disputed, for the WBA light welterweight title.  On November 14, 2010 he lost to Serhiy Fedchenko by unanimous decision in a fight in which was also disputed, for the vacant WBO European light welterweight title. On January 21, 2012 he won the vacant NABF light welterweight title when he defeated Gabriel Bracero by unanimous decision.  He then earned a TKO victory over Paul McCloskey on May 5, 2012.  On September 27, 2013 Demarcus Corley lost against Selçuk Aydın by corner stoppage at the end of round 4.

DeMarcus Deon Corley (born June 3, 1974) is an American professional boxer. A veteran of the sport for more than two decades, he held the WBO junior welterweight title from 2001 to 2003, and has fought as a gatekeeper against many of boxing's biggest names.


Early life.

Bailey was born in Birmingham, Alabama and relocated with her family to the Pensacola, Florida area at age two. At age 12, Bailey joined a New York City modeling company in the summer. Bailey graduated from Gulf Breeze High School of Gulf Breeze, Florida in 2001 and attended Marymount Manhattan College in New York City.

Career.

Bailey is a former Junior Olympic gymnast.  In 1999, Bailey at age 17 made her on-screen debut on "The Sopranos" episode "Boca" as character Deena Hauser. While attending Marymount Manhattan, Bailey got her first television presenting job on the Nickelodeon children's show "U-Pick Live" in 2002 and would continue on the show until 2005 and she and her co-host Brent Popolizio formed a fictional band in the show called The Pickles, the name is from the Pickle Family characters in the animated series "Rugrats". Bailey hosted an episode of "Slime Time Live" on Nickelodeon in 2003. In 2004, Bailey co-hosted a children-oriented Super Bowl XXXVIII pre-game show on Nickelodeon.  In her first role as a regular character in a fictional TV series, Bailey played Skylar Stevens on the CBS series "Jericho" from 2006 to 2008. In 2008, Bailey appeared in the music video of "Goodnight Goodnight" by Maroon 5. After "Jericho" was cancelled, Bailey worked as a cocktail waitress and babysitter between acting jobs. Bailey said that the work made her more appreciative of her acting opportunities.  Bailey returned to screen acting in a fifth season episode of "Ghost Whisperer" in 2010. On January 11, 2011, Bailey joined Kevin Pereira (who left the show on May 31, 2012) as the new co-host of "Attack of the Show!" and remained on the show until its final episode on January 23, 2013.

Candace Kaye Bailey (born May 20, 1982) is an American actress and television personality best known as a co-host of the former television program "Attack of the Show!" on G4.


Design & development.

The Swift (an acronym for 'Swept Wing with Inboard Flap Trim') was originally conceived as a rigid hang glider with sailplane-like performance. It was designed in a collaboration between Bright Star Gliders and Ilan Kroo, a professor at Stanford University, along with a group of Stanford graduate students. The Swift's configuration as a foot-launched sailplane with rigid wings is shared by a very small number of gliders.  The swept wing has control surfaces along the entire trailing edge: flaps occupy the inner 42%, and elevons take up 58% of the outer span. The Swift has no vertical stabilizer and so faces the need for directional stability in yaw. This is addressed by winglets and the models with an enclosed cockpit also have conventional fuselage stabilising surfaces that contribute to yaw stability. The winglets on the 1990 prototype were fixed surfaces, so the pilot effected turns using the elevons.  The original Swift is now out of production, having been replaced by a refined version called the Swift'Lite. This new model has winglets that, like those on the Rutan Long-EZ, are rudders when used singly, and air-brakes when used together. In addition, compared to its predecessor, the Swift'Lite is claimed to be: 20% lighter, with lighter and more responsive controls, a lower stall speed, an improved glide ratio of 27:1, better pilot visibility and comfort, and simplified assembly procedure.

Model range.

A variety of different "fuselage pods" have been fitted beneath the wings to create a range of aircraft, as follows: The various fuselage frames are interchangeable and any can be added to the same basic wing. Swift gliders with engines have Arplast EcoProp folding propellers, which feather for soaring when then engine is turned off. Powered Swift gliders are not foot-launched, having instead two main wheels in tandem layout, and small wing-tip castors.

The Aériane Swift is a lightweight (48 kg) foot-launched tailless sailplane whose rigid wings have a span of 40 feet.


Life.

Edelinck was born in Antwerp, where he received his early training under the engravers Gaspar Huybrechts (1619–1684) and Cornelius Galle the Younger. He went to Paris in 1666, where he worked with his fellow Fleming Nicolas Pitau the elder. To improve himself further he subsequently studied under François de Poilly, Robert Nanteuil, and Philippe de Champaigne. These masters likewise had soon done all they could to help him onwards, and Edelinck ultimately took the first rank among line engravers.  His excellence was generally acknowledged; and having become known to Louis XIV he was appointed, on the recommendation of Le Brun, teacher at the academy established at the Gobelins manufactory for the training of workers in tapestry. He was also entrusted with the execution of several important works. In 1677 he won admission to the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture) with his "Portrait of Philippe de Champaigne", engraved after a self-portrait.

Work.

The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the art. His prints number more than four hundred. Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and contemporaries in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but in all respects, that while one engraver attained excellence in correct form, and another in rendering light and shade, and others in giving color to their prints and the texture of surfaces, he, as supreme master of the burin, possessed and displayed all these separate qualities, in so complete a harmony that the eye is not attracted by any one of them in particular, but rests in the satisfying whole.  Edelinck was especially good as an engraver of portraits, and executed prints of many of the most eminent persons of his time. Among these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud, Champaigne, Nanteuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden, Descartes, Jean-Baptiste Lully, etc. He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother Jean, and his son Nicholas, were also engravers.

Works.

Among his most famous works are:

Gérard Edelinck (20 October 1640 (baptized) – 2 April 1707) was a copper-plate engraver and print publisher of Flemish origin, who worked in Paris from 1666 and became a naturalized French citizen in 1675.


Early life.

Bashir was born in Pakistan, and moved to Yorkshire aged eight to live with his father who was a mill worker in Bradford. He is a member of the British Ahmedi Pakistani community. Bashir attended Thornton Grammar School before attending the University of Bradford to study chemical engineering.

Professional career.

Bashir is a restaurateur who, prior to becoming politically active, ran two establishments in Bradford and Manchester.

Political career.

After fifteen years as a member of the Conservative Party, Bashir joined UKIP in 2012 and was placed second on the party's list of candidates for the Yorkshire and the Humber region at the 2014 European Parliament election. UKIP topped the regional poll with 31% of the vote, winning three seats, and Bashir was thus elected as one of six MEPs for the region. He was the party's spokesman on communities and on small and medium-sized businesses until his defection to the Conservatives in January 2015.  Bashir is a member of the European Parliament's Foreign Affairs, Employment and Industry committees. He is also a member of the inter-parliamentary delegations for Bosnia and Herzegovina and Afghanistan.  Bashir is the chairman of the ECR Group's working group on SMEs and also Conservative parliamentary delegation spokesman on SMEs.  On 20 February 2016, Bashir announced that he would be supporting the campaign to leave the European Union in the forthcoming EU membership referendum.  As of May 2017, Bashir ranked 720 out of 751 MEPs for his participation in roll call votes in the European Parliament. Bashir met with Conservative leader and Prime Minister David Cameron on 23 January 2015 to discuss moving back to the party, and made the move official the following day. Cameron stated that he was "absolutely delighted that Bashir had decided to leave Ukip and join the Conservative Party". He also stated that Bashir had an "inspiring story", and that "it's another sign that in this great country of ours you can come to Britain without very much and you can be a member of the European parliament, an MP, sit in the cabinet".  Following his defection to the Conservatives, UKIP alleged that Bashir had failed to attend a meeting on 20 January 2015, three days prior to his defection, to discuss their concerns, pending an investigation, into what they described as "a number of extremely serious issues... which include unanswered financial and employment questions" and that "UKIP MEP Mike Hookem had passed on evidence of Mr Bashir's alleged wrongdoing to West Yorkshire police." More specifically, they alleged interference in a UKIP Keighley candidate selection, immigration offences in his restaurants and financial irregularities with regard to expenses incurred by his European parliamentary political group at the time, the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy. Bashir described the allegations as "absurd and made-up".  Bashir was defended by Conservative MEP Daniel Hannan and by then-Conservative Party Chairman Grant Shapps, both of whom criticised the allegations by UKIP.  Bashir's lawyers wrote to Nigel Farage in April 2015, inviting him to withdraw the claims made about Bashir or face a libel action. As of April 2016, neither such withdrawal nor any libel action had taken place.

2019 Conservative candidacy.

Bashir was selected as the Conservative Party candidate in Leeds North East, but he was then suspended from the party on 20 November 2019 because of comments he had made in 2014. Bashir remained on the ballot paper as the Conservative Party candidate and finished second.  The comments in question were originally while he was a UKIP MEP. During a debate on 11 September 2014 in the European Parliament, Bashir had described British Jews travelling to Israel and returning as "brainwashed extremists". These comments were widely perceived as anti-Israel and as potentially antisemitic and, when resurfacing (from a Jewish Chronicle exclusive) on 18 November, were condemned by the Board of Deputies on the same day. Bashir apologised for the comments he made. A subsequent enquiry by the Conservative party chairman suspended Amjad Bashir permanently from the Conservative party

Awards and nominations.

In January 2015, Bashir was nominated for the Politician of the Year award at the British Muslim Awards.

Amjad Mahmood Bashir (; born 17 September 1952) is a British politician who served as a Member of the European Parliament for the Yorkshire and the Humber region between 2014 and 2019. He was elected in 2014 for the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and defected to the Conservative Party on 24 January 2015.


Club career.

Early career.

Son of former footballer Gaetano Stellone, Roberto Stellone starter his career at hometown club Lodigiani, where he met David Di Michele, his team-mate at Reggina and Torino. After 4 seasons in Serie C1, he left for Lucchese of Serie B in mid-1997. In the summer of 1998, he left for Parma, but he had limited opportunities at the club and left for fellow Serie B side Lecce on loan, in January 1999. He made a name for himself throughout the remainder of the season, as he scored 6 goals in 19 league matches, helping the team to win Serie A promotion, and receiving a call-up to the Italy U21 team.

Napoli.

In the summer of 1999, he left for Serie B side S.S.C. Napoli in a co-ownership deal. He added 10 more goals to his Serie B tally, which also helped Napoli win Serie A promotion, after finishing the season in 4th place. At the end of the season, Napoli bought Stellone's remaining registration rights, keeping him at the club. However, despite scoring on his Serie A debut the following season, in a 2–1 home defeat to Juventus on 30 September 2000, Stellone's league appearances in his first Serie A season were limited to just 3 due to injury, and as a result, Napoli were unable to avoid relegation. Stellone remained with Napoli in Serie B for the 2001–02 and 2002–03 seasons, scoring 19 goals in 51 matches, but missing out on several matches once again due to injury, however; in the summer of 2002, he was named the club's new captain. Facing financial difficulties, Napoli loaned Stellone to Serie A side Reggina during the 2003–04 season. Due to the presence of strikers David Di Michele and Emiliano Bonazzoli, Stellone struggled to find space in the team, and scored only once in 16 league appearances.  The next season, he left for Serie B side Genoa, where he partnered with Diego Milito and Stephen Makinwa up-front, and scored over 70% of team's total goals. Although the team won the Serie B championship, the club was later penalised and awarded last place due to their involvement in the Caso Genoa, and as a result suffered relegation to Serie C.

Torino.

Stellone was signed by Serie B runner-up Torino in co-ownership deal in August 2005, who were forced to remain at Serie B due to financial difficulty. Now partnered with Enrico Fantini and Roberto Muzzi in attack, Stellone failed to replicate his prolific performances at Geona, scoring 7 goals in 31 appearances, but Torino still bought him outright, outbidding Genoa. Despite Stellone's struggle to find the back of the net consistently, Torino still managed to obtain Serie A promotion that season. With Torino in Serie A the following season, he alternated playing as a starter and as a substitute for the club. Although Stellone and the club's other strikers failed to score, with help of Alessandro Rosina and a strong defensive line, the team still managed to avoid Serie B relegation. The next season, with the signings of David Di Michele, Nicola Ventola and Álvaro Recoba, Stellone only made 18 starts, scoring just 4 goals. In his last season with the club, the 31-year-old forward faced competition from Rolando Bianchi and Nicola Amoruso; following the team's change of formation, which only used one striker, usually Bianchi, Stellone made half of his appearances as substitute. With the departure of Alessandro Rosina in January 2009, the team struggled to score, and ultimately failed to stay in Serie A on the final match-day of the season.

Frosinone.

After the relegation of Torino in 2009, he became free agent in June. After months without a club, he signed a 3-year contract with Serie B club Frosinone in November 2009 where he was coached by Francesco Moriero. In the 2009–10 season his goals contributed to helping the team avoid relegation; following the club's relegation to Lega Pro the following year, on 28 June 2011, he announced his retirement from football.

Style of play.

A complete striker, Stellone could act either as a main striker or as a second striker, due to his vision, ability to score goals, hold up the ball in tight spaces, and create chances for team-mates. Despite his height and imposing physique, which enabled him excel in the air, he was also known for his dynamism and technique; indeed, his main qualities a forward were his dribbling and heading ability.

Managerial career.

After his retirement, he stayed at Frosinone as a youth coach in charge of the under-19 team ("Berretti") for the 2011–12 season. Under his tenure, the team won the national "Berretti" title.

Frosinone.

Thanks also to his impressive results with the youth team, Stellone was appointed as Frosinone head coach role for the season 2012–13 in Lega Pro Prima Divisione. In his first season in charge, Stellone guided the team to seventh place and was confirmed for one more year.  In the 2013–14 Lega Pro Prima Divisione, Stellone's Frosinone immediately emerged as one of the promotion favourites, losing direct promotion only on the last matchday to Perugia. In the subsequent playoff tournament, however, Frosinone managed to achieve the ultimate goal of getting back into Serie B, defeating Salernitana in the first round, Pisa in the semi-finals and, most notably, a Fabrizio Miccoli-led Lecce in a two-legged final after extra time.  On 16 May 2015, he led Frosinone to second place in Serie B and direct promotion to Serie A with a game to spare, with victory against Crotone 3–1. On 7 March 2016, Stellone won the Panchina d’Argento for the previous 2014–15 season. On 8 May 2016, Frosinone were relegated back to Serie B after one season in Serie A. One day after Frosinone's last match of the Serie A season, on 15 May, Stellone was relieved of his managerial duties.

Bari.

On 4 July 2016, Stellone was appointed manager of Bari. He was sacked on 7 November.

Palermo.

Stellone was appointed manager of Serie B club Palermo on 28 April 2018, taking over from Bruno Tedino, with five games to go and the team in third place, level on points with second-placed Parma. He ended the season in fourth place, behind second-placed Parma and third-placed Frosinone.  After defeating Venezia on the semi-finals, Palermo was defeated 2–3 on aggregate by Frosinone in a two-legged final. This marked the end of Stellone's tenure, as he was not confirmed for the new season, with Tedino being reappointed as head coach.  On 26 September 2018, he was reinstated as Palermo head following a 1–2 loss to Brescia on the fifth matchday of the season. Stellone started his second tenure in a very impressive fashion, as he successfully led Palermo to a streak of positive results that brought the "Rosanero" back on top of the league table by December. He was sacked on 23 April 2019.

Ascoli.

Stellone was appointed manager of Ascoli on 3 February 2020. He was sacked on 16 April 2020.

Career statistics.

Manager.

"As of 14 May 2016"

Roberto Stellone (born 22 July 1977) is an Italian football manager and former footballer who played as a forward. He was most recently the manager of Ascoli.


Signs and symptoms.

Podoconiosis causes bilateral yet asymmetrical leg swelling with overlying firm nodules. Early on, symptoms may include itching, tingling, widening of the forefoot, and swelling which then progress to soft edema, skin fibrosis, papillomatosis, and nodule formation resembling moss, giving rise to the disease's alternate name of "mossy foot" in some regions of the world. As with other forms of tropical lymphedema, chronic disease can lead to rigid toes, ulceration, and bacterial superinfection. During acute episodes of adenolymphangitis, patients may develops fevers, extremity warmth, redness, and pain. These episodes are extremely debilitating and account for many days of activity and productivity loss each year.

Psychological consequences.

As a result of its appearance, podoconiosis can cause social stigmatization and discrimination. People with podoconiosis also report lower quality of life than neighborhood controls and higher levels of mental distress and depression.

Pathophysiology.

According to the World Health Organization "Evidence suggests that podoconiosis is the result of a genetically determined abnormal inflammatory reaction to mineral particles in irritant red clay soils derived from volcanic deposits".  The pathophysiology of podoconiosis is a combination of genetic susceptibility, possibly through associations with HLA-DQA1, HLA-DQB1, and HLA-DRB1 variants, and a cumulative exposure to irritant soil. In susceptible individuals, irritant soil particles penetrate the feet and collect in lymphatic vessels. Over time, chronic inflammation within the lymphatic vessels leads to fibrosis and occlusion.

Diagnosis.

Differential diagnosis.

The differential diagnosis for podoconiosis includes other causes of tropical lymphedema, such as filariasis or leprosy, and mycetoma pedis.  While filariasis is generally unilateral, podoconiosis affects the legs bilaterally albeit asymmetrically and in an ascending manner. Podoconiosis very rarely affects the groin while filariasis frequently involves the groin: a high ratio of lymphoedema/hydrocele cases in an area suggests podoconiosis as the dominant cause of lymphedema. In some cases, the history and clinical presentation alone are unable to differentiate between the two causes of tropical lymphedema. Local epidemiology can also be a clue to diagnosis, as podoconiosis is typically found in higher altitude areas with volcanic soils while filariasis is common in low-lying areas where mosquitos are prevalent. Blood smears for identification of microfilariae and antigen detection techniques can be helpful in the diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis.  Lepromatous lymphedema can also mimic podoconiosis clinically, but the former will have loss of sensation in the toes and feet, thickened nerves, and trophic ulcers. Other causes of lymphedema include Kaposi sarcoma, mycetoma, and elephantiasis nostras verrucosa.

Prevention.

Elimination of podoconiosis relies on prevention with widespread shoe implementation, stringent foot hygiene, and floor coverings. Community-based initiatives are crucial to achieving elimination of this disease. In Ethiopia, The Mossy Foot Treatment and Prevention Association (now Mossy Foot International) works to transform patients into community podoconiosis agents who in turn visit patients, teach basic treatment techniques such as foot hygiene, and educate families about the disease. This model has been adapted by several other non-government groups as they have started programs in other regions of Ethiopia.

Treatment.

The cornerstone of prevention and treatment of podoconiosis is avoidance of exposure to irritant soils. Wearing shoes in the presence of irritant soils is the primary method of exposure reduction. In Rwanda, a country of high disease prevalence, the government has banned walking barefoot in public, in order to prevent podoconiosis and other soil-borne diseases. Increasing the availability of footwear must be coupled with education on the benefits of wearing shoes as cultural influences, such as barefoot traditions, can hinder widespread use of footwear.  Once the disease has developed, rigorous foot hygiene including daily washing with soap and water, application of an emollient, and nightly elevation of the affected extremity has been shown to reduce frequency of acute attacks. Nodules will not resolve with these conservative measures, although surgical removal of the nodules can be performed.

Epidemiology.

Podoconiosis is most frequently seen in the highland areas of Africa, India, and Central America. The highest prevalence is seen in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, and Ethiopia. A recent review has summarized the global distribution of podoconiosis. In some areas of Ethiopia, the prevalence is as high as 4%. The incidence of podoconiosis increases with age, likely due to cumulative exposure to irritant soil. It is very rare to see podoconiosis in the 0–5 year old age group, and the incidence rapidly rises from 6 to 20 years of age, with the highest prevalence after 45 years of age. Podoconiosis is most commonly seen in higher altitude areas with volcanic soil, and it is estimated to affect 4 million people worldwide. Productivity losses associated with the disease are significant. In Ethiopia (where 1.6 million people are estimated to be affected), the condition is thought to have caused US $200 million in lost productivity per year.

History.

After parasitic filariae were discovered to be an important cause of tropical lymphedema in the 19th century, early investigators assumed that filariae were the sole cause of lymphedema in the tropics. It was later discovered that the distribution of tropical lymphedema and filariasis did not perfectly overlap, and researchers began to recognize that some forms of tropical lymphedema were not associated with filariasis. Dr Ernest W Price, a British surgeon living in Ethiopia, discovered the true etiology of podoconiosis in the 1970s and 1980s by studying the lymph nodes and vessels of those afflicted with the disease. Using light microscopy, Dr Ernest W Price discovered macrophage cells laden with micro-particles in lymph nodes of the affected extremity. After examining the same tissue using electron microscopy, he was able to identify the presence of silicon, aluminum, and other soil metals both in the phagosomes of macrophages and adhered to the surface of lymphocytes. Price demonstrated that the lymphatic vessels of these patients experienced subendothelial edema and eventual collagenization of the lumen leading to complete blockage. Dr Ernest W Price wrote a monograph on Podoconiosis which was published after his death in 1990.

Current situation.

Podoconiosis is now recognised as one of the WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases, its importance as a public health problem is well recognised in Ethiopia. Footwork is a charity which bring together public and private partners to support prevention and treatment of podoconiosis. There is an active research group led by Professor Gail Davey at the "Wellcome Trust Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research" which co-ordinates research worldwide. A recent article in the Lancet includes some excellent illustrations.

Podoconiosis, also known as nonfilarial elephantiasis, is a disease of the lymphatic vessels of the lower extremities that is caused by chronic exposure to irritant soils. It is the second most common cause of tropical lymphedema after lymphatic filariasis, and it is characterized by prominent swelling of the lower extremities, which leads to disfigurement and disability. Methods of prevention include wearing shoes and using floor coverings. Mainstays of treatment include daily foot hygiene, compression bandaging, and when warranted, surgery of overlying nodules.