Background.

In the first half of the 19th century, theatre as entertainment was a mass phenomenon, and theatres were the main gathering places in most towns and cities. As a result, star actors amassed an immensely loyal following, comparable to modern celebrities or sports stars. At the same time, audiences had always treated theaters as places to make their feelings known, not just towards the actors, but towards their fellow theatergoers of different classes or political persuasions, and theatre riots were not a rare occurrence in New York.  In the early- to mid-19th century, the American theatre was dominated by British actors and managers. The rise of Edwin Forrest as the first American star and the fierce partisanship of his supporters was an early sign of a home-grown American entertainment business. The riot had been brewing for 80 or more years, since the Stamp Act riots of 1765, when an entire theatre was torn apart while British actors were performing on stage. British actors touring around the United States had found themselves the focus of often violent anti-British anger, because of their prominence and the lack of other visiting targets.  The fact that both Forrest and Macready were specialists in Shakespeare can be ascribed to the reputation of Shakespeare in the 19th century as the icon of Anglo-Saxon culture. Ralph Waldo Emerson, for instance, wrote in his journal that beings on other planets probably called the Earth "Shakespeare." Shakespeare's plays were not just the favorites of the educated: in gold rush California, miners whiled away the harsh winter months by sitting around campfires and acting out Shakespeare's plays from memory; his words were well known throughout every stratum of society.

Genesis.

The roots of the riot were multifold, but had three main strands: It was ironic that both were famous as Shakespearean actors: in an America that had yet to establish its own theatrical traditions, the way to prove its cultural prowess was to do Shakespeare as well as the British, and even to claim that Shakespeare, had he been alive at the time, would have been, at heart at least, an American.

Proximate causes.

Macready and Forrest each toured the other's country twice before the riot broke out. On Macready's second visit to America, Forrest had taken to pursuing him around the country and appearing in the same plays to challenge him. Given the tenor of the time, most newspapers supported the "home-grown" star Forrest. On Forrest's second visit to London, he was less popular than on his first trip, and he could only explain it to himself by deciding that Macready had maneuvered against him. He went to a performance of Macready playing Hamlet and loudly hissed him. For his part, Macready had announced that Forrest was without "taste." The ensuing scandal followed Macready on his third and last trip to America, where half the carcass of a dead sheep was thrown at him on the stage. The climate worsened when Forrest instigated divorce proceedings against his English wife for immoral conduct, and the verdict came down against Forrest on the day that Macready arrived in New York for his farewell tour.  Forrest's connections were substantial with working people and the gangs of New York: he had made his debut at the Bowery Theatre, which had come to cater mostly to a working class audience, drawn largely from the violent immigrant-heavy Five Points neighborhood of lower Manhattan a few blocks to the west. Forrest's muscular frame and impassioned delivery were deemed admirably "American" by his working-class fans, especially compared to Macready's more subdued and genteel style. Wealthier theatergoers, to avoid mingling with the immigrants and the Five Points crowd, had built the Astor Place Opera House near the junction of Broadway (where the entertainment venues catered to the upper classes) and the Bowery (the working-class entertainment area). With its dress code of kid gloves and white vests, the very existence of the Astor Opera House was taken as a provocation by populist Americans for whom the theater was traditionally the gathering place for all classes.  Macready was scheduled to appear in "Macbeth" at the Opera House, which had opened itself to less elevated entertainment, unable to survive on a full season of opera, and was operating with the name "Astor Place Theatre". Forrest was scheduled to perform "Macbeth" on the same night, only a few blocks away at the huge Broadway Theater.

The riot.

On May 7, 1849, three nights before the riot, Forrest's supporters bought hundreds of tickets to the top level of the Astor Opera House, and brought Macready's performance of "Macbeth" to a grinding halt by throwing at the stage rotten eggs, potatoes, apples, lemons, shoes, bottles of stinking liquid, and ripped up seats. The performers persisted in the face of hissing, groans, and cries of "Shame, shame!" and "Down with the codfish aristocracy!", but were forced to perform in pantomime, as they could not make themselves heard over the crowd. Meanwhile, at Forrest's May 7 performance, the audience rose and cheered when Forrest spoke Macbeth's line "What rhubarb, senna or what purgative drug will scour these English hence?"  After his disastrous performance, Macready announced his intention to leave for Britain on the next boat, but he was persuaded to stay and perform again by a petition signed by 47 well-heeled New Yorkers – including authors Herman Melville and Washington Irving – who informed the actor that "the good sense and respect for order prevailing in this community will sustain you on the subsequent nights of your performance." On May 10, Macready once again took the stage as Macbeth.  On the day of the riot, police chief George Washington Matsell informed Caleb S. Woodhull, the new Whig mayor, that there was not sufficient manpower to quell a serious riot, and Woodhull called out the militia. General Charles Sandford assembled the state's Seventh Regiment in Washington Square Park, along with mounted troops, light artillery, and hussars, a total of 350 men who would be added to the 100 policemen outside the theater in support of the 150 inside. Additional policemen were assigned to protect the homes in the area of the city's "uppertens", the wealthy and elite.  On the other side, similar preparations took place. Tammany Hall man Captain Isaiah Rynders was a fervent backer of Forrest and had been one of those behind the mobilization against Macready on May 7. He was determined to embarrass the newly ensconced Whig powers, and distributed handbills and posters in saloons and restaurants across the city, inviting working men and patriots to show their feelings about the British, asking "Shall Americans or English Rule This City?" Free tickets were handed out to Macready's May 10 show, as well as plans for where people should deploy.  By the time the play opened at 7:30 as scheduled, up to 10,000 people filled the streets around the theater. One of the most prominent among those who supported Forrest's cause was Ned Buntline, a dime novelist who was Rynders' chief assistant. Buntline and his followers had set up relays to bombard the theater with stones, and fought running battles with the police. They and others inside tried (but failed) to set fire to the building, many of the anti-Macready ticket-holders having been screened and prevented from coming inside in the first place. As the theater fell in on their heads, the audience was in a state of siege; nonetheless, Macready finished the play, again in "dumb show", and only then slipped out in disguise.  Fearing they had lost control of the city, the authorities called out the troops, who arrived at 9:15, only to be jostled, attacked, and injured. Finally, the soldiers lined up and, after unheard warnings, opened fire, first into the air and then several times at point blank range into the crowd. Many of those killed were innocent bystanders, and almost all of the casualties were from the working class; seven of the dead were Irish immigrants. Dozens of injured and dead were laid out in nearby saloons and shops, and the next morning mothers and wives combed the streets and morgues for their loved ones.  The "New York Tribune" reported: "As one window after another cracked, the pieces of bricks and paving stones rattled in on the terraces and lobbies, the confusion increased, till the Opera House resembled a fortress besieged by an invading army rather than a place meant for the peaceful amusement of civilized community."  The next night, May 11, a meeting was called in City Hall Park which was attended by thousands, with speakers crying out for revenge against the authorities whose actions they held responsible for the fatalities. During the melee, a young boy was killed. An angry crowd headed up Broadway toward Astor Place and fought running battles with mounted troops from behind improvised barricades, but this time the authorities quickly got the upper hand.

Consequences.

Between 22 and 31 rioters were killed, and 48 were wounded. Fifty to 70 policemen were injured. Of the militia, 141 were injured by the various missiles. Three judges presided over a related trial, including Charles Patrick Daly, a judge on the New York Court of Common Pleas, who pressed for convictions.  The city's elite were unanimous in their praise of the authorities for taking a hard line against the rioters. Publisher James Watson Webb wrote: The promptness of the authorities in calling out the armed forces and the unwavering steadiness with which the citizens obeyed the order to fire on the assembled mob, was an excellent advertisement to the Capitalists of the old world, that they might send their property to New York and rely upon the certainty that it would be safe from the clutches of red republicanism, or chartists, or communionists of any description.  According to Nigel Cliff in "The Shakespeare Riots", the riots furthered the process of class alienation and segregation in New York City and America; as part of that process, the entertainment world separated into "respectable" and "working-class" orbits. As professional actors gravitated to respectable theaters and vaudeville houses responded by mounting skits on "serious" Shakespeare, Shakespeare was gradually removed from popular culture into a new category of highbrow entertainment. Though Forrest's reputation was badly damaged, his heroic style of acting can be seen in the matinee idols of early Hollywood and performers such as John Barrymore.  Astor Opera House did not survive its reputation as the "Massacre Opera House" at "DisAstor Place," as burlesques and minstrel shows called it. It began another season, but soon gave up the ghost, the building eventually going to the New York Mercantile Library. The elite's need for an opera house was met with the opening of the Academy of Music, farther uptown at 15th Street and Irving Place, away from the working-class precincts and the rowdiness of the Bowery. Nevertheless, the creators of that theater learned at least one lesson from the riot and the demise of the Astor Opera House: the new venue was less strictly divided by class than the old one had been.

References.

Notes Bibliography

The Astor Place Riot occurred on May 10, 1849, at the now-demolished Astor Opera House in Manhattan and left between 22 and 31 rioters dead, and more than 120 people injured. It was the deadliest to that date of a number of civic disturbances in Manhattan, which generally pitted immigrants and nativists against each other, or together against the wealthy who controlled the city's police and the state militia.


Early life and family.

Riddle was born in New Castle, Delaware and studied civil engineering at Delaware College, now the University of Delaware. In addition he studied law and was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1848, beginning a practice in Wilmington, Delaware. With his engineering background, he was named as a commissioner to retrace the Mason–Dixon line in 1849, and was otherwise engaged in the construction of railroads and canals. In 1844, Riddle was hired to design the Wilmington and Brandywine Cemetery. During the Civil War, Riddle served with the Home Guard of Wilmington. His wife's name was Margaret.

Political career.

From 1849 to 1850, Riddle served as a Deputy Attorney General of the United States. After losing in the election of 1844, he was elected to the U.S. House in 1850 and served for two terms from March 4, 1851 until March 3, 1855. During the 33rd Congress, Riddle was the Chairman of the Committee on Engraving. Running for a third term he was defeated in 1854 by Elisha D. Cullen.  In 1860, Riddle was one of only two slaveholders in Delaware. He owned three slaves, a 68 year old male and two females aged 56 and 12.  On February 2, 1864 Riddle was elected to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of U.S. Senator James A. Bayard, Jr. He served until his death on March 29, 1867.

Death and legacy.

Riddle died while in office at Washington, D.C. and is buried in the Wilmington and Brandywine Cemetery at Wilmington.

Almanac.

Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. U.S. Representatives took office March 4 and have a two-year term. The General Assembly chose the U.S. Senators, who also took office March 4, but for a six-year term. In this case he was completing the existing term, the vacancy caused by the resignation of James A. Bayard, Jr.

George Read Riddle (1817 – March 28, 1867) was an American engineer, lawyer and politician from Wilmington, Delaware. He was a member of the Democratic Party who served as U.S. Representative and as U.S. Senator from Delaware.


Early life.

Conway was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. His younger brother was fellow actor George Sanders (1906–1972). Their younger sister, Margaret Sanders, was born in 1912. At the outbreak of the Russian Revolution (1917), the family moved to England, where Conway was educated at Bedales School and Brighton College. He travelled to Northern Rhodesia, where he worked in mining and ranching, then returned to England, appearing in several plays with the Manchester Repertory Company and performing on BBC Radio.

Career.

MGM.

When he joined his brother George in Hollywood, Conway became a contract player for MGM. During this time he changed his last name from Sanders to Conway after losing a friendly coin toss to his brother. He had small roles in "Waterloo Bridge" (1940), with only his voice heard, "Sky Murder" (1941) and "The Wild Man of Borneo" (1941). He had a bigger part in "The Trial of Mary Dugan" (1941) then was back to small parts in "Free and Easy" (1941), "The Bad Man" (1941), "The People vs. Dr. Kildare" (1941), and "Lady Be Good" (1941).  Conway was a villain in "Tarzan's Secret Treasure" (1941), "Mr. and Mrs. North" (1941) and "Rio Rita" (1942). He was a murder suspect in "Grand Central Murder" (1942) and had an uncredited bit in "Mrs. Miniver" (1942).

RKO: The Falcon and Val Lewton.

At RKO, Conway's brother George Sanders had starred in three popular "B" movies as "The Falcon". Sanders was getting sick of the role so Conway took over as "The Falcon's Brother" (1942), co-starring with Sanders for one film (Sanders' character was killed off). RKO signed him to a long term contract.  Conway followed this with an excellent role in "Cat People" (1942), the first of producer Val Lewton's legendary horror cycle. It was an even bigger hit than "Falcon's Brother".  Conway starred in "The Falcon Strikes Back" (1942), then had the male lead in a second film for Lewton, "I Walked with a Zombie" (1942), now regarded as a horror classic.  He starred in "The Falcon in Danger" (1943) and "The Falcon and the Co-eds" (1943) back to back, then was top billed in Lewton's "The Seventh Victim" (1943) playing the same role he did in "The Cat People" though his character was apparently killed in that film. After "The Falcon Out West" (1944) he made a crime mystery, "A Night of Adventure" (1944), directed by Gordon Douglas. He reprised the Falcon role with "The Falcon in Mexico" (1944) and "The Falcon in Hollywood" (1945), then was top billed in a "B" mystery directed by Anthony Mann, "Two O'Clock Courage" (1945).  After "The Falcon in San Francisco" (1945), Conway was borrowed by United Artists for "Whistle Stop" (1946), in which he supported George Raft, Ava Gardner and Victor McLaglen. He went back to RKO for "The Falcon's Alibi" (1946) and a "B", "Criminal Court" (1946), directed by Robert Wise. "The Falcon's Adventure" (1946) was Conway's last "Falcon".  In June 1946 Conway obtained a release from his RKO contract. His next film was to be "Strange Bedfellows" at United Artists.

Freelance actor.

On radio, Conway played Sherlock Holmes during the 1946–1947 season of "The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", following Basil Rathbone's departure from the series. In spite of a similar vocal timbre, Conway was not as well-received as Rathbone by audiences; he played Holmes for only one season.  He was a leading support actor in "Lost Honeymoon" (1947) and "Repeat Performance" (1947) for Eagle-Lion and "Fun on a Weekend" (1947) for United Artists.  Reliance Pictures, a small outfit who distributed through Fox, hired Conway to play Bulldog Drummond in "The Challenge" (1948) and "13 Lead Soldiers" (1948). Fox cast him in the lead of some B movies: "The Checkered Coat" (1948), "Bungalow 13" (1948), and "I Cheated the Law" (1949). Conway had a support part in "One Touch of Venus" (1948). He had the lead in "The Great Plane Robbery" (1950).  Conway had support parts in "Painting the Clouds with Sunshine" (1951) and "Bride of the Gorilla" (1951). He went back to leads for "Confidence Girl" (1952) and was a villain in "Tarzan and the She-Devil" (1953).  In 1951, he replaced Vincent Price as star of the radio mystery series "The Saint", portrayed by Sanders on film a decade earlier.  From 1951–1954, Conway played debonair British police detective Mark Saber, who worked in the homicide division of a large American city, in the ABC series entitled "Inspector Mark Saber – Homicide Detective". In 1957, the series resumed on NBC, renamed "Saber of London", with Donald Gray in the title role.  Conway went to England to star in "Park Plaza 605" (1953), and "Blood Orange" (1953) using his own name for the private detective he played. He had a support part in "Paris Model" (1953) and a minor role in "Prince Valiant" (1954), but leads in the British "Barbados Quest" (1955), "Breakaway" (1955) and "The Last Man to Hang?" (1956).  In 1956, the two brothers both featured (as brothers) in the film "Death of a Scoundrel", though Sanders had the starring role.  In America he was in "The She-Creature" (1956) and "Voodoo Woman" (1957). In England he did "Operation Murder" (1957). In 1956 he was briefly hospitalised for an operation.  Conway performed in the "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" episode "The Glass Eye" (1957) as Max Collodi, receiving critical praise.

Final years.

Conway had support roles on "The Betty Hutton Show" television series (1959-60) and in the feature films "The Atomic Submarine" (1959), and "12 to the Moon" (1960). He provided his voice for Disney's "101 Dalmatians" (1961) as a quizmaster in "What's My Crime?"—a parody of the game show "What's My Line?"—and as a collie who offers the dalmatians shelter in a barn, later guiding them home. His wife at the time, Queenie Leonard, voiced a cow in the barn.  His final television appearance was in the "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Simple Simon" (1964), playing the role of Guy Penrose.

Decline and death.

Despite having been financially successful in his twenty-four-year film career, Conway later struggled to make ends meet. Failing eyesight and alcoholism took their toll on him in his last years.  His first marriage ended in divorce in 1953.  His second wife (Leonard) divorced him in 1963 because of his drinking problem. His alcoholism also cost him his relationship with his brother George Sanders, who broke off all contact with him.  Conway underwent cataract surgery during the winter of 1964–1965. In September 1965 he briefly returned to the headlines, having been discovered living in a $2-a-day room in a Venice, Los Angeles flophouse. Gifts, contributions and offers of aid poured in for a time. Conway estimated he had earned $900,000 in his career but was broke. "I don't particularly want to act," he said. He said he lost his last $15,000 to swindlers in a lumber deal. Lew Ayres paid his rent.  His last years were marked with hospitalizations. It was there that former sister-in-law Zsa Zsa Gabor paid Conway a visit and gave him $200. "Tip the nurses a little bit so they'll be good to you," she told him. The following day, the hospital called her to say that Conway had left with the $200, gone to his girlfriend's house, and become gravely sick in her bed. It was 22 April 1967, and he died from cirrhosis of the liver at the age of 62. His funeral was held in London.

Tom Conway (born Thomas Charles Sanders, 15 September 1904 – 22 April 1967) was a British film, television and radio actor remembered for playing private detectives (including The Falcon, Sherlock Holmes, Bulldog Drummond and The Saint) and psychiatrists.


Biography.

Early life.

Myron Holley Clark was born in Naples, Ontario County, New York on October 23, 1806.

Career.

He served in the state's militia as a lieutenant colonel and then entered politics, first serving as President of the then-village of Canandaigua, New York, and eventually becoming Sheriff of Ontario County, New York. He was a member of the New York State Senate (29th D.) from 1852 to 1854, sitting in the 75th, 76th and 77th New York State Legislatures. At the New York state election, 1854, he was elected Governor of New York in the closest gubernatorial election in New York State history. He was in office from 1855 to 1856.  As Governor, Clark was noted for his meddling with militia appointments, causing the resignation of the state Adjutant General John Watts de Peyster.  Clark made several attempts to effect prohibition in the state and signed a prohibition law while governor, but the law was declared unconstitutional by the New York Court of Appeals. His steadfast advocating of temperance led to his nomination on the Prohibition ticket to run again for Governor at the New York state election, 1874. He finished in third place, behind Democrat Samuel J. Tilden and the incumbent Republican Governor John Adams Dix.

Personal life.

Clark died in Canandaigua, New York on August 23, 1892. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery (Canandaigua, New York).  Mary Clark Thompson was his daughter; as a memorial to Clark, in 1915 she presented a scenic and geologically significant tract of land to New York State that is now part of Clark Reservation State Park. Comptroller Clark Williams was his grandson.

Myron Holley Clark (October 23, 1806 – August 23, 1892) was an American politician from the U.S. state of New York.


Plot.

Valentina Rosselli (Isabelle De Funès) is a Milanese photographer with a knack for controversial shoots. Her friend and lover, Arno (George Eastman), is a director. One night, on her way home, Valentina gets struck by a car driven by a middle-aged blonde (Carroll Baker). She introduces herself as "Baba Yaga" and tells Valentina their meeting was pre-ordained. After she drives Valentina home, she snatches the clip from her garter belt, saying she needs a personal object from her and that she will return it tomorrow. Intrigued and disturbed, Valentina crashes for the night and has a series of strange and vivid dreams. As promised, Baba Yaga returns Valentina's garter clip the next day. She fondles a camera Valentina uses and invites her to her old home to take some photographs. Valentina visits the woman's house where she is given a doll dressed in bondage gear. Valentina's life suddenly becomes full of strange occurrences. After discovering Baba Yaga is somehow responsible for that, Valentina decides to go back to her house and confront her.

Production.

"Baba Yaga" was an adaptation of Guido Crepax's comic series "Valentina". Crepax had previously done film work with Tinto Brass who commissioned him to create the storyboards for his thriller film "Deadly Sweet". Brass had at one point considered adapting the story "La forza di gravita" from the "Valentina" comics to a film, but abandoned the idea when he felt that it would be impossible to portray Crepax's visual sensibilities to a film. Director Corrado Farina had admired Crepax's work, going as far to make a short documentary film "Freud a fumetti" (1970) which explored his comics. Farina noted that he had been disappointed by other works based on comics as "none of the filmmakers who embarked on that task had been able to deepen the relationship between the language of comics and that of film." Farina decided to explore the fantastical elements of Crepax's comics as opposed to the more erotic overtones. During pre-production Farina signed a deal with producer Turi Vasile, which led him to Franco Committeri who later took over for Vasile as the film's financial backer. Farina made changes to the script by removing the character Philip Rembrandt and turning a small character in the comic, that of film director Arno Treves into a role as large as Valentina. After finishing the script, Committeri left the project after the release of Marco Bellocchio's "Slap the Monster on Page One" (1972). Farina had to find a new producer, and eventually signed with a company called 14 luglio Cinematografica. A French film production company is also credited, but this was predominantly done for tax reasons. The French connections eventually led to the casting of Isabelle De Funès as Valentina. Farina was not happy with her in the role, as his first choice had been Elsa Martinelli. He eventually had to choose between De Funès and Stefania Casini. The director initially had wanted the popular Italian singer Ornella Vanoni for the role of Baba Yaga in the film. He eventually cast Anne Heywood who left the project as shooting began. This led to Farina casting Carroll Baker in haste. George Eastman was cast as Arno. Farina was unfamiliar with the actor at the time but found that "he proved to be fit for the role. He had the right looks.".  After completing shooting and post-production on the film, Farina left for a vacation. On returning, he found that producers had edited nearly half an hour out of his film, who found it too slow. The cuts made to this film were done on the negative of the film, making Farina lose his original edit of "Baba Yaga". Farina was furious and threatened to take his name off the film. With the help of assistant director Giuilio Berruti, they tried to re-edit "Baba Yaga" but since the original version was lost, they could not complete it per their original idea.

Release.

Before "Baba Yaga"'s release in Italy, the Italian Board of Censors ordered two cuts: the first being a long shot of De Funes full frontal nudity and the moment where Baker undresses before Valentina. "Baba Yaga" was released in Italy in 1973. Film historian and critic Roberto Curti stated that the film had poor box-office results due to bad distribution in Italy.  The film was shown as the 1973 Trieste Science Fiction Festival. "Baba Yaga" was released in the United States on DVD and Blu-Ray by Blue Underground.

Reception.

Curti noted that most critics panned the film. In a contemporary review, Geoff Brown ("Monthly Film Bulletin") reviewed an 81-minute dubbed version of the film. Brown noted that due to 20 minutes of the film being cut and through the English-language dub, the film had lost some of Farina's socio-political arguments". Brown noted that most of these comments however are brought down to "modish chit-chat" ranging through ideas that Valentina preferred Laurel & Hardy to Jean-Luc Godard. Brown's review noted that the film was an "airily directed horror-and-sex tale in the Bava tradition" and that it could "hold its own with ease" and that the film "looks as thought it may be swallowed up by its surface of esoteric chic. The movie's backbone of mainstream horror just about pulls it through."  From retrospective reviews, Danny Shipka, who discussed this film in his book on European exploitation films, noted that the film is "never uninteresting and the comic book style in which many of the scenes, especially the sex scenes are filmed is well handled" as well as that it was "not altogether successful mix of Guido Crepax's Italian comic book genius and European exploitation", concluding that it "seems to be lacking the "spark" that made the comic books so memorable." Film critic and horror author Kim Newman referred to the film as "enormously boring". "TV Guide" referred to the film as an "exceptionally handsome example of 1970s Italian pop-exploitation filmmaking sweetened by Piero Umilani's lounge-jazz score," and praised Baker's performance, but noted that she was "physically wrong for the role; her elaborate lace-and-beribboned costumes sometimes make her look more like a fleshy Miss Havisham than a sleekly predatory sorceress".

Baba Yaga is a 1973 horror film directed by Corrado Farina and based on the Guido Crepax "Valentina" comic series. The film stars Carroll Baker, Isabelle De Funès and George Eastman. It is about a Milanese photographer Valentina Rosselli who meets a middle-aged seductress who calls herself "Baba Yaga". She shows an ostensible sexual interest in Valentina and gives her a doll dressed in leather fetish wear. It is soon revealed that Baba Yaga has started to control Valentina through the doll.


Life.

Gustaf Britsch was born into a middle-class Swabian family of teachers. He left his family early. He first studied architecture at the University of Stuttgart and worked as an architect in Stuttgart. Then he enrolled in 1906 at the Munich University of Philosophy and studied with Hans Cornelius and Theodor Lipps. He created theories to the understanding of art by early 1907, which were received by Adolf von Hildebrand and Konrad Fiedler. In 1909 he founded in Florence the "Institute of Theoretical and Applied Art Studies". In 1910, he was encouraged by Cornelius to publish his theories. He moved back to Munich in 1911 and in 1912 opened the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Arts Science again on Theresa Street in Schwabing. In 1913 he spoke at the Congress of Aesthetics and General Art Studies in Berlin. Together with his student Egon Kornmann he represented a highly regarded school of thought about children's artistic development, which found its way into art education programs in Germany. These theories were also contradictory to others, such as Richard Mund.  After Britschs' death, Kornmannn continued the Gustaf Britsch Institute in Starnberg. He also married Britschs' widow Louise, and clarified with her Britschs' designs and theories. So the Starnberger Kornmann-Britsch-circle (also Britsch-Kormann School) was founded, which employed art teacher Hans Herrmann. Kornmann was editor in the 1930s of the magazine "The Shape".

Gustaf Britsch Institute.

The Gustaf Britsch Institute for Art Research (also known as: Institute of Theoretical and Applied Arts Science; School of Fine Arts Starnberg; private art school Britsch-Kornmann; Gustaf Britsch Institute for comparative viewing art) existed from 1912 in Munich and then from about 1920 to about 1967 in a fashionable villa on Prinzenweg 13 in Starnberg, headed by Egon and Louise Kornmann.  Numerous international artists and art teachers were trained and employed for decades, such as:

Works.

Britsch published art theoretical essays, which were created in part by Gustaf Britsch Institute Starnberg as teaching material:

Gustaf Adolf Britsch (11 August 1879 – 27 October 1923) was an early 20th-century German art theorist and the founder of Gustaf Britsch Institute in Starnberg, Germany.


Early years.

Fortmann was born in 1916 in Pearl River, New York. His father, Bernhard Gerhart Fortmann, was a New York native and salesman of butter and eggs. His mother, Emma Margaret Doscher, was also a New York native.  Fortmann attended Pearl River High School where he earned 12 varsity letters in sports and was the valedictorian of his class.

Colgate.

At age 16, Fortmann enrolled at Colgate University where he played football, playing as a halfback as a freshman before moving to guard and becoming a starter in 1934 and 1935. Colgate football coach Andrew Kerr called Fortmann "the best player I ever handled." After the 1935 season, he was selected to play in multiple all-star games, including the East–West Shrine Game (January 1, 1937) and the Chicago College All-Star Game (September 1, 1937). Dick Hanley, who coached Fortmann in the Shrine Game, praised Fortmann as a great blocker and urged Chicago Bears owner George Halas to sign Fortmann.  In addition to playing football, Fortmann was also an outstanding student at Colgate. He received straight A's as a pre-med student and graduated with Phi Beta Kappa honors at age 19. He was also president of his senior class and a member of the Delta Upsilon (DU) fraternity.

Professional football.

At age 19, Fortmann was selected by the Chicago Bears in the ninth and final round (78th overall pick) of the 1936 NFL Draft. After being drafted by the Bears, Fortmann was unsure whether he should attend medical school or play professional football. Bears owner George Halas persuaded Fortmann that he could do both and advanced funds to Fortmann for medical school. After speaking with Halas, Fortmann signed with the Bears in May 1936. At the time, he was the youngest person ever signed by an NFL team.  Due to his medical school obligations, Fortmann missed most of the Bears' sessions in his first four years with the team. In 1941, during his medical internship, he described pro football as "just the means to an end", the end being practicing medicine as a surgeon. Yet, Fortmann became fiercely loyal to Halas, saying: "Halas is the salt of the earth. There is nobody I admire and respect more than him."  Fortmann remained with the Bears for his entire professional football career, lasting for eight years from 1936 to 1943. He appeared in 86 games for the Bears. By 1939, Fortmann had established himself as one of the best most valuable players in the NFL. In voting by NFL coaches for the 1939 All-Pro Team, Fortmann received 37 points, the second highest individual vote of any player.  Fortmann was team captain of the Bears starting in 1940. As team captain, he led the Bears to back-to-back NFL championships in 1940 and 1941 with records of 8–3 and 10–1. After the 1940 season, Fortmann was rated as the best lineman in the NFL. The United Press called him "the heart and soul" of the Bears' ground attack that "rolled up a vast amount of yardage overland."  In the 1940 NFL Championship Game, the Bears defeated the Washington Redskins by a 73-0 score. Fortman later cited the 1940 championship game as proof of Halas' skill as a "master of psychology." The Bears had lost to the Redskins three weeks earlier, and Fortmann recalled that Halas kept reminding the Bears of that defeat every day, and when the team took the field for the championship game, "they were keyed the highest emotionally I ever saw them."  In August 1942, quarterback Bob Snyder called Fortmann "a perfect football player" and "the most important man on the Bear squad." The 1942 Bears compiled a perfect 11–0 record in the regular season and won the Western Division championship, but lost to the Washington Redskins in the 1942 NFL Championship Game.  Fortmann announced his retirement from the NFL in January 1943, but was persuaded to return for the 1943 season. He continued to practice medicine at Pittsburgh's Presbyterian Hospital during the 1943 season, flying in on Saturdays to play with the Bears on Sundays. The 1943 Bears compiled an 8–1–1 record and defeated the Washington Redskins in the 1943 NFL Championship Game, which proved to be Fortmann's last game as an NFL player. He announced his retirement five days after the championship game.

Honors and awards.

Fortmann received numerous honors and awards during and after his football career, including the following:

Later years and family.

Fortmann was married to Mary Van Halteren in a ceremony at East Lansing, Michigan, on March 19, 1938. They had two sons, Thomas and Stephen.  Fortmann enrolled at Rush Medical School at the University of Chicago where he studied medicine while playing for the Bears. He obtained his medical degree in 1940. He interned at Harper Hospital in Detroit and completed his surgical training at the University of Pittsburgh.  In the fall of 1944, he served as the line coach for the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team.  In February 1945, Fortmann was commissioned as a lieutenant in the United States Navy. In April 1945, he was assigned to an attack transport ship in the South Pacific. He served in the Navy Medical Corps on a hospital ship in the Pacific theater.  In 1946, Fortmann was licensed to practice medicine in California and began practicing on Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles. He worked as a surgeon at St. Joseph Hospital in Burbank, California, from 1948 until 1984. He became the hospital's chief of staff in 1965. He also served as the team physician for the Los Angeles Rams from 1947 to 1963. Fortmann and his family in Toluca Lake and/or Burbank until 1974 when they moved to Pasadena.  Fortmann was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1983 and, in 1988, began living at the John Douglas French Center, a facility in Los Alamitos, California, specializing in the care of Alzheimer's patients. He died at French Center in May 1995 at age 79.

Daniel John Fortmann (April 11, 1916 – May 23, 1995) was an American professional football player who was a guard for the Chicago Bears in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Colgate University. Playing for Chicago from 1936 to 1943, he was selected as an All-Pro for seven consecutive years from 1937 to 1943. He was the Bears' team captain starting in 1940 and led the team to NFL championships in 1940, 1941, and 1943.


Examples.

As seen in Figure 1, earthen slopes can develop a cut-spherical weakness area. The probability of this happening can be calculated in advance using a simple 2-D circular analysis package. A primary difficulty with analysis is locating the most-probable slip plane for any given situation. Many landslides have only been analyzed after the fact. More recently slope stability radar technology has been employed, particularly in the mining industry, to gather real time data and assist in determining the likelihood of slope failure. Real life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are not necessarily circular, but prior to computers, it was far easier to analyse such a simplified geometry. Nevertheless, failures in 'pure' clay can be quite close to circular. Such slips often occur after a period of heavy rain, when the pore water pressure at the slip surface increases, reducing the effective normal stress and thus diminishing the restraining friction along the slip line. This is combined with increased soil weight due to the added groundwater. A'shrinkage' crack (formed during prior dry weather) at the top of the slip may also fill with rain water, pushing the slip forward. At the other extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock. Again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or removal of support at the toe (resulting from road widening or other construction work). Stability can thus be significantly improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilising forces. Once the slip has occurred, however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, which may then recur at the next monsoon.  Slope stability issues can be seen with almost any walk down a ravine in an urban setting. An example is shown in Figure 3, where a river is eroding the toe of a slope, and there is a swimming pool near the top of the slope. If the toe is eroded too far, or the swimming pool begins to leak, the forces driving a slope failure will exceed those resisting failure, and a landslide will develop, possibly quite suddenly.

Slope stabilization.

Stability of slopes can be improved by:

Analysis methods.

If the forces available to resist movement are greater than the forces driving movement, the slope is considered stable. A factor of safety is calculated by dividing the forces resisting movement by the forces driving movement. In earthquake-prone areas, the analysis is typically run for static conditions and pseudo-static conditions, where the seismic forces from an earthquake are assumed to add static loads to the analysis. Slope stability analysis is performed to assess the safe design of a human-made or natural slopes (e.g. embankments, road cuts, open-pit mining, excavations, landfills etc.) and the equilibrium conditions. Slope stability is the resistance of inclined surface to failure by sliding or collapsing. The main objectives of slope stability analysis are finding endangered areas, investigation of potential failure mechanisms, determination of the slope sensitivity to different triggering mechanisms, designing of optimal slopes with regard to safety, reliability and economics, designing possible remedial measures, e.g. barriers and stabilization.  Successful design of the slope requires geological information and site characteristics, e.g. properties of soil/rock mass, slope geometry, groundwater conditions, alternation of materials by faulting, joint or discontinuity systems, movements and tension in joints, earthquake activity etc. The presence of water has a detrimental effect on slope stability. Water pressure acting in the pore spaces, fractures or other discontinuities in the materials that make up the pit slope will reduce the strength of those materials. Choice of correct analysis technique depends on both site conditions and the potential mode of failure, with careful consideration being given to the varying strengths, weaknesses and limitations inherent in each methodology.  Before the computer age stability analysis was performed graphically or by using a hand-held calculator. Today engineers have a lot of possibilities to use analysis software, ranges from simple "limit equilibrium" techniques through to computational limit analysis approaches (e.g. Finite element limit analysis, Discontinuity layout optimization) to complex and sophisticated "numerical solutions" (finite-/distinct-element codes). The engineer must fully understand limitations of each technique. For example, limit equilibrium is most commonly used and simple solution method, but it can become inadequate if the slope fails by complex mechanisms (e.g. internal deformation and brittle fracture, progressive creep, liquefaction of weaker soil layers, etc.). In these cases more sophisticated numerical modelling techniques should be utilised. Also, even for very simple slopes, the results obtained with typical limit equilibrium methods currently in use (Bishop, Spencer, etc.) may differ considerably. In addition, the use of the risk assessment concept is increasing today. Risk assessment is concerned with both the consequence of slope failure and the probability of failure (both require an understanding of the failure mechanism).  Within the last decade (2003) Slope Stability Radar has been developed to remotely scan a rock slope to monitor the spatial deformation of the face. Small movements of a rough wall can be detected with sub-millimeter accuracy by using interferometry techniques.

Limit equilibrium analysis.

Conventional methods of slope stability analysis can be divided into three groups: kinematic analysis, limit equilibrium analysis, and rock fall simulators. Most slope stability analysis computer programs are based on the limit equilibrium concept for a two- or three-dimensional model. Two-dimensional sections are analyzed assuming plane strain conditions. Stability analyses of two-dimensional slope geometries using simple analytical approaches can provide important insights into the initial design and risk assessment of slopes.  Limit equilibrium methods investigate the equilibrium of a soil mass tending to slide down under the influence of gravity. Translational or rotational movement is considered on an assumed or known potential slip surface below the soil or rock mass. In rock slope engineering, methods may be highly significant to simple block failure along distinct discontinuities. All these methods are based on the comparison of forces, moments, or stresses resisting movement of the mass with those that can cause unstable motion (disturbing forces). The output of the analysis is a factor of safety, defined as the ratio of the shear strength (or, alternatively, an equivalent measure of shear resistance or capacity) to the shear stress (or other equivalent measure) required for equilibrium. If the value of factor of safety is less than 1.0, the slope is unstable.  All limit equilibrium methods assume that the shear strengths of the materials along the potential failure surface are governed by linear ("Mohr-Coulomb") or non-linear relationships between shear strength and the normal stress on the failure surface. The most commonly used variation is Terzaghi's theory of shear strength which states that where formula_2 is the shear strength of the interface, formula_3 is the effective stress (formula_4 is the total stress normal to the interface and formula_5 is the pore water pressure on the interface), formula_6 is the effective friction angle, and formula_7 is the effective cohesion.  The methods of slices is the most popular limit equilibrium technique. In this approach, the soil mass is discretized into vertical slices. Several versions of the method are in use. These variations can produce different results (factor of safety) because of different assumptions and inter-slice boundary conditions.  The location of the interface is typically unknown but can be found using numerical optimization methods. For example, functional slope design considers the "critical" slip surface to be the location where that has the lowest value of factor of safety from a range of possible surfaces. A wide variety of slope stability software use the limit equilibrium concept with automatic critical slip surface determination.  Typical slope stability software can analyze the stability of generally layered soil slopes, embankments, earth cuts, and anchored sheeting structures. Earthquake effects, external loading, groundwater conditions, stabilization forces (i.e., anchors, geo-reinforcements etc.) can also be included.

Analytical techniques: Method of slices.

Many slope stability analysis tools use various versions of the methods of slices such as "Bishop simplified", "Ordinary method of slices" ("Swedish circle method/Petterson/Fellenius"), "Spencer", "Sarma" etc. "Sarma" and "Spencer" are called rigorous methods because they satisfy all three conditions of equilibrium: force equilibrium in horizontal and vertical direction and moment equilibrium condition. Rigorous methods can provide more accurate results than non-rigorous methods. "Bishop simplified" or "Fellenius" are non-rigorous methods satisfying only some of the equilibrium conditions and making some simplifying assumptions. Some of these approaches are discussed below.

Swedish Slip Circle Method of Analysis.

The Swedish Slip Circle method assumes that the friction angle of the soil or rock is equal to zero, i.e., formula_8. In other words, when friction angle is considered to be zero, the effective stress term goes to zero, thus equating the shear strength to the cohesion parameter of the given soil. The Swedish slip circle method assumes a circular failure interface, and analyzes stress and strength parameters using circular geometry and statics. The moment caused by the internal driving forces of a slope is compared to the moment caused by forces resisting slope failure. If resisting forces are greater than driving forces, the slope is assumed stable.

Ordinary Method of Slices.

In the method of slices, also called OMS or the Fellenius method, the sliding mass above the failure surface is divided into a number of slices. The forces acting on each slice are obtained by considering the mechanical (force and moment) equilibrium for the slices. Each slice is considered on its own and interactions between slices are neglected because the resultant forces are parallel to the base of each slice. However, Newton's third law is not satisfied by this method because, in general, the resultants on the left and right of a slice do not have the same magnitude and are not collinear.  This allows for a simple static equilibrium calculation, considering only soil weight, along with shear and normal stresses along the failure plane. Both the friction angle and cohesion can be considered for each slice. In the general case of the method of slices, the forces acting on a slice are shown in the figure below. The normal (formula_9) and shear (formula_10) forces between adjacent slices constrain each slice and make the problem statically indeterminate when they are included in the computation. For the ordinary method of slices, the resultant vertical and horizontal forces are where formula_12 represents a linear factor that determines the increase in horizontal force with the depth of the slice. Solving for formula_13 gives Next, the method assumes that each slice can rotate about a center of rotation and that moment balance about this point is also needed for equilibrium. A balance of moments for all the slices taken together gives where formula_16 is the slice index, formula_17 are the moment arms, and loads on the surface have been ignored. The moment equation can be used to solve for the shear forces at the interface after substituting the expression for the normal force: Using Terzaghi's strength theory and converting the stresses into moments, we have where formula_20 is the pore pressure. The factor of safety is the ratio of the maximum moment from Terzaghi's theory to the estimated moment,

Modified Bishop’s Method of Analysis.

The Modified Bishop's method is slightly different from the ordinary method of slices in that normal interaction forces between adjacent slices are assumed to be collinear and the resultant interslice shear force is zero. The approach was proposed by Alan W. Bishop of Imperial College. The constraint introduced by the normal forces between slices makes the problem statically indeterminate. As a result, iterative methods have to be used to solve for the factor of safety. The method has been shown to produce factor of safety values within a few percent of the "correct" values.  The factor of safety for moment equilibrium in Bishop's method can be expressed as where where, as before, formula_16 is the slice index, formula_7 is the effective cohesion, formula_6 is the effective internal angle of internal friction, formula_27 is the width of each slice, formula_28is the weight of each slice, and formula_5 is the water pressure at the base of each slice. An iterative method has to be used to solve for formula_30 because the factor of safety appears both on the left and right hand sides of the equation.

Lorimer's method.

Lorimer's Method is a technique for evaluating slope stability in cohesive soils. It differs from Bishop's Method in that it uses a clothoid slip surface in place of a circle. This mode of failure was determined experimentally to account for effects of particle cementation. The method was developed in the 1930s by Gerhardt Lorimer (Dec 20, 1894-Oct 19, 1961), a student of geotechnical pioneer Karl von Terzaghi.

Spencer’s Method.

Spencer's Method of analysis requires a computer program capable of cyclic algorithms, but makes slope stability analysis easier. Spencer's algorithm satisfies all equilibria (horizontal, vertical and driving moment) on each slice. The method allows for unconstrained slip plains and can therefore determine the factor of safety along any slip surface. The rigid equilibrium and unconstrained slip surface result in more precise safety factors than, for example, Bishop's Method or the Ordinary Method of Slices.

Sarma method.

The Sarma method, proposed by Sarada K. Sarma of Imperial College is a Limit equilibrium technique used to assess the stability of slopes under seismic conditions. It may also be used for static conditions if the value of the horizontal load is taken as zero. The method can analyse a wide range of slope failures as it may accommodate a multi-wedge failure mechanism and therefore it is not restricted to planar or circular failure surfaces. It may provide information about the factor of safety or about the critical acceleration required to cause collapse.

Comparisons.

The assumptions made by a number of limit equilibrium methods are listed in the table below.  The table below shows the statical equilibrium conditions satisfied by some of the popular limit equilibrium methods.

Rock slope stability analysis.

Rock slope stability analysis based on limit equilibrium techniques may consider following modes of failures:

Limit analysis.

A more rigorous approach to slope stability analysis is limit analysis. Unlike limit equilibrium analysis which makes ad-hoc though often reasonable assumptions, limit analysis is based on rigorous plasticity theory. This enables, among other things, the computation of upper and lower bounds on the true factor of safety.  Programs based on limit analysis include:

Stereographic and kinematic analysis.

Kinematic analysis examines which modes of failure can possibly occur in the rock mass. Analysis requires the detailed evaluation of rock mass structure and the geometry of existing discontinuities contributing to block instability. Stereographic representation (stereonets) of the planes and lines is used. Stereonets are useful for analyzing discontinuous rock blocks. Program DIPS allows for visualization structural data using stereonets, determination of the kinematic feasibility of rock mass and statistical analysis of the discontinuity properties.

Rockfall simulators.

Rock slope stability analysis may design protective measures near or around structures endangered by the falling blocks. Rockfall simulators determine travel paths and trajectories of unstable blocks separated from a rock slope face. Analytical solution method described by Hungr & Evans assumes rock block as a point with mass and velocity moving on a ballistic trajectory with regard to potential contact with slope surface. Calculation requires two restitution coefficients that depend on fragment shape, slope surface roughness, momentum and deformational properties and on the chance of certain conditions in a given impact.  Program ROCFALL provides a statistical analysis of trajectory of falling blocks. Method rely on velocity changes as a rock blocks roll, slide or bounce on various materials. Energy, velocity, bounce height and location of rock endpoints are determined and may be analyzed statistically. The program can assist in determining remedial measures by computing kinetic energy and location of impact on a barrier. This can help determine the capacity, size and location of barriers.

Numerical methods of analysis.

Numerical modelling techniques provide an approximate solution to problems which otherwise cannot be solved by conventional methods, e.g. complex geometry, material anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, in situ stresses. Numerical analysis allows for material deformation and failure, modelling of pore pressures, creep deformation, dynamic loading, assessing effects of parameter variations etc. However, numerical modelling is restricted by some limitations. For example, input parameters are not usually measured and availability of these data is generally poor. User also should be aware of boundary effects, meshing errors, hardware memory and time restrictions. Numerical methods used for slope stability analysis can be divided into three main groups: continuum, discontinuum and hybrid modelling.

Continuum modelling.

Modelling of the continuum is suitable for the analysis of soil slopes, massive intact rock or heavily jointed rock masses. This approach includes the "finite-difference" and "finite element" methods that discretize the whole mass to finite number of elements with the help of generated mesh (Fig. 3). In "finite-difference" method (FDM) differential equilibrium equations (i.e. strain-displacement and stress-strain relations) are solved. "finite element" method (FEM) uses the approximations to the connectivity of elements, continuity of displacements and stresses between elements. Most of numerical codes allows modelling of discrete fractures, e.g. bedding planes, faults. Several constitutive models are usually available, e.g. elasticity, elasto-plasticity, strain-softening, elasto-viscoplasticity etc.

Discontinuum modelling.

Discontinuum approach is useful for rock slopes controlled by discontinuity behaviour. Rock mass is considered as an aggregation of distinct, interacting blocks subjected to external loads and assumed to undergo motion with time. This methodology is collectively called the "discrete-element" method (DEM). Discontinuum modelling allows for sliding between the blocks or particles. The DEM is based on solution of dynamic equation of equilibrium for each block repeatedly until the boundary conditions and laws of contact and motion are satisfied. Discontinuum modelling belongs to the most commonly applied numerical approach to rock slope analysis and following variations of the DEM exist:  The "distinct-element" approach describes mechanical behaviour of both, the discontinuities and the solid material. This methodology is based on a force-displacement law (specifying the interaction between the deformable rock blocks) and a law of motion (determining displacements caused in the blocks by out-of-balance forces). Joints are treated as [boundary conditions. Deformable blocks are discretized into internal constant-strain elements.  Discontinuum program UDEC (Universal distinct element code) is suitable for high jointed rock slopes subjected to static or dynamic loading. Two-dimensional analysis of translational failure mechanism allows for simulating large displacements, modelling deformation or material yielding. Three-dimensional discontinuum code 3DEC contains modelling of multiple intersecting discontinuities and therefore it is suitable for analysis of wedge instabilities or influence of rock support (e.g. rockbolts, cables).  In "discontinuous deformation analysis" (DDA) displacements are unknowns and equilibrium equations are then solved analogous to "finite element" method. Each unit of "finite element" type mesh represents an isolated block bounded by discontinuities. Advantage of this methodology is possibility to model large deformations, rigid body movements, coupling or failure states between rock blocks.  Discontinuous rock mass can be modelled with the help of "distinct-element" methodology in the form of "particle flow" code, e.g. program PFC2D/3D. Spherical particles interact through frictional sliding contacts. Simulation of joint bounded blocks may be realized through specified bond strengths. Law of motion is repeatedly applied to each particle and force-displacement law to each contact. "Particle flow" methodology enables modelling of granular flow, fracture of intact rock, transitional block movements, dynamic response to blasting or seismicity, deformation between particles caused by shear or tensile forces. These codes also allow to model subsequent failure processes of rock slope, e.g. simulation of rock

Hybrid/coupled modelling.

Hybrid codes involve the coupling of various methodologies to maximize their key advantages, e.g. "limit equilibrium" analysis combined with "finite element" groundwater flow and stress analysis ; coupled "particle flow" and "finite-difference" analyses. Hybrid techniques allows investigation of piping slope failures and the influence of high groundwater pressures on the failure of weak rock slope. Coupled "finite-"/"distinct-element" codes provide for the modelling of both intact rock behaviour and the development and behaviour of fractures.

Rock mass classification.

Various rock mass classification systems exist for the design of slopes and to assess the stability of slopes. The systems are based on empirical relations between rock mass parameters and various slope parameters such as height and slope dip.  The Q-slope method for rock slope engineering and rock mass classification developed by Barton and Bar expresses the quality of the rock mass for assessing slope stability using the Q-slope value, from which long-term stable, reinforcement-free slope angles can be derived.

Probability classification.

The slope stability probability classification (SSPC) system is a rock mass classification system for slope engineering and slope stability assessment. The system is a three-step classification: "‘exposure’", "‘reference’", and "‘slope’" rock mass classification with conversion factors between the three steps depending on existing and future weathering and damage due to method of excavation. The stability of a slope is expressed as probability for different failure mechanisms.  A rock mass is classified following a standardized set of criteria in one or more exposures ("‘exposure’" classification). These values are converted per exposure to a "‘reference’" rock mass by compensating for the degree of weathering in the exposure and the method of excavation that was used to make the exposure, i.e. the "‘reference’" rock mass values are not influenced by local influences such as weathering and method of excavation. A new slope can then be designed in the "‘reference’" rock mass with compensation for the damage due to the method of excavation to be used for making the new slope and compensation for deterioration of the rock mass due to future weathering (the "‘slope’" rock mass). If the stability of an already existing slope is assessed the "‘exposure’" and "‘slope’" rock mass values are the same.  The failure mechanisms are divided in "orientation dependent" and "orientation independent". Orientation dependent failure mechanisms depend on the orientation of the slope with respect to the orientation of the discontinuities in the rock mass, i.e. sliding (plane and wedge sliding) and toppling failure. Orientation independent relates to the possibility that a slope fails independently from its orientation, e.g. circular failure completely through newly formed discontinuities in intact rock blocks, or failing partially following existing discontinuities and partially new discontinuities.  In addition the shear strength along a discontinuity ('sliding criterion') and 'rock mass cohesion' and 'rock mass friction' can be determined. The system has been used directly or modified in various geology and climate environments throughout the world. The system has been modified for slope stability assessment in open pit coal mining.

Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to withstand or undergo movement. The stability condition of slopes is a subject of study and research in soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering and engineering geology. Slope stability analyses include static and dynamic, analytical or empirical methods to evaluate the stability of earth and rock-fill dams, embankments, excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and rock. The analyses are generally aimed at understanding the causes of an occurred slope failure, or the factors that can potentially trigger a slope movement, resulting in a landslide, as well as at preventing the initiation of such movement, slowing it down or arresting it through mitigation countermeasures.


Personal life.

Ulrik Anton Motzfeldt was born on the island St. Thomas, then a part of the Danish West Indies. His father, Peter Motzfeldt (1777–1854) was a noted military officer and father of the Norwegian Constitution who was stationed on St. Thomas from 1802 to 1809, Ulrik's mother, Ernesta Birgitte Margrethe Stenersen (1789–1848), was the daughter of the B. C. Stenersen, stipendiary magistrate of St. Thomas. Ulrik's younger brother Ketil was also a noted statesman. In addition, their paternal great-grandmother Birgitte Andrea Bull was a first cousin of Johan Lausen Bull and Norway's first Supreme Court Justice Johan Randulf Bull.  Ulrik Anton Motzfeldt married twice. The marriage with his first wife produced two daughters. Their daughter Marie Sophie Erneste married jurist and politician Ulrik Fredrik Christian Arneberg. Motzfeldt later married Anna Pauline Jørgine Birch, and the couple had two sons and one daughter. Their oldest son Ernst became a government minister.

Career.

Ulrik Anton Motzfeldt enrolled as a law student in 1823, and graduated with the cand.jur. degree in 1826. In 1829 he was hired as a lector at the Royal Frederick University (now University of Oslo). He was promoted in 1834, to professor of jurisprudence. His most important publications include "Den norske Kirkeret" (1844) and "Lovgivningen om Odelsretten og Aasædesretten" (1846). From 1842 Ulrik Anton Motzfeldt also served as a Supreme Court Assessor.  Motzfeldt was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1851, representing the constituency of Smaalenenes Amt (now Østfold). He was re-elected in 1854, but this time representing the city of Christiania (now Oslo). He was then re-elected in 1857, 1859 and finally in 1862. He served as President of the Storting from 1857 to 1858, and President of the Lagting from 1859 to 1860. He also served as mayor of Kristiania from 1853 to 1860.

Ulrik Anton Motzfeldt (27 January 1807 – 10 July 1865) was a Norwegian jurist and politician. He served five terms in the Norwegian Parliament, including two years as President. He was also a professor at the University of Christiania and an Assessor of the Supreme Court.


Description.

"Juniperus occidentalis" shoots are of moderate thickness among junipers, at 1–1.6 mm diameter. The leaves are arranged in opposite decussate pairs or whorls of three; the adult leaves are scale-like, 1–2 mm long (to 5 mm on lead shoots) and 1–1.5 mm broad. The juvenile leaves (on young seedlings only) are needle-like, 5–10 mm long. The cones are berry-like, 5–10 mm in diameter, blue-brown with a whitish waxy bloom, and contain one to three seeds; they are mature in about 18 months. The male cones are 2–4 mm long, and shed their pollen in early spring.

Taxonomy.

The Sierra juniper, "Juniperus grandis", is sometimes treated as a subspecies or variety of "J. occidentalis" (as "J. occidentalis" var. "australis"). The two species are distinguished by range, form, as well as essential oil and genetic evidence.

Habitat.

"Juniperus occidentalis" usually occurs on dry, rocky sites where there is less competition from larger species like ponderosa pine and coast Douglas-fir. In very exposed positions at high altitude, they can assume a krummholz habit, growing low to the ground even when mature with a wide trunk. Hybrids with "Juniperus osteosperma" are occasionally found.

Ecology.

The cones are an important food for several birds, including American robin, Clark's nutcracker, phainopepla and cedar waxwing; these digest the fleshy cone scales and disperse the seeds in their droppings.  The plants often bear galls caused by the juniper tip midge, "Oligotrophus betheli". These are violet-purple fading to brown, 1–2 cm diameter, with dense modified spreading scale-leaves 6–10 mm long and 2–3 mm broad at the base.

Juniperus occidentalis, known as the western juniper, is a shrub or tree native to the western United States, growing in mountains at altitudes of and rarely down to. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because it is a widespread species with an increasing population.


WH edition.

Westcott and Hort distinguished four text types in their studies. The most recent is the Syrian, or Byzantine text-type (eastern), of which the newest example is the Textus Receptus and thus from the critical text view is less likely reliable. The Western text-type is much older, but tends to paraphrase, so according to the critical text view also lacks dependability. The Alexandrian text-type, exemplified in the Codex Ephraemi, exhibits a polished Greek style. The two scholars identified their favorite text type as "Neutral text", exemplified by two 4th-century manuscripts, the Codex Vaticanus (known to scholars since the 15th century), and the Codex Sinaiticus (discovered in 1859), both of which they relied on heavily (albeit not exclusively) for this edition. This text has only a few changes of the original. This edition is based on the critical works especially of Tischendorf and Tregelles. The minuscules play a minimal role in this edition.  Westcott and Hort worked on their Testament from 1853 until its completion in 1881. It was followed by an "Introduction and Appendix" by Hort appearing in a second volume in 1882. In 1892, a revised edition was released by F. C. Burkitt.

Reception.

The edition of Westcott and Hort began a new epoch in the history of textual criticism. Most critical editions published after Westcott and Hort share their preference of the Alexandrian text-type and therefore are similar to "The New Testament in the Original Greek". An exception is the text edited by Hermann von Soden. Soden's edition stands much closer to the text of Tischendorf than to the text of Westcott and Hort. All editions of Nestle-Aland remain close in textual character to the text WH. Aland reports that, while NA25 text shows, for example, 2,047 differences from von Soden, 1,996 from Vogels, 1,268 from Tischendorf, 1,161 from Bover, and 770 from Merk, it contains only 558 differences from WH text.  According to Bruce M. Metzger, "the general validity of their critical principles and procedures is widely acknowledged by scholars today." In 1981 Metzger said:  Philip Comfort gave this opinion:

Other editions of Greek New Testament.

The texts of Nestle-Aland, and of Bover and Merk, differ very little from the text of the Westcott-Hort.

The New Testament in the Original Greek is a Greek-language version of the New Testament published in 1881. It is also known as the Westcott and Hort text, after its editors Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) and Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828–1892). (Textual scholars use the abbreviation "WH".) It is a critical text, compiled from some of the oldest New Testament fragments and texts that had been discovered at the time. The two editors worked together for 28 years.


Description.

Gaudey (1892) listed the following unambiguous character states for the genus upon the description of species "L. compressidens": "Premaxilla with small rostrum present anterior to premaxillary teeth. Thirteen to fourteen teeth in maxilla. Fourteen to sixteen teeth in dentary. Small projection of dentary anterior to first dentary tooth. Mandibular teeth become highly compressed and bicarinate posteriorly, enamel surfaces smooth".  The type species of "Liodon", "L. anceps", is based only on a jaw fragment containing two teeth. The teeth were symmetrically bicarinate and smoothly surfaced, which lent the genus its name. Beyond the type specimen, few additional specimens have been assigned to "L. anceps" but it has been suggested by multiple authors that "L. anceps" is congeneric with "Hainosaurus", a member of the Tylosaurinae, on the basis of similarities in the teeth. "Liodon compressidens", known from Campanian-age deposits in France, is better known than "L. anceps" and clearly a mosasaurine mosasaur. The species "L. sectorius", known from the Navesink Formation of New Jersey, is based on fragmentary remains, primarily teeth, and seems to represent a species intermediate between "L. compressidens" and "L. mosasauroides".

Classification.

"Liodon anceps" was originally named by Richard Owen in 1841 as ""Leiodon anceps"" and was upon its description based only on two tooth fragments and a minor portion of the corresponding jaw bone. Owen recognised the teeth as more similar to those of "Mosasaurus" than to any other reptile teeth known at the time. In 1846, Louis Agassiz noted that the genus name was already preoccupied by the fish "Leiodon" and thus replaced the genus name with "Liodon".  "Liodon" was one of the original genera included within the Mosasauridae upon its creation in 1853, along with "Mosasaurus" itself, "Onchosaurus" (later recognised to have been a batoid fish), "Oplosaurus" (a sauropod dinosaur), "Macrosaurus" (a historical mosasaur "wastebasket taxon") and "Geosaurus" (a thalattosuchian crocodyliform).  Russell (1967) considered "Liodon" to represent a mosasaurine and a member of the tribe Mosasaurini along with "Clidastes", "Mosasaurus", "Amphekepubis" (a dubious genus) and "Compressidens" (later renamed to "Carinodens").  With the description of three additional species of the genus over the second half of the nineteenth century; "L. sectorius", "L. compressidens" and "L. mosasauroides", Lingham-Soliar (1993) suggested that the genus of "Liodon" could be given a proper generic diagnosis. However, Schulp et al. (2008) pointed out that the type specimen of "Liodon anceps" (BMNH 41639) is at present missing the teeth, in which the diagnositic features that supposedly unite the genus are found, and thus considered the genus a "nomen dubium". Due to similarities with the recently described species of "Prognathodon", "P. kianda", the three species of "Liodon" other than the type species ("L. sectorius", "L. compressidens" and "L. mosasauroides") were then assigned to "Prognathodon". With ""Prognathodon"" "kianda" repeatedly being recovered as a mosasaurine more basal than "Prognathodon" and likely a separate genus on its own, the phylogenetic placement of "L. sectorius" and "L. compressidens" remains highly uncertain. ""Liodon" mosasauroides" is apparently referable to the Maastrichtian-age genus "Eremiasaurus" based on unpublished morphological comparisons reported in an SVP abstract by Mohr et al. (2019).

Liodon ("smooth tooth") is a dubious genus of mosasaur from the Late Cretaceous. Remains assigned to this genus have been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and New Zealand. Though dubious and of uncertain phylogenetic affinities, "Liodon" was historically a highly important taxon in mosasaur systematics, being one of the genera on which the family Mosasauridae was based.


Building.

The house is on a wooded lot on the east side of Route 9, the remainder of the much larger original farm. It is a one-and-a-half-story, five-bay clapboard-sided frame house on a stone foundation. The main block is long by wide. A 12-foot-square (4 m) one-story flat-roofed wing projects from the south.  Its gabled saltbox-profile roof is surfaced in seamed metal with a shallow cornice at the front. Siding on the front is modern plywood, installed after the original facade was destroyed in a fire. The main entrance is located in the center. It leads to a central interior hall with large rooms on either side and a matching exit in the rear. A staircase to the second story is also in the rear.  The interior rooms are currently vacant, used for storage. An original mantelpiece and fireplace were located in the north end, but these have been removed and boarded up due to the damage caused by the fire. The second story has also been severely damaged. The basement retains the most original character of any room in the house.  There is one outbuilding on the property, a three-bay gabled barn to the east. It is considered to be a contributing resource to the Register listing since it is built around the remnant of an original Dutch barn. Among those remnants is the center pole, which an inscription dates to 1770. There are also the remnants of another barn and well to the rear.

History.

The first owner associated with the house was Franz Neher, one of the original Palatine German settlers of the area. He had come to New York from Birkenfeld with his father, Karel, as a boy in the 1710s. Karel's name appears on tax records in the area until his death in 1733. Franz is listed as the resident of the house on a contemporary map published by a local church. He served as a captain during the French and Indian War and later appears to have taken up shoemaking as a trade.  In 1762 the records of local landowner Robert Livingston show that a Ludowick Elseffer became the lessee of the property, then in size. His descendants would own the property until its last resident, Karen Losee. They modified the exterior around 1800, and renovated the interior in the 1830s, moving the staircase further back and plastering the ceilings, which previously exposed rafters. In 1872 the south wing was added, the last significant change to the house.  After it became vacant, it was damaged by a fire in 2000. The front facade had to be resided, and the north chimney and its fireplace and mantel were removed and boarded up. These actions further compromised the heavily damaged second story.  The property was later donated to the local Quitman Resource Center, which plans to restore the house and use it as a museum. In 2002 it received a grant from the Preservation League of New York State to do a historic structure report on the house. Two years later, in 2004, it received a $25,000 matching grant from the state to restore the rear wall and do archaeological research.

The Neher–Elseffer House is located on U.S. Route 9 a short distance north of its intersection with New York State Route 9G in Rhinebeck, New York, United States. It is a frame house built in 1746, one of the rare pre-Revolutionary frame houses in the Rhinebeck area. Its current appearance reflects renovations made circa 1800, and the interior was altered in the 1830s.


History.

Originally, Diskeeper was developed for the VAX series of minicomputers and later for Microsoft Windows. The defragmentation program which is included with Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 is based on a basic version of Diskeeper.

Features.

In addition to resolving file system fragmentation, Diskeeper also prevents fragmentation before it happens by optimizing the process of data being written to disk. Diskeeper can also defragment files on-the-fly, using only idle system resources as needed.  Another feature in Diskeeper is I-FAAST, or "Intelligent File Access Acceleration Sequencing Technology". I-FAAST determines the frequency of file usage and the most frequently used files are then moved to the best portion of the disc. According to Diskeeper, this results in faster file access and also helps prevent future fragmentation of those files. The I-FAAST feature is available in Professional, Pro Premier and Server editions.  There are six versions available: "Home", "Professional", "Pro Premier", "HomeServer", "Server", and "EnterpriseServer". Diskeeper Administrator is also available to manage Diskeeper options as well as perform advanced installations. Version 10 was the last version available for Windows 9x. After version 10, Diskeeper versions follow the year based naming convention, that is, 2007, 2008 and so on.

Critical reception.

Diskeeper 2009 won Editor's Best Gold Award and Community's Choice Bronze Award for best system utility of 2009 from "Windows IT Pro". Diskeeper 2010 however, only managed to achieve Editor's Best Bronze Award for best system utility of 2010.

Diskeeper is a defragmentation program designed for Microsoft Windows. It was developed by Executive Software International, Inc., which later changed its name to Diskeeper Corporation, and is now called Condusiv Technologies.


Biography.

Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White was born on 10 August 1911. His father, H. N. Sherwin-White, was a solicitor employed by the London County Council. From 1923 to 1930 he was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, apart from one year in which ill health forced him to study independently at home. He won a scholarship to the School's "sister foundation" St John's College, Oxford, where he began the "Literae Humaniores" course in 1930. His tutor in ancient history was the well-known Hugh Last, whose interest in Roman administrative history influenced the direction of his student's later scholarship. Sherwin-White achieved first-class honours in both sets of Oxford examinations, the preliminary Honour Moderations and the more important Finals which he sat in 1934.  Sherwin-White started work the same year on his doctoral thesis, on Roman citizenship. In 1935, he was awarded the Derby Scholarship and Arnold Historical Essay Prize. In 1936, he married Marie Leonora Downes. He was also selected ahead of older competitors to succeed to Last's fellowship at St John's College, despite not yet having a doctorate – this may have been at Last's recommendation. His thesis was submitted in 1937, and the examiners M. Cary and R. Syme commended its "maturity of judgement such as one hardly dares to expect from a young scholar". Sherwin-White declined to accept the actual doctorate, preferring to remain known as "Mr", but he revised the thesis for publication as "The Roman Citizenship" (1939). It came to be regarded as "a classic of modern historical writing on Rome".  Sherwin-White's poor eyesight kept him from active service during World War II, but the President of St John's wrote to the Director of Naval Intelligence to recommend him for a post, and he was commissioned on 4 December 1941 as a Temporary Sub-Lieutenant. He helped to edit some of the Admiralty's series of geographical handbooks, acquiring detailed geographical knowledge that he displayed in subsequent scholarship including a 1944 article about the historical geography of Algeria.  Sherwin-White returned after the War to teaching at St John's, where he also served as "Keeper of the Groves" responsible for the college garden. Outside recognition came in 1956 with his election as a fellow of the British Academy. He produced a school textbook, "Ancient Rome" (1959), as well as more advanced works including "Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament" (1963), identified retrospectively by the Roman historian Fergus Millar as "[t]he most stimulating and original" of his postwar works. Arising from his studies of Roman law and administration, this indicated "his conviction of the essential historicity of the narratives in the New Testament", especially in the critique he mounted in his closing pages against "form-criticism of the extremer sort".  Sherwin-White's Oxford career was not interrupted by his family's move in 1963 to a cottage near Fyfield, Oxfordshire. 1966 saw the publication of a work "at least eighteen years" in the making: his historical and social commentary on the letters of Pliny the Younger, the first such work ever compiled and one not yet replaced. In Millar's assessment, it "combined immense erudition, percipience and sharpness of vision with a curious slapdashness about small details"; these errors were keenly hunted down by contemporary reviewers. In the same year Sherwin-White became Reader in Ancient History; although he was a potential choice to succeed Ronald Syme as Camden Professor of Ancient History in 1970, this role went to Peter Brunt. Sherwin-White did serve as President of the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies between 1974 and 1977, and his "Roman Foreign Policy in the East" (1983) appeared four years into his retirement. He died on 1 November 1993 at Fyfield, survived by his wife and two children.

Adrian Nicholas Sherwin-White, FBA (10 August 1911 – 1 November 1993) was a British academic and ancient historian. He was a fellow of St John's College, University of Oxford and President of the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. His most important works include a study of Roman citizenship based on his doctoral thesis, a treatment of the New Testament from the point of view of Roman law and society, and a commentary on the letters of Pliny the Younger.


Career.

Born in Saransk, he won the 10 km youth section of the 2005 Russian Winter Walking Championships, then came a close second to Vladimir Akhmetov at the national junior championships. He and Akhmetov duelled at the 2005 World Youth Championships in Athletics and Morozov came out on top to win the world youth title over 10,000 m. The following year, he won the national junior winter title then won the junior race at the 2006 IAAF World Race Walking Cup. He was the leader early on at the 2006 World Junior Championships in Athletics, but collapsed mid-race and did not finish. In 2007 he had a series of wins over the 10K distance: he won the Russian junior winter title, then the 2007 European Race Walking Cup junior title, culminating in a gold medal at the 2007 European Athletics Junior Championships. He made his senior debut in September at the IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final in his native Saransk, but was disqualified for lifting.  Stepping up to the senior 20 km distance, he competed at the Russian Winter Championships, but was again disqualified. However, he went on to win the Russian title in Saransk in June with a world record of 1:16:43 hours, although this mark was never ratified as a record because no doping control was taken at the competition. He was among the favoured athletes for the 2008 Olympic title but he was suspended after a positive test for erythropoietin (EPO) and was given a two-year ban from the sport, lasting until September 2010.  In his first full season after his doping ban, he returned to the top level of competition. He was runner-up to Vladimir Kanaykin at the Russian Winter Championships. He performed poorly at the 2011 European Race Walking Cup, coming 13th in a time of 1:26:44 hours, but he gained selection for the 2011 World Championships in Athletics after winning the Russian 20 km title in a time of 1:19:18 hours. Despite entering the competition as Russian champion, he was the slowest of the four Russian representatives at the World Championships and he finished in twelfth place.  Morozov opened 2012 with a second-place finish behind Andrei Ruzavin at the Russian Winter Championships.

Sergey Morozov (born 21 March 1988) is a Russian race walker who competes in the 20 kilometres walk. He was the 2005 World Youth and 2007 European Junior champion in the 10,000 m walk, then walked a world's fastest time of 1:16:43 hours to win the 2008 Russian 20 km title. He was banned that year after testing positive for EPO.


Functions.

TFIIA interacts with the TBP subunit of TFIID and aids in the binding of TBP to TATA-box containing promoter DNA. Interaction of TFIIA with TBP facilitates formation of and stabilizes the preinitiation complex. Interaction of TFIIA with TBP also results in the exclusion of negative (repressive) factors that might otherwise bind to TBP and interfere with PIC formation. TFIIA also acts as a coactivator for some transcriptional activators, assisting with their ability to increase, or activate, transcription. The requirement for TFIIA "in vitro" transcription systems has been variable, and it can be considered either as a GTF and/or a loosely associated TAF-like coactivator. Genetic analysis in yeast has shown that TFIIA is essential for viability.

Structure.

TFIIA is a heterodimer with two subunits: one large unprocessed (subunit 1, or alpha/beta; gene name ) and one small (subunit 2, or gamma; gene name ). It was originally believed to be a heterotrimer of an alpha (p35), a beta (p19) and a gamma subunit (p12). In humans, the sizes of the encoded proteins are approximately 55 kD and 12 kD. Both genes are present in species ranging from humans to yeast, and their protein products interact to form a complex composed of a beta barrel domain and an alpha helical bundle domain. It is the N-terminal and C-terminal regions of the large subunit that participate in interactions with the small subunit. These regions are separated by another domain whose sequence is always present in large subunits from various species but whose size varies and whose sequence is poorly conserved. A second gene encoding a large TFIIA subunit has been found in some higher eukaryotes. This gene, ALF/TFIIAtau (gene name GTF2A1LF) is expressed only in oocytes and spermatocytes, suggesting it has a TFIIA-like regulatory role for gene expression only in germ cells.

Transcription factor TFIIA is a nuclear protein involved in the RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription of DNA. TFIIA is one of several general (basal) transcription factors (GTFs) that are required for all transcription events that use RNA polymerase II. Other GTFs include TFIID, a complex composed of the TATA binding protein TBP and TBP-associated factors (TAFs), as well as the factors TFIIB, TFIIE, TFIIF, and TFIIH. Together, these factors are responsible for promoter recognition and the formation of a transcription preinitiation complex (PIC) capable of initiating RNA synthesis from a DNA template.