Definition.

Latin American studies critically examines the history, culture, international relations, and politics, of Latin America. It is not to be confused with Latino Studies, an academic discipline which studies the experience of people of Hispanic ancestry in the United States.  Latin Americanists consider a variety of perspectives and employ diverse research tools in their work. The interdisciplinary disciplines of study varies, depending on the school, association, and academic program. For example, the Latin American Centre of the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies (SIAS) at the University of Oxford heavily focuses on the social sciences, such as the economics, politics, and development of the region. On the other hand, schools like Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies (LLILAS) at The University of Texas at Austin, focus on the humanities; with the language, culture, and history of Latin America as a central component. Others include the study of environment and ecology of the region.  Latin American studies is usually quite open and often includes or is closely associated with, for instance, Development studies, Geography, Anthropology, Caribbean studies, and Transatlantic studies.

History.

Latin America has been studied in one way or another ever since Columbus's voyage of 1492. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scientist explorers such as Alexander von Humboldt published extensively about the region. Towards the end of the nineteenth century and at the turn of the twentieth, within the region itself writers such as José Martí and José Enrique Rodó encouraged a consciousness of regional identity.  In 1875, the International Congress of Americanists held its first meeting in Nancy, France, and has met regularly ever since, alternating between venues in Europe and in the Western hemisphere. However, unlike the scholarly organizations of the twentieth century, the ICA does not have an ongoing organization, nor is there a journal of the ICA. The creation of formal and ongoing scholarly organizations focusing on Latin America is a product of the twentieth century.  In the US, historians with an interest in Latin American history within the American Historical Association created a group focusing on Latin America. In 1918, they founded "The Hispanic American Historical Review", which has published quarterly since that time and has built a reputation as one of the premier scholarly journals. The Latin Americanists within the AHA created the Conference on Latin American History in 1926, which is now separately incorporated (since 1964), but continues to coordinate its annual meetings with the American Historical Association. In 1936, US Latin Americanists also founded the "Handbook of Latin American Studies," with editorial offices in the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress. In a pre-digital era, the compilation of annotated bibliographic references in the humanities and social science organized by subject and country was a vital tool for scholars in the field. In 1954 was founded in Paris the Institute of Latin American Studies (IHEAL), by the geographer Pierre Monbeig.  With the Cuban Revolution of 1959, the US government began seriously focusing on Latin America as Cuba and the hemisphere was seen to be an integral element of Cold War politics. The Latin American historian who wrote the early history of the founding of the Latin American Studies Association wryly suggested in 1966 that at some future date Latin Americanists should erect a statue to Fidel Castro, the "remote godfather" of the field, who instigated a renewed US interest in the region.  Interest in Latin American studies increased starting in the 1950s. In the US, Latin American studies (like other area studies) was boosted by the passing of Title VI of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958, which provided resources for Centers of Area and International Studies. In the UK, the 1965 "Parry Report" provided similar impetus for the establishment of Institutes and Centres of Latin American Studies at Oxford, London, Cambridge, and Liverpool. In Canada, York University in Toronto established the first Latin American center, "in part thanks to the inflow of exiled intellectuals from South America." Germany's Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut in Berlin had been founded in 1930, but not until the 1970s did it experience expansion.

Some notable Latin Americanists.

See also

Latin American studies (LAS) is an academic and research field associated with the study of Latin America. The interdisciplinary study is a subfield of area studies, and can be composed of numerous disciplines such as economics, sociology, history, international relations, political science, geography, gender studies, and literature.


Early life and education.

Berry was born in Houston, Texas. She graduated from Jenks High School in 2001, and attended the University of Oklahoma with a major in elementary education. She expressed hopes to attain a Master's in education and become an elementary school teacher after her reign as Miss America.

Pageants.

Miss Oklahoma 2005.

She won the Miss Oklahoma 2005 title in a state pageant held Tulsa on June 11, 2005. She competed as Miss Grand Lake and was a double preliminary winner, winning awards for both talent and swimsuit. This was Berry's fifth attempt at the state title, as she placed third runner-up in 2004 and 2003, made the top 10 in 2002 and was unplaced in 2001.

Miss America 2006.

Berry represented Oklahoma in the Miss America 2006 pageant broadcast from the Theatre for the Performing Arts on the Las Vegas Strip on January 21, 2006, the first time the pageant was held outside Atlantic City, New Jersey. During the preliminary competitions Berry won a preliminary talent award for her ballet en pointe performance. At the end of the final night of competition, which involved interview, swimsuit, evening gown and talent competitions, Berry won the Miss America 2006 title, the first titleholder to be crowned outside Atlantic City.  Her platform issue as Miss Oklahoma and Miss America was "Building Intolerance to Drunk Driving and Underage Drinking." She acted a national spokesperson for Mothers Against Drunk Driving during her reign and also worked on behalf of numerous other charities. Berry also had the opportunity to host the second annual Miss America's Outstanding Teen pageant held in Orlando, Florida.

Personal life.

She is a member of the Churches of Christ. She currently lives in Seattle, Washington. On April 28, 2007 she married Nathan Gooden in her hometown of Tulsa.

Jennifer Berry-Gooden (born July 18, 1983) is an American beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss America on January 21, 2006. A resident of Tulsa, Oklahoma, she was the fifth Miss America from Oklahoma to hold the title.


Rule.

Early in his rule, Butti was called to intervene in a conflict between Abu Dhabi and the influential Bani Qitab tribe, which had broken out the year before. With the Sheikhs of Umm Al Quwain and Sharjah also involved, a general meeting of Rulers was called at Khawaneej which resulted in a settlement of the dispute in April 1906. However, in the following year the dispute flared up again with Dubai and Abu Dhabi, together with Sharjah, pitted against Umm Al Quwain. This resulted in a final agreement in which Sheikh Butti represented both Dubai and Abu Dhabi.  Dubai continued to be a thriving and expanding port: by 1907, J. G. Lorimer notes that 335 pearling boats were operating from the town (compared to 183 from Sharjah and 25 from Al Heera. Only Abu Dhabi was a larger pearling port on the Trucial Coast, sending 410 boats to the pearl beds.  The 'great storm' of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinner and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, 'Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves.'

HMS Hyacinth incident.

In 1903, Butti had travelled with Sheikh Maktoum to Sharjah at the invitation of British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, George Curzon, to a Durbar, held on 21 November, at which Curzon delivered a speech reminding the assembled Sheikhs of the benefits of the "Pax Britannica". The memory would have struck Butti as ironic when, seven years later, British troops were involved in a vicious confrontation in Dubai, killing 37 of his people.  A lively trade in arms had grown in the Trucial States and, at the turn of the century, Sharjah and Dubai became centres for the flourishing trade. By late 1902, Lorimer records that up to 200 guns a month were being traded, despite an agreement with the British that banned the import and re-export of arms. In an attempt to curb the trade, the British ship HMS "Hyacinth" patrolled the coast. In December 1910, its crew suspected a group of smugglers had docked at Al Shindaghah under cover of darkness and, early the next morning, a 100-strong landing party was sent ashore. The presence of a large armed group in the town triggered an angry reaction from locals and a fight followed in the narrow alleys of the souq. The British party retreated after four of their men were killed and nine wounded – however, they in turn had killed 37 local men.  Adding insult to injury, the British attempted to impose a number of reparations following the incident, including a fine of 50,000 Rupees, the surrender of 400 rifles and demands to establish a telegraph station and post office onshore. Both of the latter demands ran contrary to the nature of the relationship the British government had established with the Trucial Sheikhs and Butti had already, in 1906, made his opposition to the establishment of a British Indian post office in Dubai clear to the British. The additional demands were withdrawn following a petition to the British by an enraged Butti.

Death.

Already 'an elderly man' upon acceding, Sheikh Butti bin Suhail died in 1912.

Sheikh Butti bin Suhail Al Maktoum () became the Ruler of the Emirate of Dubai on 16 February 1906, following the death of his cousin, Sheikh Maktoum bin Hasher, of heart disease. He continued the liberal policies of his predecessor, expanding Dubai's trading port.


Life and career.

Mirrione was born in Santa Clara County, California. He attended Bellarmine College Preparatory and then the University of California, Santa Cruz, from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1991. He moved to Los Angeles, and began a collaboration with Doug Liman, who was then a graduate student at the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts. Mirrione edited Liman's first feature films "Getting In" (1994), "Swingers" (1996), and "Go" (1999), which was an homage to Akira Kurosawa's 1950 film "Rashomon".  Mirrione has had a notable collaboration with director Steven Soderbergh. The two met when Soderbergh attended the opening of "Go". About one year later he asked Mirrione to edit "Traffic" (2000), which earned Mirrione an Oscar. Todd McCarthy characterized the effects of the camerawork and editing, "Soderbergh has given the film tremendous texture as well as a vibrant immediacy through constant handheld operating, mostly using available light, and manipulating the look both in shooting and in the lab. Stephen Mirrione's editing, which gives "Traffic" a beautifully modulated overall shape, is characterized on a moment-to-moment basis by jump cuts and jagged rhythms. Overall result is far too stylized to call the approach verite, but pic looks far more caught-on-the-run, and therefore far less staged, than all but a few other American films."  Mirrione subsequently edited all three of the "Ocean's" films directed by Soderbergh and starring George Clooney ("Ocean's Eleven" (2001), "Ocean's Twelve" (2004), and "Ocean's Thirteen" (2007)), as well as Soderbergh's 2009 film "The Informant!" and the 2011 film "Contagion".  Mirrione won an American Cinema Editors "Eddie" Award in 2006 for his editing of Alejandro González Iñárritu's film "Babel", for which he was also nominated for an Academy Award. He has been nominated four times for BAFTA Awards for editing "Traffic", "21 grams" (also directed by Inarritu – 2003), "Good Night, and Good Luck" (directed by George Clooney-2006), and for "Babel".  Mirrione has been selected for membership in the American Cinema Editors.  "see: Academy Award for Best Film Editing"

Stephen Mirrione (born February 17, 1969) is an American film editor. He won an Academy Award for his editing of the film "Traffic" (2000).


Early life.

Kazuo Okada was born in 1942. Having lost his father at a young age, he became independent and supported his family. He studied at an engineering vocational school to take advantage of his interest and passion for mechanics. In an interview with the "Financial Times", Okada claimed that "vacuum tubes are so much fun."

Career.

In 1969, Okada founded Universal Lease, which manufactured coin-operated arcade games for children. In late 1969, Okada's first visit to Las Vegas led to his decision to enter the business of slot machine manufacturing. He invented the "near-miss" feature in his slot machines, an innovation that helped expand the Japanese market of "pachislot" (a hybrid of Japan’s pachinko and Las Vegas slot machines) and also made Okada's slot machines popular in Las Vegas. Throughout the 1990s, Universal served as a major supplier of machines to the bustling Japanese pachinko industry. In 2000 Okada was introduced to Las Vegas-based casino magnate Steve Wynn, eventually investing $380 million in Wynn’s then-new company, Wynn Resorts. Wynn Resorts opened its first casino in 2005 in Las Vegas and a second one in 2006 in Macau. In 2008, Steve Wynn declined to join Okada in a major investment to build a casino in Entertainment City in Manila. Okada proceeded alone with the investment, forming a local company, Tiger Resort, Leisure and Entertainment, Inc., to handle the development of the Manila property. In July 2016, the property was unveiled as the Okada Manila, a $2.4 billion integrated hotel, resort and casino that represents Okada’s biggest investment to date.  In 2017 Okada was accused of "misappropriating millions of dollars" from his holding company Okada Holdings. Universal Entertainment Corporation subsequently removed him from his chairman position by convincing his family members to vote him out of his Okada Holdings leadership role.  Charges of misappropriating funds filed against Okada with Hong Kong Independent Commission Against Corruption and Paranaque City Regional Court in Manila by Universal Entertainment Corporation have since been dismissed. In a statement released in September, 2018, Okada said "These trumped-up charges were merely meant to harass me and justify my illegal ouster. Far from being valid cases, their baseless accusations only serve to demonstrate the grand conspiracy perpetrated by my detractors who betrayed my trust", and vows to continue fighting for reinstatement as director, chairman and chief executive officer of the company.  In 2019, Parañaque court issues warrant of arrest vs Japanese tycoon Kazuo Okada in connection w/ 3 estafa cases filed against him over his receipt of US$3.1 million alleged unauthorized compensation as CEO of Tiger Resort Leisure & Entertainment, Inc., operator of Okada Manila.

Art collection.

Okada is a collector of Japanese, Chinese and Korean art. He opened his Okada Museum of Art in 2013 near the hot-springs resort of Hakone, south-west of Tokyo.

Personal life.

Okada is married, with three children, and resides in Tokyo.

Okada was formerly an executive at Wynn Resorts, and co-founder and former chairman of the Universal Entertainment Corporation, until his ousting in 2017 after allegations of financial mismanagement.


Premise.

The Panzer Dragoon series takes place on an unspecified post-apocalyptic planet where the people compete for land, resources, and the technology of the Ancients. The ‘Ancients’ is the generic name given to the people that once controlled a world-spanning, hyper-advanced civilization thousands of years before the start of the Panzer Dragoon series of games. The Ancients were able to create monsters either for war use or practical uses.  These creatures survived the downfall of the Ancients and are one of the main enemies in the series. A mysterious cataclysm, hinted at as a terrible war during the course of the series, would spell the downfall of this civilization and nearly destroy the world, leaving the survivors to eke out a bleak existence among the blasted remains in the ensuing millennia. Eventually, the Ancients and their works would gain a sort of 'godlike' respect, and a horrific regard, among some people as they passed into legend.  The remnants of these technologies are used in the development of much of humanity's own machinery, weaponry and vehicles, such as the unusual floating ships which are a staple of the series. A faction called "The Empire" have collected and used weapons from the Ancient Age to gain dominance of the continent.

Games.

"Panzer Dragoon" (1995).

The first game in the series, "Panzer Dragoon", was released on the Sega Saturn in 1995. It follows the story of Keil Fluge, a member of a hunter party who encounters a fight between two dragons, coloured black and blue. The rider of the blue dragon is mortally wounded in the battle and entrusts his mission, as well as his dragon, the Solo Wing, to Keil. Keil must stop the Dark Dragon reactivating an ancient ruin.  This chapter introduced the basic features of the traditional gameplay that the Panzer series would be known by, starting out as a rail shooter giving the player a choice of two main attacks: a lock-on laser weapon, and a rapid fire gun weapon, as well as the ability to swing the cameras around to shoot the enemies coming from all directions.  Panzer Dragoon was one of the few games available at the Sega Saturn's launch. The game was ported to Microsoft Windows only in Japan on March 14, 1997, and in 2006 adapted slightly for Sega's Japanese PlayStation 2 "AGES 2500" series. The game is getting a high definition remake for the Nintendo Switch, slated for release in winter 2020.

"Panzer Dragoon R-zone" (1995).

"Panzer Dragoon R-Zone" is a Tiger R-Zone game for the short-lived system. It was one of the few launch titles licensed by Sega, being released just a few months after the original "Panzer Dragoon". It was the first game in the series that was not developed by Team Andromeda. There is no plot, simply a nameless character on an armored dragon attempting to keep a dark dragon from reaching a tower while shooting and dodging robots.

"Panzer Dragoon II Zwei" (1996).

"Panzer Dragoon II Zwei" (also known as "Panzer Dragoon II") was released for the Sega Saturn in 1996. This game is a prequel to "Panzer Dragoon". It follows the story of Jean-Luc Lundi who discovered a mutant coolia, whom he names Lagi, who has a green glow at its throat, and is growing wings. Lundi refuses to kill Lagi, defying his villages custom that mutant coolias be killed. Together, Lundi and Lagi ride towards the horizon, chasing after a great airship called the Shelcoof, which is responsible for destroying Lundi's village while he was away.  This game introduced the berserk ability, where the player builds up a bar and then can unleash a powerful attack. It also introduced multiple routes through levels, and the dragon's capacity to change shape when the player performed well in a level.  A high definition remake for Nintendo Switch was announced in October 2019.

"Panzer Dragoon Mini" (1996).

"Panzer Dragoon Mini" is a Sega Game Gear game released only in Japan, in 1996. Due to the technical limitations of the Game Gear, the camera cannot be controlled and instead rotates automatically; also, for the first and — so far — only time in the series' history, the dragon doesn't have a rider. The game is markedly different from others in the series due to lack of a story and the dragon's super deformed appearance. Most of the levels and enemies are modeled after those of "Panzer Dragoon Zwei".

"Panzer Dragoon Saga" (1998).

"Panzer Dragoon Saga" (titled "Azel: Panzer Dragoon RPG" in Japan) is a role-playing video game released for Saturn in 1998. It is the only "Panzer Dragoon" game that is not a rail shooter, combining traditional role-playing elements such as random encounters with the 3D shooting elements of previous games. The player controls Edge, a young mercenary who battles the empire on a flying dragon and encounters a mysterious girl from a vanished civilization. Unlike the other "Panzer Dragoon" games, movement is not on rails and some areas are explored on foot. The battle system mixes real-time and turn-based elements, with the player circling enemies on the dragon to expose weak spots and escape dangerous positions.  Development of "Panzer Dragoon Saga" began around the same time as "Panzer Dragoon II Zwei". According to director Yukio Futatsugi, the need to blend the series' shooting elements into an RPG with full 3D and voice acting - both unusual for RPGs at the time - made it the most difficult "Panzer Dragoon" game to develop. Two staff members died during its two-year development, which Futatsugi attributed to the stressful working conditions of the video game industry.  According to GameRankings, "Panzer Dragoon Saga" is the most critically acclaimed Saturn game, winning praise for its story, graphics, music, and unusual battle system. It has appeared in several "greatest games of all time" lists. As Sega had shifted its focus to its next console, the Dreamcast, the game had a limited release outside Japan, attracting a cult following. It has not been rereleased and is now a rare collector's item. After its release, Sega disbanded Team Andromeda; Futatsugi left Sega and joined Konami, while other staff moved to Sega teams including Smilebit.

"Panzer Dragoon Orta" (2002).

"Panzer Dragoon Orta" is an Xbox game released in late 2002 in Japan and in early 2003 in America and Europe. It was developed by Smilebit which had been founded by former members of Team Andromeda.  "Panzer Dragoon Orta" follows the story of Orta, a teenage girl being held captive in a town. When the town is attacked by the Empire, Orta is rescued by a Dragon, and encounters a drone named Abadd. While tracking the drone, she discovers the truth behind her own origins, and helps to free the world from the tyranny of the Empire. This game introduced several updated features, such as the ability to morph the dragon at will, and maneuvering abilities from "Panzer Dragoon Saga".  This game had large amounts of unlockable content to be gained after completing the main story. These include a group of sub-missions, one series of which is devoted to the backstory of Iva Demilcol. The "Box Game" is a bonus mode first introduced in "Zwei" where the player can select different dragons, riders, and various cheats. The PC version of the first "Panzer Dragoon" is included in its entirety.  The game also possesses a vast in-game dictionary that updates as you progress, detailing the "Panzer" world, and full-motion video from the game itself is unlocked for casual viewing, as well as the intro and ending videos from "Panzer Dragoon", "Panzer Dragoon Zwei" and "Panzer Dragoon Saga".

Remakes (2020).

In December 2018, Sega announced that remakes of "Panzer Dragoon" and "Panzer Dragoon II Zwei" were in development by MegaPixel Studio. The first remake was released for Nintendo Switch and Google Stadia in 2020. A Windows version is scheduled later in 2020.

Other media.

Soundtrack CDs were released in Japan for all the games, with "Panzer Dragoon Orta"'s being bundled with the game itself. Toykopop released the "Panzer Dragoon Orta" soundtrack in the USA. An anime adaptation of the first game was released, with the story being slightly altered to include a female heroine whom Keil ('Kyle' in the anime) is trying to save when she becomes bonded to the Black Dragon. The English version was released by ADV Films. An artbook from the second game, "Die Welt Von Panzer Dragoon Zwei" ("The World of Panzer Dragoon Zwei") was also released.  "Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed" features a racetrack based on "Panzer Dragoon". Additionally, the "Worlds Unite" crossover between the "Sonic the Hedgehog" and the "Mega Man" comic lines from Archie Comics features "Panzer Dragoon" characters and concepts.

Aside from the role-playing video game "Panzer Dragoon Saga" (1998), the games are of the rail shooter genre. All games follow the story of a hero or heroine fighting an evil empire in a post-apocalyptic world while riding a dragon. The series' name originates from its original concept designers referring to it as "armoured dragon", then feeling that this was too bland and deciding to transliterate it to German. The cutscenes feature its own language, Panzerese, which is a mixed language based on a combination of Ancient Greek, English, German, Japanese, Latin, and Russian. The words in these languages were a hobby of Yukio Futatsugi, one of the core designers of the first game.


Land.

The parish's offer forest-draped mountains in the northern interior, with the more scrub-like covered Canada Hills near the southern interior borders. The coastline is marked by the beautiful (but dangerous due to Atlantic Waves) black-sand beach of Hermitage Bay on the North Coast. Sheer cliffs dominate the rest of the coastline, but to the extreme South of this lies a long continuous strip of sand that stretches from Saint Mary Cayon, into Saint Peter Basseterre and eventually into Saint George Basseterre, the sands lightening in hue as one descends southward. The beaches of Saint Mary Cayon are used by Leatherback turtles to lay their eggs. The town of Cayon dominates the central portion of the parish, with the smaller villages of Lodge and Ottley's to the North. All the lands surrounding these villages are covered in peasant farms and abandoned sugar cane estates, up to above sea level, when forests take over.  There are many notable ravines in the parish, indicating that it may be one of the oldest parts of island, after the South East Peninsula. Lodge ghaut is the largest ghaut on St. Kitts and is home to the Lodge Rail bridge, the highest bridge in the federation, nearly above the ghaut floor. The Cayon river, around which the town of Cayon is situated, is one of only four year-long watered rivers on the island, and the only one on the island's East Coast (the other three being Wingfield River and East River in Saint Thomas Middle Island and Stone Fort River in Trinity Palmetto Point). The water systems around Cayon however, like those on the East Coast, have been tapered off for local consumption. The Southern border of the parish is marked by Wash Ghaut, a deep, wide, canyon-like ravine.

Town/Villages.

The parish capital is the town of Cayon. Other villages are Key's, Ottley's and Lodge. There are all located near the main road in the parish central zone. The fertile farmlands are also in the zone.  Capital - Cayon  Other Villages:

Economy.

The Saint Mary Cayon Parish was historically one of the main industrial areas in Saint Kitts, home to the island's Cotton Ginnery, which was opened in 1901. It made history as its home estate, Spooner's Estate, became the first one in the Caribbean to successfully change from sugar production to cotton. The factory remained open until its acquisition by the government in 1970, shortly after which it was closed down. Since then, no significant industrial development has taken place in the parish, despite Cayon being a sizeable town.  Agriculture dominates today's parish economy. The main crops produced are fruits and ground provisions, with livestock production in the parish being especially high. The second industry of the parish is tourism. A mile inland from Ottley's village lies Ottley's Plantation Inn, a former plantation house and one of the premier hotels on the island. The parish is also noted for its large water stores, which supply much of the East Coast.

Community festival.

There is the famous Green Valley Festival which is celebrated from May to June. The festival is mainly held in Cayon. This festival is one of the many village community festivals held all around St. Kitts, but is largely considered to be one of the best. The festival normally ends with J'ouvert

Saint Mary Cayon is one of 14 administrative parishes that make up Saint Kitts and Nevis. It is located on the main island of Saint Kitts and the parish capital is Cayon.


Early life.

Fred Olen Ray was born September 10, 1954 in Wellston, Ohio, just across the border from West Virginia where the Ray family had all been raised for the previous 150 years. He has always been a passionate film fan, and as a teenager he regularly read "Famous Monsters of Filmland" magazine. Being a fan of horror and science fiction films such as "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" and the AIP movies of the 1950s and 1960s, Ray started making his own movies at the age of fourteen.

Career.

Early work and "The Brain Leeches" (1970s).

Ray served in the Navy. When he got out, he went to work at a local television station, in Orlando, Florida. He worked as an credited still photographer on his first film in 1975, "Shock Waves", with Peter Cushing and John Carradine. Ray then began making movies on the weekend using station equipment, starting with "The Brain Leeches" (1978) made on a budget of $298.00. Ray co-wrote the screenplay with political essayist Brad Linaweaver, whose career trajectory took a turn toward science fiction and film after the experience.

1980s.

Ray's next film was shot on a budget of $15,000. Lessons learned from "The Brain Leeches" allowed Ray to keep production cost to a minimum, while using the bulk of the budget to attract a recognized Hollywood name to the project. "Alien Dead" was shot featuring an elderly Buster Crabbe, cinema action hero of the 1930s and 1940, and star of three Flash Gordon serials from 1936-1940. With the success of that film, Ray decided to move to Hollywood to be close to the film industry. He was interested in working in make-up and special effects, "probably from all of those years of reading "Famous Monsters" magazine," he later said. He found out "it soon became apparent that you would always be between jobs and I was looking for something that would actually earn me a living. I think I became a director because that was the fastest way to get a film made on the independent side of things."  Ray succeeded in raising money for a low budget horror film, "Scalps" (1983), which featured cameos from Carroll Borland and Forrest J. Ackerman. "The Tomb" (1986) starred Cameron Mitchell and John Carradine. Ray switched to action films with "Armed Response" (1986), which starred David Carradine and Lee Van Cleef. Ray had affection for this movie because "it had a great cast and was one of the first times I had more than two nickels to rub together." He then turned to science fiction: "Deep Space" (1987), "Cyclone" (1987). "Beverly Hills Vamp" (1988) was a horror comedy with Eddie Deezen. "Hollywood Chainsaw Hookers" (1988) was made in only a few days and turned out to be a big hit. Less popular was "The Phantom Empire" (1988).

1990s.

After "Alienator" (1989) he was reunited with Deezen for "Mob Boss" (1990), another comedy. He entered sword and sorcery movies with "Wizards of the Demon Sword" (1991) and made the more popular "Bad Girls from Mars" (1991). During this time he published a book he had written, "The New Poverty Row: Independent Filmmakers as Distributors" (1991).  Ray co-directed "Scream Queen Hot Tub Party" (1991) with Jim Wynorski, shot in one day. Ray moved into erotic thrillers with "Inner Sanctum" (1991) starring Tanya Roberts. It was a hit and Ray would make others in that genre, including "Inner Sanctum 2", "Mind Twister" (1994) and "Possessed by the Night" (1994).  "Evil Toons" (1992) was a comedy-horror, then he co-directed another with Wynorski, "Dinosaur Island" (1994). "Witch Academy" (1994) was the last of his "scream queen" movies. After "Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold" (1995), he made "Fugitive Rage" (1996), "Friend of the Family II" (1996), "Inferno" (1997), "Hybrid" (1997), and "The Shooter", which has been referred to as Ray's best film. "Dear Santa" (1998) was a family film and "Billy Frankenstein" (1998) a comedy.

2000s to present.

In 2001 he made the film "Critical Mass". He later said he was a ""Critical Mass" kind of guy. I like to shoot things and blow stuff up. I also like comedies. Don't like erotic thrillers."  He established a DVD company called Retromedia. Ray made a film called "Bikini Airways" "on a lark and it did really well," said Ray. This led to a series of Bikini films.  In 2007 he reflected on his career: Budgetary constraints notwithstanding, Ray has on occasion been able to attract A list actors to appear in his films. Two time Academy Award nominee Peter Fonda played Marshal Kane in the 2010 Ray film "American Bandits: Frank and Jesse James". But, sometimes, even star power isn't enough to rescue a low-budget film. One reviewer described "American Bandits" as perhaps "the most boring Jesse James film ever made". In 2017, he received a "Living Legend Award" at the Buffalo Dreams Fantastic Film Festival.

Pseudonyms.

In his craft, Ray has used many pseudonyms, some used earlier by the B-movie director, Sam Newfield.

Personal life.

Fred Olen Ray has four sons from two marriages. Two of his sons work in the film industry as well, the eldest being director Christopher Ray.  Fred Olen Ray is currently unmarried, and resides in Studio City California where he continues to write, produce, and direct.

Fred Olen Ray (born September 10, 1954) is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter of more than 150 low-to-medium budget feature films in many genres, including horror, science fiction, action/adventure, crime dramas, and holiday films.


Synopsis.

The film introduces 11-year-old Maria in her little brother Pilten's funeral. Following her son's death, Maria's mother becomes engulfed in her own sorrow, and distances herself from Maria. While spending the summer holiday with her grandparents in Bergen, Maria meets Jakob, a boy around her age. The two become friends, and spend time together exploring the city, and having discussions about life and death. Through her friendship with Jakob, Maria comes to terms with her mother and their loss.

Release.

"Only Clouds Move the Stars" had its theatrical release on 24 August 1998. The film was seen by 10,000 people during its opening weekend. It went on to become the second most viewed Norwegian film of 1998, beaten only by "Gurin with the Foxtail", which was also produced by John M. Jacobsen.  Norwegian critics were almost unanimously positive about the film. Jon Selås of "Verdens Gang" praised the film for its "magical moments", and Rusten and Kristoffersen for their interplay and "fantastic" depictions of the main characters. He lauded Lian for "making the fundamentally important observation that children aren't half adults or unfinished individuals; they are children, they are human." "Dagbladet"'s reviewer was equally positive about the two leads, who she felt "carried the lion's share of the film". She rated the film 5/6, and urged moviegoers to "bring a handkerchief."  The film also received favourable notices from American publications. "Variety"'s Gunnar Rehlin found the film to be "realistically told", and characterized it as "funny, sad and bittersweet by turns, with a conclusion that's optimistic but feels right." "The Hollywood Reporter" also commented positively on the film, acclaiming Lian for creating a "truly magical family film, in large part a result of her work with the two young players." The reviewer found Rusten to "embod[y] the fragile vulnerability of a young girl who feels that she has been deserted by everyone," and characterized Kristoffersen as a "delight as the irrepressible Jacob."  "Only Clouds Move the Stars" received awards at several international film festivals. The film was awarded a Crystal Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival's Kinderfilmfest. At the Lübeck Nordic Film Days, the film won the Nordic Film Institute's Award for Best Film, Children and Young People, and the Grand Prize for Best Feature. Other awards included the Audience Award and Best Actress Award at the Rouen Nordic Film Festival. Domestically, the film was nominated for four Amanda Awards, and won in the category Best Film. Torun Lian subsequently received the Ingmar Bergman-award for the film.

Only Clouds Move the Stars () is a 1998 Norwegian drama film written and directed by Torun Lian. Based on her novel of the same name, the film was Lian's directorial debut. The film was a critical and commercial success. It won the Amanda Award in 1999 in the category "Best film", and has received more awards internationally than any other Norwegian film. It was the Norwegian submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.


Taxonomy.

"Agaricus violaceus" was one of the few fungal species named by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work "Species Plantarum". The specific epithet "violaceus" refers to the deep violet colour of its cap. In English, it is commonly known as the violet webcap, or violet cort. French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck viewed it as a variety ("violaceus") of a variable species he described as "Amanita araneosa" in 1783, and Christiaan Hendrik Persoon placed it in the Section "Cortinaria" of "Agaricus" in his 1801 work "Synopsis Methodica Fungorum". "Cortinarius" was established as a genus by English botanist Samuel Frederick Gray in the first volume of his 1821 work "A Natural Arrangement of British Plants", where the species was recorded as "Cortinaria violacea", "the violet curtain-stool".  The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as 1 January 1821, to coincide with the date of the works of the "father of mycology", the Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries, which meant the name "Cortinarius violaceus" required sanction by Fries (indicated in the name by a colon) to be considered valid. Thus the species was written as "Cortinarius violaceus" (L.: Fr.) Gray. However, a 1987 revision of the "International Code of Botanical Nomenclature" set the starting date at 1 May 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's "Species Plantarum". Hence, the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries's authority, and is thus written as "Cortinarius violaceus" (L.) Gray.  German botanist Friedrich Otto Wünsche described the species as "Inoloma violaceum" in 1877. In 1891, his countryman Otto Kuntze published "Revisio Generum Plantarum", his response to what he perceived as a poor method in existing nomenclatural practice. He called the violet webcap "Gomphos violaceus" in 1898. However, Kuntze's revisionary programme was not accepted by the majority of biologists.  "Cortinarius violaceus" was designated as the type species for the genus "Cortinarius" by Frederic Clements and Cornelius Lott Shear in their 1931 work "The Genera of Fungi". Mycologist David Arora considers this odd, due to the mushroom's unusual colour and cystidia. Because of this designation, if "C. violaceus" were to be split from the rest of the current genus, then, according to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, it would retain the name "Cortinarius", while the other species would have to be reclassified. The species was one of only two placed in the "Cortinarius" subgenus "Cortinarius" by the Austrian mycologist Meinhard Moser. Molecular investigation of webcaps worldwide has increased this number to at least twelve.  A 2015 genetic study by evolutionary biologist Emma Harrower and colleagues of "C. violaceus" and its closest relatives suggests that the group (section "Cortinarius") originated in Australasia and began diverging from a common ancestor around twelve million years ago in the Miocene, with "C. violaceus" itself diverging from its closest relative around 3.9 million years ago. The fact that these species diverged relatively recently indicates that some form of dispersal must have taken place across large bodies of water. The original plant hosts were flowering plants (angiosperms), and "C. violaceus"—or its direct ancestor—developed a symbiotic relationship with pines, as well as multiple flowering plants; this may have facilitated its expansion across the Northern Hemisphere.  Some mycologists classify "C. violaceus" as two distinct species—"Cortinarius violaceus" and "Cortinarius hercynicus", with "hercynicus" relating to the Hercynian Forest region of southern Germany. These species are differentiated morphologically by the latter population's rounder spores. Persoon had described "C. hercynicus" as a separate species in 1794, though Fries regarded it as conspecific with "C. violaceus". Moser separated them once again as species in 1967, and Norwegian biologist Tor Erik Brandrud classified "C. hercynicus" as a subspecies of "C. violaceus" in 1983. However, Harrower and colleagues, on limited molecular testing, found no genetic or ecological difference between the two taxa.  Some fungal populations around the world that have been classified as "C. violaceus" have been found to belong to separate lineages and hence reclassified as new species within section "Cortinarius". Two separate lineages discovered in populations from Costa Rica have been renamed "Cortinarius palatinus" and "C. neotropicus", one from Guyana—described as sp. aff. "violaceus"—has become "C. altissimus", and another from Western Australia and Tasmania described as both "C. violaceus" and sp. aff. "violaceus" has become "C. hallowellensis". Yet another from Eastern Australia has been named "C. kioloensis". The poorly known species "Cortinarius subcalyptrosporus" and "Cortinarius atroviolaceus" from Borneo are almost indistinguishable from "C. violaceus" outside of hard-to-observe spore detail—the former has smaller spores with a detached perisporium (outer layer) and the latter has smaller spores and fruiting bodies. Another population, known from Borneo, New Guinea and New Zealand, was ascribed to "C. violaceus" by Moser. It was noted as very similar to the original species concept of "C. violaceus", and awaits description as a new species after a phylogenetic study revealed it to represent a distinct taxon.

Description.

"Cortinarius violaceus" has a convex (becoming broadly convex, umbonate or flat) cap of 3.5–15 cm (–6 in) across with an incurved margin. In colour, it is a dark violet to blue-black, and is covered in fine, downy scales. This layer on the cap is known as the pileipellis, which is either classified as a trichoderm—parallel hyphae running perpendicular to the surface and forming a layer 6–22 μm wide—or rarely an ixocutis, a layer of gelatinized hyphae 2–11 μm wide. The cap surface, unlike that of many other "Cortinarius" species, is neither sticky nor slimy, though it is occasionally greasy. The stipe, or stalk, is tall, and thick. Due to its swollen, bulbous nature, the base of the stipe can sometimes be as wide as. The stipe is a similar colour to the cap, and covered in wool-like fibrils; purple mycelium can be present at the base. Younger specimens feature a veil, but this vanishes quickly. The flesh is violet, but darker below the pileipellis and in the stipe. The flesh has a mild taste, indistinctly reminiscent of cedar wood, with a slight, pleasant smell, also reminiscent of cedar wood. The gills are dark violet, changing to a purplish-brown with age. They have an adnate connection to the stipe, and can be very dark in older specimens. The mushroom stains red when in contact with potassium hydroxide (KOH). Fruit bodies identified as "C. v. hercynicus" are less robust than those of the nominate subspecies.  The spore print is rust-coloured, while the spores themselves measure 12 to 15 μm by 7 to 8.5 μm. They are rough, from elliptical to almond-shaped, and covered in medium-sized warts. The spores are wider in "C. v. hercynicus". The species is the only one in the genus to have cystidia on both the faces and the edges of the gills. A large number of cystidia are present, and, individually, they measure between 60 and 100 μm by between 12 and 25 μm. They are flask-shaped, with somewhat purple contents.  Although there are many "Cortinarius" species with some degree of violet colour, "C. violaceus" and its close relatives are easily distinguished by their much darker purple colour. "Cortinarius iodes" of the southeastern United States has a slimy purple cap and paler violet stipe. The other species in the section "Cortinarius" are dark purple and superficially similar, but can be differentiated based on host and geography as they do not occur in the same locations as "C. violaceus". Certain "Leptonia" species in northwestern North America, including "L. carnea" and "L. nigroviolacea", have a similar color, but are easily differentiated due to their pink spore print.

Distribution and habitat.

"Cortinarius violaceus" is found across North America, Europe and Asia. Although widespread, it is not common anywhere in Europe, and it is listed as endangered in the British Isles. "Cortinarius violaceus" is a rare component of subarctic areas of western Greenland. It has not been recorded from Iceland.  In Europe, it grows in deciduous woodland during autumn, especially among oak, birch and beech, but is also found on occasion with conifers. It is also occasionally known from treeless heathland, where it is associated with bracken. The species favours acidic soil. "Cortinarius violaceus" forms mycorrhizal associations with several species of tree. In this symbiotic relationship, the fungus gains carbon from the plant and supplies it with beneficial minerals. In Nordic countries, its hosts include white birch ("Betula pubescens"), silver birch ("B. pendula"), European aspen ("Populus tremula") and rarely European beech ("Fagus sylvatica"). No records of association with oak ("Quercus") are known from this region. Brandrud reported that what he described as spp. "hercynicus" grew with "Picea abies", generally in more alkaline soils and along with mosses of the genera "Hylocomium" and "Pleurozium", and, in moister areas, big shaggy-moss ("Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus"), as well as the buttercup-family shrub "Hepatica nobilis". The species grows with "Betula pubescens" in Greenland, and is also associated with hazelnut ("Corylus avellana") in Central and Southern Europe.  In North America, "C. violaceus" favours conifers, and, though rare over much of the continent, is relatively common in certain areas, including Mount Rainier National Park and Olympic National Park. It is more common in old growth forest in the Pacific Northwest, though has sprung up in regrowth areas populated with fir, pine, aspen and alder in the Great Lakes region. Fruit bodies occur singly or in small groups, often near rotting wood, and can grow in fairy rings. Closely related species that look like "C. violaceus" can be found in Central and South America, Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Malaysia.

Edibility and biochemistry.

"Cortinarius violaceus" are sometimes considered inedible, and sometimes considered edible, but not choice. instead, the primary appeal of the species to mushroom hunters, according to Arora, is its beauty. Its similarity to some other (inedible or toxic) webcaps renders it risky to eat. The taste after cooking is reportedly bitter.  The colour of "C. violaceus" cannot be converted to a dye, unlike that of some other "Cortinarius" species, such as "C. sanguineus" and "C. semisanguineus". The colour is caused by an elusive pigment that has been difficult to isolate; its identity was not known until 1998. It is an iron(III) complex of ("R")-3′,4′-dihydroxy-β-phenylalanine [("R")-β-dopa]. It dissolves in water, turning the liquid dark purple before fading to blackish-grey. "C. violaceus" fruiting bodies contain around 100 times more iron than those of most other fungi. "Cortinarius violaceus" extract demonstrates an inhibitory activity against cysteine protease.

Cortinarius violaceus, commonly known as the violet webcap or violet cort, is a fungus in the webcap genus "Cortinarius" native across the Northern Hemisphere. The fruit bodies are dark purple mushrooms with caps up to across, sporting gills underneath. The stalk measures by, sometimes with a thicker base. The dark flesh has a smell reminiscent of cedar wood. Forming symbiotic (ectomycorrhizal) relationships with the roots of various plant species, "C. violaceus" is found predominantly in conifer forests in North America and deciduous forests in Europe.


Procedure and timing.

Although Edward VIII had signed a declaration of abdication the previous day—10 December 1936—he remained king until giving Royal Assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act, which he did on 11 December, at 1.52 p.m., and the Act became immediately effective from that time.  The act was passed through the British Houses of Parliament in one day, with no amendments. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 stipulated that the line of succession must remain the same throughout the Crown's realms, the governments of some of the British Dominions—Canada, Australia, the Union of South Africa, and New Zealand—requested and gave their permission for the act to become part of the law of their respective realms.  The Canadian parliament later passed the Succession to the Throne Act, 1937 to ratify changes to the rules of succession in Canada and ensure consistency with the changes in the rules then in place in the United Kingdom. South Africa passed His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937, which declared the abdication to have taken effect on 10 December 1936. Australia and New Zealand did not adopt the Statute of Westminster 1931 until the 1940s and did not pass their own legislation. In the Irish Free State, which had been independent from the United Kingdom as a dominion since December 1922, and in which the monarch still had some diplomatic functions, the "Oireachtas" (parliament) passed the Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936, recognising George VI as king from 12 December 1936.

Legal background.

The act was necessary for two main reasons.  First, there was no provision in British law for a sovereign to abdicate. Parliament had to pass a bill to remove the king from the throne. Finally the king had to give royal assent to the legislation, which only then became a law. (This process had to be repeated in the parliaments of the Dominions which had enacted the Statute of Westminster 1931: Canada and South Africa.)  Second, the act ensured that any descendants of Edward VIII would have no claim to the throne, and that the Royal Marriages Act 1772 would not apply to them.  Upon the royal assent being communicated to Parliament on the king's behalf, the act came into effect and Edward VIII ceased to be king. The throne immediately passed to his brother, who was proclaimed King George VI the next day at St. James's Palace, London.

His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 (1 Edw. 8 & 1 Geo. 6 c. 3) was the Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that recognised and ratified the abdication of King Edward VIII and passed succession to his brother King George VI. The act also excluded any possible future descendants of Edward from the line of succession. Edward VIII abdicated in order to marry his lover, Wallis Simpson, after facing opposition from the governments of the United Kingdom and the Dominions.


History.

Archaeological studies support the idea that Boquete's history started around the years 300 AC to 600 BC. In the Caldera region you can find petroglyphs (a rock carving, especially a prehistoric one) that are evidence of the ancient settlements in the area. During the Spanish colonization, the highlands area was an isolated refuge for the indigenous tribes like the Ngöbe and the Misquito due to the topographic terrain. The colonization of Boquete only began in earnest in the second half of the nineteenth century, by locals from Bugaba, Gualaca, and David, and foreigners from Yugoslavia, France, Germany, and other European countries. Colonizers also arrived from the United States, starting the first coffee plantations and agricultural farms. (translated to English from ) (END OF TRANSLATION). In Spanish, the word Boquete means 'gap or opening'. It was through this gap that curious gold seekers trekked, looking for a cheaper and quicker way to the Pacific. By the early twentieth century, several villages had been populated: Lino, Quiel, Bajo Mono, Los Naranjos, and Bajo Boquete, which now is the town center of the district.  The District of Boquete was founded on April 11, 1911. Initially, the capital of the district was Lino, but it moved soon after to Bajo Boquete. For many years, the district had three "corregimientos" (townships): Bajo Boquete, Caldera, and Palmira. In 1998, the "corregimientos" of Alto Boquete, Jaramillo, and Los Naranjos were created.  Despite the recent boom in tourism, its main industry remains agriculture, especially the growing of coffee beans. Boquete is well known for its coffee, judged to be among the finest in the world.

Culture.

Boquete boasts a very lively music and arts scene. The annual Boquete Jazz Festival was founded in 2007 being the second largest jazz festival in the country after the Panama City Jazz Festival. Having been renamed Boquete Jazz & Blues Festival, the 2012 festival took place on the first weekend of March.  In separate action, a group of expatriates in Boquete came together in 2005 to form a performing theater group, which was named Boquete Community Players (BCP). BCP was formalized legally in 2007 as a Panamanian foundation and is operated as a not-for-profit organization. It became the first performance venue in the community in November 2009, when BCP held its grand opening of a refurbished restaurant and bar in the center of Boquete alongside the Caldera River. The mission of BCP is to sponsor, produce, and promote artistic events to enhance appreciation for and understanding of the arts, and to promote a cohesive sense of community. BCP produced its first Spanish language production in 2015.  An interesting "side activity" of the BCP was to institute a weekly market at the BCP facility in 2009. The weekly market activity was scheduled on Tuesday's, coincident with a weekly information and discussion session at the BCP theater. These joint market and information meetings have come to be known as the "Tuesday Morning Meetings" (TMM). Through time and with the demonstrated community interest, the Tuesday market has become a very significant community activity, at times causing conflict between the performance/theater functions and the market functions. For the most part, however, those issues have been successfully overcome. Visitors to Boquete are frequently advised to visit BCP on Tuesday mornings because it is such an integral part of the community. The Tuesday information meetings, and especially the Tuesday market activities have been a big success, not only commercially speaking, but more importantly in the integration of the locals and the expatriates working side by side.

Nature.

Some of its landmarks include nearby Volcán Barú, an active volcano and, at 3,475 meters (11,400 feet), the tallest point of land in Panama and with the help of a guide you can reach the highest point of the volcano. Hikers enjoy a relatively easy hike up and over the volcano, along the Sendero de los Quetzales, which runs from Boquete up to Cerro Punta and Volcan, on the other side of the volcano.  The Caldera River runs through the town. It is a river that has shaped much of its form.

Demographics.

The district of Boquete has approximately 19,000 inhabitants (2008). Recently, Boquete has become the second home to many North American and European retirees. Some 14% of its population are of foreign origin, according to La Prensa, a national newspaper. Ex-pats are attracted by the comfortable climate, excellent potable water, and clean air, as well as by the tranquility and Panama's relatively low cost of living.

Immigrant community.

There is a large community of immigrants in Boquete. According to La Contraloria General de la Nacion, the government institution in charge of the census, there are over 3,000 foreigners permanently living in Boquete, from over 30 different countries. Although Americans and Canadians comprise the majority of the foreign community, there is also a large group of immigrants from Colombia and Venezuela, and the third-largest group of immigrants is from the European countries. This increase in immigrants has stimulated the growth of new industries and business, owned both by locals and foreigners. The most relevant industry is the hotel industry; there are currently over 50 accommodations in Boquete, ranging from 5 star resorts to backpacker's motels. Along with hotels, many new restaurants have opened in Boquete.

Disappearance of Kris Kremers and Lisanne Froon.

Kris Kremers and Lisanne Froon were Dutch students who disappeared on April 1, 2014, While hiking in the vicinity of Boquete. After an extensive search, portions of their bodies were found a few months later. Their cause of death could not be determined definitively, but Dutch authorities working with forensic and search-rescue investigators thought it likely the students had accidentally fallen from a cliff after becoming lost. The circumstances and aftermath of their disappearance have resulted in much speculation about the cause of death, including the death of Leonardo Arturo Gonzalez Mastinu, the taxi driver who bought Kris and Lisanne to the Pianista trail on the morning of April 1st. Foul play could not be entirely ruled out and Panamanian officials came under fire for allegedly mishandling the disappearance and aftermath. Further investigation into the case in 2017 uncovered enough new evidence to suggest foul play,as well as a possible link to several other murders in the area.

Boquete is a small mountain town in Panama. It is located in the western-most Province of Chiriquí, about from the border with Costa Rica, and lies on the Caldera River, in Panama's green mountain highlands. Because of its elevation, some above sea level, its climate is cooler than that of the lowlands. Its scenic location, temperature, and natural environment make it popular with Panamanians and attracts tourists and retirees from all over the world.


Evidence.

Snow and ice-albedo feedback tend to amplify regional warming due to anthropogenic climate change. Due to this amplification the cryosphere is sometimes called the "natural thermometer" of Earth because changes in each of its components have long lasting effects on the systems (biological, physical and social) of Earth. Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur. As land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise, it can also potentially induce earthquakes as a result of post-glacial rebound, which further disrupts glaciers and ice shelves. If sea-ice retreats in the Arctic, the albedo of the sea will be darker which means more warming. Similarly, if the Greenland or Antarctic land ice retreats, the darker underlying land is exposed and more solar radiation is absorbed.

Snowball Earth.

The runaway ice-albedo feedback was also important for the Snowball Earth. Geological evidence show glaciers near the equator, and models have suggested the ice-albedo feedback played a role. As more ice formed, more of the incoming solar radiation was reflected back into space, causing temperatures on Earth to drop. Whether, the Earth was a complete solid snowball (completely frozen over), or a slush ball with a thin equatorial band of water still remains debated, but the ice-albedo feedback mechanism remains important for both cases.

Ice-albedo feedback on exoplanets.

On Earth, our climate is heavily influenced by interactions with solar radiation and feedback processes. One might expect exoplanets around other stars to also experience feedback processes caused by stellar radiation that affect the climate of the world. In modeling the climates of other planets, studies have shown that the ice-albedo feedback is much stronger on terrestrial planets that are orbiting stars (see: stellar classification) that have a high near-ultraviolet radiation.

Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore some of the solar energy is reflected back to space. Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change. For instance at higher latitudes, we see warmer temperatures melt the ice sheets. However, if warm temperatures decrease the ice cover and the area is replaced by water or land the albedo would decrease. This increases the amount of solar energy absorbed, leading to more warming. The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice. The change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area leading to more warming. Warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence decrease the albedo, increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more warming. In the geologically recent past, the ice-albedo positive feedback has played a major role in the advances and retreats of the Pleistocene (~2.6 Ma to ~10 ka ago) ice sheets. Inversely, cooler temperatures increase ice, which increases albedo, leading to more cooling.


Evolution.

The origin of the genus "Hemidactylus" is still unclear as the higher level phylogeny is not well resolved. Moreover, much of the diversity in this group still remains to be discovered.

Feces.

A house gecko will usually confine its excretions to one area of a house. This is sometimes considered a nuisance by home owners, and may stain certain surfaces. The feces are approximately five (5) millimeters in length, two (2) millimeters wide, and dark brown (almost black) in color.

Description.

The dorsal lepidosis is either uniform or heterogeneous. The pupil of the eye is vertical. Males have pre-anal or femoral pores. Each finger or toe has a slender distal clawed joint, angularly bent and rising from within the extremity of the dilated portion.  The fingers and toes are free, or more or less webbed, and dilated; underneath they bear two rows of lamellae in a pattern resembling a paripinnate compound leaf. This leads to their other and more ambiguous common name, "leaf-toed geckos", used mainly for species from South Asia and its surroundings to prevent confusion with the many "leaf-toed" Gekkota not in "Hemidactylus". Some members of the genus, such as "H. platyurus", are able to run quadrupedally across water by a partially surface tension-dependent mechanism distinct from the bipedal gait of basilisks.

Communication.

Like many gecko species, "Hemidactylus" are able to communicate with distinct vocalizations. Depending on the species, their vocalization range from quiet clicks to short squeaks and chirps. The Asian common house gecko ("Hemidactylus frenatus") is notable for its characteristic loud chirps.

Phylogeny.

The following phylogeny is from Pyron, "et al." (2013), and includes 47 "Hemidactylus" species. "Hemidactylus" is a sister group of "Cyrtodactylus".

Hemidactylus is a genus of the common gecko family, Gekkonidae. It has 168 described species, newfound ones being described every few years. These geckos are found in all the tropical regions of the world, extending into the subtropical parts of Africa and Europe. They excel in colonizing oceanic islands by rafting on flotsam, and are for example found across most of Polynesia. In some archipelagoes, cryptic species complexes are found. Geckos like to live in and out of houses. They have been introduced to Australia.


Location.

The location of Reric was long disputed. Older theories suggested Oldenburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg Castle, and Alt-Gaarz, renamed Rerik in 1938. Since the 1990s, Reric is thought to be identical with an archaeological site near Groß Strömkendorf, located on the eastern shore of the Bay of Wismar. This version is based on results presented by the University of Kiel and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's State Department for Archaeology, who partially excavated about 20 hectares of the site between 1995 and 1999.

Archaeology.

There is a certain amount of circumstantial evidence for Groß Strömkendorf being Reric such as identical foundation and destruction dates. Groß Strömkendorf was a deep water port with a planned layout. Initially north of the present site, the earlier settlement was moved south and the original area turned into a cemetery. The new site contained buildings similar to the sunken floor buildings of West Stow in England. Pottery included, among others, tatting ware and shelly ware. The primary type of pottery found so far was the Sukow type, associated used by the West Slavs during the 8th century. Pottery of the succeeding Feldberg type was also found, though in considerably lower number. Imported pottery from western countries was only scarcely represented. Hoards of Norwegian schist whetstones were found, also evidence of textile, iron and bronze working, but no major industrial evidence, indicating that production was likely for local use only. Unfinished products and garbage pieces point at the production of items made of glass, metals including iron, amber, and horn.  The settlement stretched 500 meters along the coast. Within a 10 kilometer range around the settlement, remains of Slavic open settlements have been found. The nearby fortified strongholds of Mecklenburg and Ilow were, like Reric, founded in the late 7th or early 8th century, thus constituting some of the earliest Slavic settlements near the Baltic coast.

Decline.

As reported by the Annales regni Francorum of 808 Ain D, Danish king Gudfred (also "Godofrid", "Gøttrik") had received plenty of tribute from Reric in the years before, but in 808 "destroyed" the emporium and took with him "the merchants hereof". Gudfred resettled them in Hedeby (also "Haithabu", "Sliasthorp"), a contemporary emporium closer to Denmark. This event was part of ongoing warfare between Denmark and Charlemagne's Frankish Empire, in the course of which the Franks had allied with the Obodrites. The destruction of the site may not have been total, since an Obodrite duke, Drazko, is reported murdered at Reric the following year.  ""Reregi"", an alternative name of the Obodrites used by the medieval chroniclers Adam of Bremen and Helmold of Bosau, is probably a rendering of "Reric".

Reric or Rerik was one of the Viking Age multi-ethnic Slavic-Scandinavian emporia on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, located near Wismar in the present-day German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Reric was built around 700, when Slavs of the Obodrite tribe settled the region. At the turn of the 9th century, the citizens of Reric allied with Charlemagne, who used the port as part of a strategic trade route that would avoid areas of Saxon and Danish control. It was destroyed in 808 AD by the Viking king Gudfred, whereupon the tradespeople were reportedly moved by the king to the Viking emporium of Hedeby (also "Haithabu") near modern Schleswig.


Life and career.

Perkins was born on March 28, 1905, in Carthage, Missouri, the youngest of three sons of Joseph Dudley Perkins and Mynta Mae (née Miller) Perkins. When he was seven years old, his mother nursed him through a serious bout of pneumonia and died of the illness herself. His grieving father sent Marlin's two older brothers to private school, and Marlin was sent to his Aunt Laura's farm in Pittsburg, Kansas. He attended public school there through eighth grade. In the fall of 1919, he entered Wentworth Military Academy. There, Perkins demonstrated his fascination with snakes by keeping blue racers in his room. One afternoon, while exercising them on a lawn at the back of the barracks, he was spotted by a faculty officer and got in trouble for handling them.  Perkins briefly attended the University of Missouri, but quit school to become a laborer at the Saint Louis Zoological Park. He rose through the ranks, becoming the reptile curator in 1928. After being hired as a curator of the Buffalo Zoological Park in Buffalo, New York, Perkins was eventually promoted to director in 1938. He then served as director at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, Illinois, from 1944 until 1962, when he returned to the St. Louis Zoo, this time as director. During his time at the Lincoln Park Zoo, Perkins joined Sir Edmund Hillary as the zoologist for Hillary's 1960 Himalayan expedition to search for the legendary Yeti.  Perkins was the host of "Zoo Parade", a television program that originated from the Lincoln Park Zoo on NBC station WNBQ-TV (now WMAQ-TV) when he was the director there. During a rehearsal of "Zoo Parade", he was bitten by a timber rattlesnake, one of several bites from venomous snakes Perkins suffered throughout his career (over the years he was also bitten by a cottonmouth and a Gaboon viper). Although the incident occurred during a pre-show rehearsal and was not filmed, it has become something of an urban legend, with many people "remembering" seeing Perkins receive the bite on television.  As a result of his work on "Zoo Parade" Perkins was offered the job in 1963 for which most North Americans remember him: host of the nature show "Wild Kingdom". The fame he gained in his television career allowed him to become an advocate for the protection of endangered species, and through "Wild Kingdom" he gave many Americans their first exposure to the conservation movement. Perkins also helped establish the Wild Canid Survival and Research Center (WCSRC) near St. Louis in 1971. This wolf sanctuary has been instrumental in breeding wolves for eventual re-placement into their natural habitats.  Perkins retired from active zookeeping in 1970 and from "Wild Kingdom" in 1985 for health reasons. Perkins remained with the Saint Louis Zoo as Director Emeritus until his death on June 14, 1986, when he died of cancer.

Commemorations.

In 1990, Marlin Perkins was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. A statue of Perkins also stands in Central Park in his hometown of Carthage, Missouri.  Perkins received an American Education Award in 1974. He was also granted honorary doctoral degrees from the University of Missouri—Columbia; Northland College in Ashland, Wisc.; Rockhurst College in Kansas City, Mo.; MacMurray College in Jacksonville, Ill.; and the College of St. Mary in Omaha, Nebr.

Personal life.

He married his first wife, Elise More, in 1933 and their daughter, Suzanne, was born in 1937. Marlin and Elise were married for 20 years and divorced in 1953. He married his wife Carol in 1960; they were married until his death from lymphatic cancer on June 14, 1986.

Richard Marlin Perkins (March 28, 1905 – June 14, 1986) was an American zoologist best known as a host of the television program "Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom" from 1963 to 1985.


History.

There are currently five generations of the FCHV, beginning with preliminary prototypes FCHV-1 (1997) and FCHV-2 (1999). The FCHV-3 was presented at the "International Symposium on Fuel-Cell Vehicles" in March 2001 in Tokyo, and the FCHV-4 was the first production version, although Toyota did not plan a full-scale commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle launch until around 2015.  As of 2008 the FCHV-adv was available for lease in Japan. The use of the vehicles by government ministries and companies is intended to provide detailed development feedback on the FCHV performance under varied driving conditions.  In 2007 a FCHV was driven between Osaka and Tokyo on a single tank of hydrogen, proving that a hydrogen vehicle could compete with conventional vehicles for range. In August 2009, Toyota USA announced an estimated FCHV-adv range of from a tank of hydrogen, based on a test trip in "real-world" conditions between Torrance and San Diego, California.

FCHV system.

The FCHV designs are based on the first generation Highlander SUV, although a bus version is also in development. The powertrain consists of a 90 kW fuel cell supplied from onboard compressed hydrogen tanks, and a nickel–metal hydride battery in parallel. Battery and fuel cell can provide power to the 90 kW driving motors either singly or together. The mechanism is very similar to the Hybrid Synergy Drive in the Toyota Prius and Toyota Auris HSD but with the fuel cell replacing the petrol internal combustion engine, thus minimising greenhouse gas emissions at point of use.  At low speeds the FCHV can run on battery alone, with a range of about. For high performance, such as when accelerating from rest, the fuel cell and battery supply power in tandem. The battery can also charge by regenerative braking, improving overall efficiency.

Hydrogen storage.

The 700 Bar (10000 PSI) hydrogen tanks holds 156 liters - enough fuel for a range of on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle and on the Japanese JC08 test cycle. Test vehicles on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle average with a top speed of. Vehicles on the JC08 test cycle average and a top speed of.

Models.

FCHV-BUS.

The Toyota FCHV-BUS is a fuel cell bus based on the Hino Blue Ribbon City(KL-HU2PMEE) low-floor bus.  FCHV-BUS demonstrated at Toei Bus (August 2003 - December 2004) and Expo 2005. After Expo 2005, some were lent to bus fleet operators, and also demonstrated in fuel cell events.

FC Bus.

The Toyota FC Bus was made from 2015.

SORA.

The Toyota SORA will be made from 2018.

Project Portal trucks.

Toyota started testing two Mirai fuel cells (114 kW each) in a converted Kenworth T680 electric Class 8 semi-trailer truck in the Port of Los Angeles in April 2017 as part of 'Project Portal', doing drayage for Toyota. The truck has two motors for a combined and of torque, a 200 kW 12 kWh battery, and a fixed gear ratio of 15.5:1. It has a range of determined by the size of the hydrogen tanks. It accelerates (empty) from in 7 seconds. The motors are mainly powered by the fuel cells rather than from the small battery. Toyota added a terminal tractor to the project in 2019.

Cultural impact.

Prophets of Science Fiction.

The FCHV is featured in the Jules Verne episode of the Science Channel program Prophets of Science Fiction. Some measure of credit is given to Jules Verne in the episode, for helping to inspire the idea.

The Toyota FCHV is a current hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle development programme of the Toyota Motor Corporation, which was leased to a limited number of drivers in the United States and Japan beginning in 2002. "FCHV" stands for "Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle". A number of prototypes have been produced, up to the latest FCHV-adv ("advanced").


Coaching career.

College.

Bicknell was the head football coach at the University of Maine from 1976 to 1980, earning an 18–35–1 record. After that, he went to coach at Boston College, where he stayed for ten years. At Boston College, he was 59–55–1, and was head coach in 1984 when Heisman Trophy-winner Doug Flutie completed his famous Hail Mary pass to Gerard Phelan to beat the Miami Hurricanes as time expired. Bicknell son, Jack Jr., was the center for BC at the time of Flutie's miracle pass.

NFL Europe.

Bicknell was named the head coach of the Barcelona Dragons at their inception in 1991, and served there until October 2003, when he was named head coach of the Scottish Claymores. He has an overall record of 59–55 in his NFL Europe career. Bicknell made four World Bowl appearances, and had been to three title games in six years. In 1991, he led the Barcelona Dragons to an 8–2 mark and a berth in the first World Bowl. In 1997, his Dragons won the first half of the season and went on to win World Bowl '97 in Barcelona. In 1999, the Dragons posted a league-best 7–3 mark before losing to Frankfurt in the World Bowl. Also posted a league-best 8–2 record in 2001 before losing World Bowl IX to the Berlin Thunder in Amsterdam. On March 28, 2007, Bicknell stepped down as head coach of the Hamburg Sea Devils, citing health issues as the reason for his resignation.

Personal life.

Bicknell is nicknamed "Cowboy Jack" because of his love for country music and horse riding. He and his wife, Lois, have three children, Jack, Jr., Wendy and Bob and five grandchildren. Both of his sons played for him at Boston College and are currently coaches in the National Football League.

Jack Bicknell (born February 20, 1938) is a retired American football coach, most recently known for his long involvement in NFL Europa and its predecessor, the World League of American Football (WLAF). He served as the head football coach at the University of Maine from 1976 to 1980 and at Boston College from 1981 to 1988, compiling a career college football record of 77–90–2. In 1984, Bicknell coached his Boston College Eagles team to a 10–2 mark including a victory in the Cotton Bowl Classic. His quarterback that season, Doug Flutie, was awarded the Heisman Trophy.


History.

Burial mounds along the Minnesota River bluff, located within the present-day Veterans Memorial Park, have been dated between 500 and 2,000 years old.  Following the Dakota migration from Mille Lacs Lake in the 17th century, several bands of Mdewakanton Dakota settled along the Minnesota River. They continued the mound building tradition. One of these bands was led in the 18th century by the first Chief Shakopee. The original Shakopee acquired his name when his wife, White Buffalo Woman, gave birth to sextuplet boys. Shakopee means "the six." The Ojibwa nation began pushing into Dakota territory and reportedly Shakopee's band skirmished in 1768 and 1775. Shakopee died in 1827 at Fort Snelling.  The second man to be given the name Chief Shakopee was his adopted Ojibwa son, Eaglehead (b. 1794-1857), a twin son born to "Ozaawindib," or "Yellowhead." Ozaawindib gave this son to the Dakota, as he had another to take the hereditary chief's role. Explorer Joseph Nicollet recorded that Eaglehead had been chosen in 1838 to lead the band and assume his father's name.  By this time, Nicollet referred to the "Village of the Six," a permanent Dakota village south of the river, as acting as a boundary to the Ojibwa. However, historians have since situated it east of the present downtown. He noted the village and locality was commonly called the "village of the prairie" (published as "tinta ottonwe"). The Shakopee band lived in summer bark lodges and winter tipis. They followed the changes of the season when they planted their cornfields.  By the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, the Sioux tribe ceded land in 1851 and many relocated to Chief Shakopee II's village. The latter people had moved south to what was later assigned to them as the current Shakopee-Mdewakanton Indian Reservation in nearby Prior Lake. The band swelled to 400 people. Its leadership passed to Shakopee II's son Eatoka (b. 1811-1865). He was called Shakpedan (Little Shakopee/Little Six) at the death of his father.  During the Dakota War of 1862, his warriors killed about 800 European-American settlers in an effort to regain their lands. Shakpedan was hanged at Fort Snelling in 1865 for his role in the rebellion.  Descendants of the Mdewakanton Dakota placed of Shakopee land into tribal land trust with the Department of Interior in 2003.  Meanwhile, in 1851, Thomas A. Holmes established a trading post west of the Dakota and platted Shakopee Village in 1854, named after Chief Shakopee II. The city quickly grew, incorporating in 1857. It surrendered its charter in 1861 due to conflicts in the Dakota War. As tensions lifted, the city incorporated again in 1870. The western end was left in township status and was renamed as Jackson Township, Minnesota in 1861, likely after President Andrew Jackson.  In November of 2017, it was discovered that then Shakopee superintendent Rod Thompson had used the district credit card to make 305 personal purchases, totaling over thirty thousand dollars. He was investigated by the FBI, and was charged with swindling and embezzlement. He resigned from his position as superintendent. He plead guilty to 19 counts of felony theft by swindling and embezzlement. He was sentenced to 24 months in prison, which he began serving in spring of 2019 in a minimum security prison in Duluth. He used the money he embezzled to purchase first class flights, TV's Jewelry, and a pair of $220 red cowboy boots.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of ; is land and is water.  U.S. Highway 169 and County Highway 101 are two of the main routes in Shakopee. Highway 169 and nearby State Highway 13 connect Shakopee to the rest of the Minneapolis – Saint Paul region. County Highway 101 serves as a major east–west connector route of historic downtown Shakopee.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 37,076 people, 12,772 households, and 9,275 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 13,339 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 77.0% White, 4.3% African American, 1.2% Native American, 10.3% Asian, 4.5% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.8% of the population.  There were 12,772 households of which 45.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.1% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 27.4% were non-families. 20.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.31.  The median age in the city was 32.2 years. 30.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 37.2% were from 25 to 44; 19.2% were from 45 to 64; and 6.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.

2000 census.

At the 2000 census, there were 20,568 people, 7,540 households and 5,360 families living in the city. The population density was 761.7 per square mile (294.1/km2). There were 7,805 housing units at an average density of 289.0 per square mile (111.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.61% White, 1.33% African American, 0.94% Native American, 2.41% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 2.14% from other races, and 1.54% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.40% of the population.  There were 7,540 households of which 38.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.2% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.9% were non-families. 21.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.12.  27.5% of the population were under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 38.8% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.6 males.  The median household income was $59,137 and the median family income was $66,885 (these figures had risen to $72,523 and $83,235 respectively in a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $41,662 versus $32,244 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,128. About 1.8% of families and 3.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 4.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Shakopee Public Schools (ISD 720) include five elementary schools, two middle schools and one senior high school, as well as a learning center. The schools are:  District Leadership  ISD 720 Board of Education:  Students in ninth through twelfth grade attend Shakopee High School. Students in sixth through eighth attend either Shakopee West or East Middle School and Students in K-5 attend one of the 5 elementary schools, in addition to this, there is also a learning center serving as a high school for troubled teens and, a Family Center for Early childhood education and preschool. Shakopee is also the location of the Shakopee Area Catholic Schools.  Living Hope Lutheran School is a Christian Pre-K-8 school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Shakopee.  The city of Shakopee also has a campus of the Globe University/Minnesota School of Business, a private career college offering programs in business, health sciences, legal sciences, multimedia and design, and information technology.

Politics.

United States House of Representatives State Legislature  Scott County Board of Commissioners  Shakopee City Council

Recreation.

Located in Shakopee is a relatively new soccer complex that has a growing program. There are also several regional attractions (see below).

Attractions.

Shakopee is the location of several attractions that are well-recognized throughout the state and even nationally.

Shakopee ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Scott County, Minnesota. It is located southwest of downtown Minneapolis. Sited on the south bank bend of the Minnesota River, Shakopee and nearby suburbs comprise the southwest portion of Minneapolis-Saint Paul, the sixteenth-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 3.6 million people. The population of Shakopee was 37,076 at the 2010 census.


Background.

Natives of Philadelphia, the sisters: Debra Elaine "Debbie" Sledge (born July 9, 1954), Joan Elise "Joni" Sledge (September 13, 1956 – March 10, 2017), Kim Sledge (born August 21, 1957), and Kathy Sledge (born January 6, 1959) are the daughters of Broadway tap dancer Edwin Sledge (1923–1996) and actress Florez Sledge (née Williams; 1928–2007) The sisters were given vocal training by their grandmother Viola Williams, a former lyric soprano opera singer and protégé of civil rights leader Mary McLeod Bethune. Under Viola’s guidance, they regularly sang at their family church, Williams Temple Christian Methodist Episcopal until forming a band and performing at charity and political events throughout Philadelphia, aptly named Mrs Williams’ Grandchildren. The sisters graduated from Olney High School: Debbie in 1972, Joni in 1974, Kim in 1975, and Kathy in 1977. By the end of the decade, all four sisters graduated from Temple University in Philadelphia.

Career.

Early career.

The group toured much of the East Coast, including New York, New Jersey, and home town Philadelphia with Florez acting as their manager (and tour bus driver) and Debbie as musical director. They released their first single "Time Will Tell" in 1971 on local music label Money Back. In 1973, they released the single "Mama Never Told Me", which became a top-20 hit in the UK in 1975, but with the Patrick Grant and Gwen Guthrie single "Love Don’t Go Through No Changes On Me" (released in 1974), the siblings enjoyed their first success. The song was a big hit in Japan, and as a result, the girls were flown to the country to perform at the Tokyo Music Festival, where they won the Silver Prize. The sisters also performed at the Zaire 74 concert in Africa alongside James Brown during the Rumble in the Jungle boxing event.  Sister Sledge’s first album, "Circle of Love", was released by ATCO (a subsidiary of Atlantic Records) in 1975, and included songs written by Gwen Guthrie and Gwen's then-boyfriend, studio bassist Patrick Grant, who later changed his name to Haras Fyre. The group enjoyed some success in Europe, and as a result, the album "Together" was recorded in Germany in 1977. Released through the Cotillion label, another Atlantic subsidiary, the album produced a minor hit with the single "Blockbuster Boy" reaching number 61 on the US R&B chart.

International breakthrough.

At something of a crossroads in their careers, the future seemed a little uncertain for the group, but Atlantic Records connected them with producers Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards of the band Chic, and the situation changed. After some initial challenges to working collaboratively, the breakthrough album "We Are Family" was recorded and released by Cotillion on January 22, 1979. The lead single "He’s the Greatest Dancer" charted at number one R&B and was a number-nine crossover hit. In 1979, the record's anthemic title track "We Are Family" followed and became a worldwide smash charting at number two pop and number one R&B. The song and group were nominated for a Grammy Award and "We Are Family" was adopted as the official anthem for the Pittsburgh Pirates, who went on to win the World Series that year. Sister Sledge was duly invited to perform the national anthem at the opening game in front of 45,000 fans.  The album was certified platinum by the RIAA and produced two more classic disco singles, "Lost in Music" and "Thinking of You". Around this time, Debbie Sledge went on maternity leave and the eldest sister, Carol, filled in for her. They were named "Billboard" Best New Artists. In 1980, their follow-up album "Love Somebody Today" (also written and produced by Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards) was released. The lead single "Love Somebody Today" scored moderately well, charting at number six on the R&B and number 64 on the pop charts. An extensive three-year live tour began and the quartet performed sold-out shows all over the world.  In 1981, Sister Sledge worked with Narada Michael Walden, who produced their fifth studio album, "All American Girls". The project was intended as a collaboration, but the resulting album is generally attributed to Narada Michael Walden. The title track became a number-three R&B hit, but the following singles "Next Time You'll Know" and "If You Really Want Me" did only moderate business. As a tribute to the late Bob Marley, a reggae-influenced mix of the album's fourth release "He's Just a Runaway" was recorded at Radio City Music Hall in New York. The girls self-produced their next record "The Sisters" in 1982. The album spawned the number-14 R&B and number-23 pop hit "My Guy" (a cover of the Mary Wells classic). The group subsequently appeared on the March 1984 episode of "The Jeffersons" entitled "My Guy, George", in which they performed the song.

Continued European success.

The album "Bet Cha Say That to All the Girls" was released in 1983, the lead single from which featured American Jazz singer Al Jarreau. The group experienced renewed success in 1984, when Atlantic Records belatedly released "Thinking of You" followed by a Nile Rodgers remix of "Lost in Music" in the UK, the latter peaking at number four. The following year, they released their seventh studio album "When the Boys Meet the Girls" and continued success in the UK. Released by Atlantic Records, lead single "Frankie" hit the top spot on the UK Singles Chart, spending four weeks at number one.  In 1989, Kathy pursued a solo career, while still active with Sister Sledge for certain shows. Debbie, Joni, and Kim continued to perform as Sister Sledge and in 1992 collaborated with Jean-Paul "Bluey" Maunick from UK acid jazz group Incognito on the single "World Rise and Shine". The song featured on their greatest-hits album "And Now...Sledge...Again". The single reached number one in Italy and resulted in the trio hosting their own TV show there. The group (including Kathy) experienced a resurgence of success in the UK the following year when the Sure as Pure remix of "We Are Family" was released and peaked at number five, followed by remixes of "Lost in Music" (number 14) and "Thinking of You" (number 17). A greatest-hits album, "The Very Best of Sister Sledge 1973–93", was also released. In 1996, after witnessing a shooting in LA, Joni Sledge wrote the protest song "Brother, Brother Stop" that was recorded by the trio and featured on a new greatest-hits CD. In 1997, Joni produced the group's eighth studio album, "African Eyes", that garnered critical acclaim and was nominated for a Grammy as best-produced CD.

2000–present.

In December 2000, Sister Sledge (Kathy, Debbie, Joni, and Kim) performed at the White House for the President and First Lady at the final Christmas party of the Clinton administration. The following year, in the aftermath of 9/11, all four sisters re-recorded "We Are Family" as a benefit record with a host of other artists, including Diana Ross and Patti Labelle. Debbie, Joni, and Kim produced solo material during this period before being reunited in the studio to record the album "Style" in 2003. Due to legal difficulties, the project officially remains unreleased. Kim, an ordained minister, took some time out from the group, but soon joined Kathy and Joni on various international shows. Joni and Debbie continued to tour (with various guest artists, including Debbie's daughter Camille Sledge, completing a trio), and in 2005 performed on the famous pyramid stage at the Glastonbury Music Festival in the UK. In 2011, Kathy reached out to her sisters and brought them back together for an appearance on the "Women Who Rock" episode of Oprah Winfrey's talk show. In the summer of 2012, Sister Sledge added Tanya Tiet to their lineup.  In 2014, Sister Sledge (Debbie, Joni, and Tanya) headlined at the Tramlines Festival in Sheffield, UK along with hip-hop icons, Public Enemy, and collaborated with Scottish electronic producer The Revenge, recording the track "Stay a While" in London. With Kim rejoining in 2015, all three sisters performed at a large-scale charity benefit in London for Save the Children and were invited to perform for Pope Francis along with Aretha Franklin and Andrea Bocelli at the World Festival of Families in Philadelphia; the latter performance – at Eakins Oval Stage on September 26, 2015 – was covered by the world's media and went viral due to crowds of nuns in the audience dancing to "We Are Family" (Debbie did not participate in this performance). Debbie, Joni, and Kim soon thereafter launched the brand concept, Nothing is Greater Than Love. Joni Sledge, born September 13, 1956, died of natural causes at her home in Phoenix, Arizona, on Friday, March 10, 2017. She was 60 years old. Following Joni's death, Debbie and Kim announced that they will continue to perform as Sister Sledge.

Sister Sledge is an American musical vocal group from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Formed in 1971, the group consisted of sisters Debbie, Joni, Kim, and Kathy Sledge. The siblings achieved international success at the height of the disco era. In 1979, they released their breakthrough album "We Are Family", which peaked at number three on the "Billboard" 200 and included the 1979 US top-10 singles "He's the Greatest Dancer" and "We Are Family". A third single, "Lost in Music", reached the US top 40. "We Are Family" earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.