Contract law.

Duress involves illegitimate threats. The common law long allowed a claim if duress was of a physical nature. So long as a threat is just one of the reasons a person enters an agreement, even if not the main reason, the agreement may be avoided. In "Barton v Armstrong" Mr Armstrong tried to "strong-arm" Mr Barton into paying him a large golden parachute to exit a business by getting his goons to make death threats to Barton's family. Even though Barton was tough, and would have probably done the payout regardless, he could avoid the agreement.  Only late in the 20th century was escape allowed if the threat involved illegitimate economic harm. A threat is always "illegitimate" if it is to do an unlawful act, such as breaking a contract knowing non-payment may push someone out of business. However, threatening to do a lawful act will usually not be illegitimate. In "Pao On v Lau Yiu Long" the Pao family threatened to not complete a share swap deal aimed at purchasing their company's building unless the Lau family agreed to change a guarantee agreement assuring the Paos would receive the rise in the swapped shares' prices when repurchased. The Privy Council advised that the Laus signing the guarantee agreement after the threat of non-completion of the main agreement was only a result of "commercial pressure", not economic duress. Just by observing the Laus' behaviour, and consideration of the situation before signing, there was no coercion amounting to a vitiation of consent. However, contrasting to cases involving business parties, the threat to do a lawful act will probably be duress if used against a vulnerable person.  An obvious case involving "lawful act duress" is blackmail. The blackmailer has to justify, not doing the lawful act they threaten, but against a person highly vulnerable to them, the demand of money.

Criminal law.

This is an exception to the general principle of criminal law that those who choose to break the law are held responsible for the crimes that they commit. The rationale of the exception is that the choice is not wholly voluntary. The Law Commission (1977 at paras 2.44–2.46) recognised the logic that, if the defence was going to be allowed at all, it should be applied to all offences. But this recommendation has not been adopted because it is felt that, in the case of the most serious crimes such as murder, no threat to the defendant, however extreme, should excuse commission of the crime (Elliott; 1989). The defence is also open to abuse. Smith (1994 at p584) commented: ... duress is a unique defence in that it is so much more likely than any other to depend on assertions which are peculiarly difficult for the prosecution to investigate or subsequently to disprove. This approach has been adopted by the judiciary, most notably by the House of Lords in "R v H" [2004] 2 WLR 335:  Defences that the accused has been set up and allegations of duress, which used to at one time to be rare, have multiplied. We wish to alert judges to the need to scrutinise applications for disclosure of details about informants with very great care. The prosecution's difficulty was at one time the greater when the issue of duress had not been raised by the defence until the trial was under way. To counter these problems, the Law Commission (1993 at paras 33–34) recommended that the burden of proof be shifted to the defendant to establish duress on the balance of probabilities. Since then there has been no specific enactment relating to duress but Section 5 of the Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996, c.25, provides that the defence must serve on the Court and the prosecution the nature of the accused's defence in general terms, and the matters in issue. This would seem to apply to the defence of duress, and in "R v Tyrell and others" 2004 EWCA Crim 3279, there had been a specific, although late, reliance upon the defence.  A rigorous analysis of the doctrine of duress is difficult because it is invariably reliant upon the particular facts in a given case, and there is usually an overlap between duress and the defence of necessity. See, for example, comments by Lord Woolf CJ in "R v Shayler" at Para. 42.

History and reasoning.

Duress as a defence has existed for many centuries and originates in common law—its extension to cover duress by circumstances did not occur until the 1990s, specifically the case of "R v Pommell".  The defence of duress (by threat), according to Lord Bingham in "R v Hasan", "excuses what would otherwise be criminal conduct" rather than justifies it. Bingham draws a distinction here with self-defence regarding between the moral status of the victim: in a case of self-defence, the victim has themselves made an aggressive or criminal act towards the defendant. In a duress case, there is no such relationship of prior aggression. Bingham notes at paragraph 19:

The threat.

The law limits the nature of the threat that has to be placed on a person for them to qualify as being under duress. The threat must be one of death or serious personal injury, either to the defendant or to his immediate family or someone close to him. In "R v Singh", the Court of Appeal held that a threat to expose the defendant's adultery would not be sufficient threat to overbear the will of an ordinary person.  The defendant must have a reasonable and genuinely held fear of death or serious harm, usually in the form of specific threats directed at the defendant, his immediate family or someone for whom he feels responsible. In "R v Graham", the threat was immediately and directly made to the defendant. In the Australian case of "R v Hurley & Murray" escaped criminals compelled H to dispose of two corpses by holding his wife hostage, such that the threats to her "would have been operative during the entire period of his absence" and "his only concern must have been for the safety of the woman".  Following "R v Conway" and "R v Wright", (where the threat related in part to the defendant's boyfriend) the specimen direction of the Judicial Studies Board suggests that the threat must be directed, if not to the defendant or a member of his immediate family, to a person for whose safety the defendant would reasonably regard himself as responsible which, if strictly applied, would be consistent with the rationale of the duress exception.

Causal link.

As seen in "R v Cole" 1994 Crim. LR 582, there must be a direct causal link between these threats and the defendant's decision to break the law. Thus, the defendant's normal inhibitions must be overwhelmed by his or her belief in the efficacy of the threat. Following "R v Safi" (2003) it is held that the defendant need only prove he reasonably and genuinely believed there was a threat, i.e. the test is both subjective and objective in that the defendant's will must actually have been overwhelmed by the threat, and a reasonable person of average courage may also have felt compelled to act the same way under direction.

Immediacy.

The circumstances in which the threats were made must also have offered no reasonable opportunity for evasive action. But, taken together, the questions of causation and immediacy have created a weakness in the limitations placed on the defence. In "R v Hudson and Taylor" 1971 2 QB 202, two young women who had witnessed a serious assault were intimidated and refused to identify the attacker in court. They were charged with perjury but allowed a conditional discharge. The court was prepared to allow leniency because these women lived in a community where physical retaliation for co-operating with the police was routine, and they had no reasonable means, given their age, experience, and lack of physical strength, of avoiding the implementation of the threat. This weakened the requirement that the threat's implementation must be so imminent that the defendant had to decide in that moment whether to break the law, and it has given rise to cases such as "R v Cole" 1994 Crim. LR 582 in which a man robbed several building societies to avoid the threats of a debt collector. Simon Brown LJ. at p583 held that the peril relied on to support the plea of necessity lacked imminence, and the degree of directness and immediacy required of a sufficient nexus between the suggested peril and the offence charged. The one making the threats had not nominated the crimes to be committed by the defendant. He had simply indicated that he wanted the defendant to repay the debt which would not necessarily involve the commission of an offence.

The characteristics of the reasonable person.

In "R v Bowen" [1996] 2 Cr. App. R. 157, the Court of Appeal held person with a low IQ, short of mental impairment or mental defectiveness, was not necessarily less courageous or less able to withstand threats and pressure than an ordinary person. The relevant test (laid down in "R v Graham" 1982 1 AER 801) had two elements:  Stuart-Smith LJ gave comprehensive guidance as to which characteristics might be relevant in the jury's consideration: age, sex, physical disability or recognised mental illness might limit a person's ability to act in self-defence, but the fact that the defendant was more vulnerable, timid or susceptible to threats than a normal person were not characteristics of the reasonable person. Also excluded would be self-induced incapacity due to drunkenness or drug-taking ("R v Flatt" 1996 Crim LR 576).

Duress by circumstances.

There have been an increasing number of cases pleading duress arising from the general pressure of circumstances, whether arising directly from human action or not. To that extent, this subset of duress seeks to borrow some of the language of necessity. In "R v Conway" (1988) 3 AER 1025, the Court of Appeal dealt with a charge of reckless driving where the defendant had fled from police officers. His passenger had recently been attacked by a man with a shotgun, and screamed at the defendant to "drive off" when he saw the plain-clothed officers running toward the car. The court held that to establish "duress of circumstances", it was necessary for him to drive as he did believing it necessary to avoid death or serious bodily injury to himself or another person. As evidence, the accused must be able to point to an "objective danger" or at least satisfy the requirement of reasonable belief. As a gloss, Woolf LJ. noted that  In "R v Martin" (1989) 1 AER 652 the defendant who drove while disqualified claimed that it was necessary for him to drive his son to work, because he feared that his mentally ill wife might commit suicide if her son did not arrive at work on time. Simon Brown J. defined the defence as pressure on the accused's will arising either from the wrongful threats or violence of another, or from other objective dangers threatening the accused or others. The requirements were that  Thus, in "DPP v Bell" (1992) Crim LR 176 the accused successfully pleaded duress of circumstances to driving with excess alcohol because, following an incident in a pub which caused him to fear for his physical safety, he escaped in his car, only driving a short distance to safety and then abandoning the criminal activity as soon as reasonably possible. While in "R v Baker and Wilkins" (1997) Crim LR 497 (CA) a child's mother and another broke down the door to the father's house to recover the child from his possession. The action was being taken to defend the child so three defences were raised:  The danger must be such that the accused cannot reasonably, taking into account any of his or her relevant characteristics, be expected to act otherwise. In "R v Pommell" (1995) 2 Cr. App. R. 607 the defendant was charged with possession of an illegal firearm, a sub-machine gun, which he claimed to have taken from another person in order to prevent that other from using it and to hand it to the police. There was some doubt as to how long the weapon had been in his possession, which resulted in his conviction because the jury decided that he had not acted as soon as was reasonable in the circumstances. "R v Abdul Hussain and others" (1999) Crim LR 570 considered the requirement that the threat be imminent and operative even though its execution is not immediate. The defendants hijacked a plane in order to escape death at the hands of the Iraqi authorities. The court held that the defence was available as long as the crime was a reasonable and proportionate response to an imminent peril of death or serious injury. The threat need not be immediate, only imminent.

Gang membership.

The most recent cases have involved situations where the defendant  In "R v Hasan" [2005] UKHL 22 the defendant was the driver for a group that organised prostitution and had connections with a second organisation of violent drug dealers. He was charged with burglary in circumstances where he and his family had been threatened, and he had been accompanied to the scene of the crime by an armed man. In the earlier case of "R v Fitzpatrick" (1977) NI 20, involving the IRA, Lowry LCJ, said at p 33:  In cases involving less serious criminality, "R v Sharp" (1987) QB 853 involved a gang of robbers, while "R v Shepherd" (1987) 86 Cr. App R 47 involved a group of shoplifters, the court held:  Thus, if the defendant knows what the group does and that some violent people are involved, he or she cannot rely on the violence threatened as duress. But in "R v Baker and Ward" (1999) 2 Cr. App. R. 335 this was slightly modified at p344: "What a defendant has to be aware of is the risk that the group might try to coerce him into committing criminal offences of the type for which he is being tried by the use of violence or threats of violence." (On whether this is a subjective or objective test, see Ashworth: 2003.) The Lords in "Hasan" clearly stated at para 37:

Exceptions.

Duress is no defence to murder, attempted murder, or, seemingly, treason involving the death of the sovereign. In general, courts do not accept a defence of duress when harm done by the defendant is greater than the court's perception of the harm threatened. This is a test of proportionality. In "Howe" (1987) AC 417 the court held that the jury should consider:  Howe was a member of a gang that tortured and strangled a man. On a second occasion, Howe strangled the victim. He claimed to have acted out of fear for one Murray who, through threatened and actual violence, had gained control of the group. Previously, in "Director of Public Prosecutions for Northern Ireland v Lynch" (1975) AC 653, the Lords had held by a majority that duress was available to an accomplice. On this occasion, the Lords held that one of the relevant public policies underpinning the criminal law must be to protect innocent lives and to set a standard of behaviour which ordinary men and women are expected to observe if they are to avoid criminal responsibility. In cases where the choice is between the threat of death or serious injury and deliberately taking an innocent life, a reasonable man might reflect that one innocent human life is at least as valuable as his own or that of his loved one. In such a case a man cannot claim that he is choosing the lesser of two evils. Rather he is adopting the understandable but morally dubious principle that the end justifies the means. Similarly, "R v Gotts" (1992) 2 AC 412 held that duress is not a defence to attempted murder.

Mental health.

The courts have held that the duress must come from an extraneous source, rather than internal thought processes. The case of "R v Rodger & Rose" [1998] 1 Cr App R 143 involved two prison inmates who had escaped. They sought to utilise the defence of duress of circumstances on the grounds that they were compelled to escape after becoming depressed whilst in prison, and fearing that unless they escaped they would become suicidal. The court decided that as a matter of public policy, the source of the duress must be from an external source and not from the internal thought processes associated with mental illness.  This decision may well have been reached to prevent such an absurdity from passing into law however as in "Shayler" [2002] 2 WLR 754 (House of Lords); Lord Woolf remarked in obiter that the defence should be extended to include acts designed to protect a person's mental, as well as physical health, from serious injury.

Duress in English law is a complete common law defence, operating in favour of those who commit crimes because they are forced or compelled to do so by the circumstances, or the threats of another. The doctrine arises not only in criminal law but also in civil law, where it is relevant to contract law and trusts law.


Plot.

Born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, the young future-emperor was adopted by his great-uncle, Julius Caesar, after demonstrating promising wit and skill. After his great-uncle's assassination, Augustus (at this time known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus) took vengeance upon Caesar's murderers, and through tactical political moves, became one of Rome's three “Triumvirs" alongside Marc Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. After defeating the other two triumvirs, and obtaining sole power over the Roman State, Augustus (known as "Imperator" Caesar Divi Filius), began taking measures to secure and increase his power. As a result, Augustus gave orders to exterminate Cleopatra's teenaged son, allegedly commenting, "too many Caesars is no good thing." (As it was the common belief that her son was of Julius Caesar's bloodline.) In light of such orders, Cleopatra and Marc Antony—lovers at the time—committed suicide.  The later part of the novel focuses more on Augustus' rule. It details his official renaming by the Roman Senate ("augustus": one to be revered), his contention with and banishment of his daughter, Julia, for her various extramarital affairs, and closes with a final note from (the fictional) Augustus himself.

Major themes.

The major theme "Augustus" addresses is the ability of circumstances to change the personality and behavior of a person. The conditions that surrounded Augustus' rise to power plagued Ancient Rome with violence and contention, which led to Augustus working hard to implement a time of peace and cooperation in Rome, commonly referred to as the Pax Romana or the Pax Augusta. Other themes Williams writes on in his novel include coming of age and the difference between restraint and resignation.

Background.

"Augustus" is the last work Williams published before his death in 1994. Though "Augustus" garnered little public recognition while Williams was alive, the critical reception of the work was generally positive. "Augustus" is different from Williams' other works in that it is his only piece in which the main character is not named William. In addition, it is his first novel that takes place outside of the United States.

Critical reception.

"Augustus" was received with general positivity from critics across the country. "Augustus" garnered so much critical respect that it won the National Book Award in 1973. Williams and "Augustus" shared the 1973 U.S. National Book Award for Fiction with John Barth and "Chimera", the first time the award was split. Critics such as Harold Augenbraum discuss the split award in their work, saying that this was the first time the fiction award was split and also discussing that the 1973 National Book Awards allowed many categories to split the awards.  Both the "Los Angeles Review of Books" and the "New York Review of Books" offered positive criticism, particularly about the fusion of biography and fiction. Reviewer Daniel Mendelsohn of the "New York Review of Books" wrote that "the life of the first emperor is an ideal vehicle for a historical novel: Augustus is a figure about whom we know at once a great deal and very little, and hence invites both description and invention".  Critics overwhelmingly praised the narrative of "Augustus" while critiquing the lack of time speaking Williams gives the title character. Overall, most critics praised Williams for forgoing his own personal voice to relay characters that are historical with personalities Williams imagines for himself and his audience.

Augustus is an epistolary, historical fiction by John Williams published by Viking Press in 1972. It tells the story of Augustus, emperor of Rome, from his youth through old age. The book is divided into two parts, the beginning chronicling his rise to power, the latter describing his rule thereafter, and the familial problems faced choosing a successor. Williams and "Augustus" shared the 1973 U.S. National Book Award for Fiction with John Barth and "Chimera", the first time the award was split, and the only of Williams' four novels to receive significant acclaim within his lifetime.


Research.

Peace psychological research can be analytically (research "on" peace) or normatively (research "for" peace) oriented. Regardless of its analytical or normative orientation, peace psychological research mainly deals with the "psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts" (including war), the "psychosocial conditions conducive or detrimental to a sustainable peace", and the "psychosocial effects of war and violence". In each case, different levels of analysis and explanation are relevant: from the level of individuals to groups, social organizations and institutions, states and state systems (e.g., the European Union), military alliances (e.g., NATO), and collective security systems (e.g., the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe [OSCE]).

Formation and escalation of conflict.

Peace psychology focuses on the psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts. A conflict exists when the expectations, interests, needs, or actions of at least two parties to the conflict are perceived by at least one of the parties to be incompatible. Peace psychology is mainly concerned with conflicts between social groups (intergroup conflicts, such as between ethnic groups, clans, religious groups, states etc.), in terms of domains like power, wealth, access to raw materials and markets, cultural or religious values, honor, dignity, or recognition. In conflicts one has to distinguish between (overt) positions (e.g., " we don't negotiate with X") and underlying interests (e.g., power, spheres of influence and wealth) as well as between current triggers (e.g., violence at a political protest) and systematic, enduring, structural causes (e.g., deprivation of a group's political participation or access to professional employment). Although conflicts are inevitable and can lead to positive change when dealt with constructively, the escalation of conflicts and in particular the occurrence of violence are preventable. Psychological processes of information processing (attention, perception, memory, thinking, judgment), emotion, and motivation influence substantially how a conflict is handled, and in particular whether conflicts escalate to violent episodes. An important factor is the different points of view of the conflict parties, such as when behavior that is based on positive intentions is perceived by the opponent as aggressive and therefore contributes to escalation. Conflicts can easily escalate. A cycle of violence can arise in which both parties are involved, and original victims can become perpetrators, without realizing it ("victim myth").  Conflicts can be intensified specifically through the construction of enemy images, psychological warfare, and propaganda promulgated by the media, political elite, educational systems, socialization, cultural symbols and other means. Enemy images may have a kernel of truth, but overstate the negative sides of the opponent. The core features of a strong enemy image include: (1) a negative evaluation of the opponent (e.g., aggressive, immoral, but also inferior), (2) a one-sided blame for negative events, and (3) a different evaluation of similar actions of one's own side than the enemy ("double standard"; e.g., build-up of arms on one’s own side is self-defense, on the enemy's it is aggression). These constructions can cause dehumanization of the opponent, so that moral standards no longer apply. In extreme cases, it may seem acceptable, even desirable, for the opponent to suffer and be killed. The construction of the enemy image has the central function of justifying armament, violence, and war. In addition, it enhances the individual and collective self-image.  Psychological warfare includes methods of generating or strengthening war support among the civilian population and the military. These methods include disinformation using the media (war propaganda), but also sabotage, displacement, murder, and terror. War propaganda consists of two complementary strategies: (1) repeating, highlighting, and embellishing with detail information that functions to intensify the enemy image or threat perceptions, and (2) ignoring and devaluing information that may lead to de-escalation. In addition, negative behavior of the adversary may be provoked (e.g., by maneuvers at the state borders) or charges that the enemy engaged in heinous acts may be entirely invented (e.g., the Nayirah testimony).

Conflict reduction and resolution (peace psychological strategies).

Different peace psychological strategies for non-violent conflict resolution are discussed (conflict de-escalation, conflict resolution, conflict transformation). One can distinguish between strategies on the "official level" (e.g., measures of tension reduction and trust build such as Charles E. Osgood's "Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction" [GRIT], negotiations, mediation), approaches of "unofficial diplomacy" (interactive problem-solving workshops), and strategies at the level of peace and conflict "civil society" (e.g., peace journalism, contact between social groups).

Official level.

Osgood's GRIT model was designed as a counter-concept to the arms race in the East-West conflict, in which the former superpowers, USA and USSR, constantly increased the quantity and quality of their arms so that the destruction of humankind by a nuclear war seemed increasingly possible. The GRIT model, in contrast, aimed to de-escalate and create an atmosphere of mutual trust. One party publicly announces and performs a verifiable, concrete step to reduce tension, and asks or invites the other side to do something similar (developing a spiral of trust). Care is taken so that each step does not endanger the safety of one's own side. GRIT was designed to reverse the tension involved in the nuclear arms race by having each side engage in graduated and reciprocal inititiatives. While there is no firm evidence, it has been suggested that U.S. President Kennedy and the Soviet leader Khrushchev based their negotiations after the Cuban missile crisis on this concept.  When conflicted parties are engaged in long-lasting, severe conflicts, it can be difficult to have constructive bilateral negotiations. In this case, a third party (e.g., a social scientist or reputed politician) can serve as a mediator in order to facilitate conflict management. Mediators must be well aware of the conflict and its history, should have the confidence of both conflict parties, and need to be familiar with conflict analysis and communication strategies. Important strategies include establishing trust, working out the essential elements of conflict, and possibly dividing the problem so that at least partial solutions can be achieved and violence can be prevented or stopped. Problems arise when mediators are biased and have strong individual interests. Mediation success is more likely if the conflict is moderately intense, the power difference between the parties is low, and the mediators have high prestige (as a person or because of organizational affiliation).

Unofficial level.

In severe, long-lasting conflicts, it may be advisable to intervene at a level below official diplomacy. Interactive problem solving is such an informal approach to bring members of the conflict parties together. These can include citizens who are well-respected from different areas of society, such as media, business, politics, education, or religion. A team of social scientists (e.g., psychologists) initiate and promote a problem-solving process with the elements of conflict diagnosis, generation of alternatives, and development of nonviolent solutions that results in outcomes that are satisfactory to all parties involved. There is the expectation or hope that the participants influence their governments and public opinion so that official negotiations can follow. Psychologically important components of the process are that the respective self and enemy images are corrected. Interactive problem solving was used in particular in the Israel-Palestine conflict by the U.S. psychologist Herbert Kelman and his team.

Civil society level.

Media are often involved in the formation of enemy images and escalation of conflict. Peace journalism, in contrast, has the objective of investigating and using the influence of the media as a means of encouraging the constructive, non-violent resolution of conflict. Key strategies include representing the conflicting parties as well as the conflict and its history appropriately, identifying propaganda, and articulating the suffering of the people.  The collective action and peaceful demonstrations of the population toward peaceful and socially just ends can have an influence on the decisions of those in power – particularly in democracies. Citizens' commitment depends, among other factors, on the existence of opportunities in society, individual value orientations (e.g., valuing non-violence, social justice), the presence of role models, and the perceived probability of success of one's actions.  Contacts between opposing groups (e.g., on the level of municipalities, associations, universities, trade unions) can contribute to building positive relationships and the reduction of prejudice (see contact hypothesis). Conditions associated with the improvement of intergroup relations when groups come in contact with one another include: The actors involved have similar social status; there are common goals that can be achieved through cooperation; and the contacts are supported by authorities in society.  In asymmetric conflicts, where one conflict party is politically, economically, and/or militarily clearly superior, the stronger party may not be interested in a truly sustainable conflict resolution. Under asymmetric conditions, when the root causes of the conflict cannot be sufficiently addressed, structural violence persists. For such situations, approaches have been developed such as nonviolent resistance and liberation psychology, which originated in Latin America and is related to liberation theology.  Nonviolent resistance refers to public, non-violent behavior directed against injustice; it involves publicly explicating one's own intentions, committing to communicate with the other side, and the willingness to endure negative consequences of one's own actions. Methods of nonviolent resistance range from protests (e.g., demonstrations) to non-cooperation (e.g., strikes, boycotts) to civil resistance (e.g., traffic blockades). Particularly well known are the actions, speeches, and writings of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King.

Effects of war and violence.

Peace psychology examines war and violence between groups also with the aim of illustrating the psychological and social costs of war and violence and to document the human suffering caused. The psychological consequences include, in particular, traumatization (mainly of the civilian population, but also members of the military), cognitive and emotional damage, and the destruction of trustful social relationships. Wars often do not resolve the underlying problems; they often provoke new violence and wars. For example, in post-war societies an increased level of family and community violence can be observed. In addition, resources necessary to deal with civilian issues (e.g., education, health, social welfare) are lost. There is still little comprehensive and objective research on the consequences and costs of war.

Psychosocial conditions of sustainable peace.

Even when violence has been stopped or a Peace Treaty reached, to prevent the risk of a renewed escalation, physical and economic reconstruction as well as socio-political and psychosocial interventions are required. These interventions aim to cure psychosocial wounds of war, build trust, develop a common collective memory, recognize past wrongdoing, and achieve reconciliation and/or forgiveness. Examples are trauma therapy and Truth and Reconciliation Commissions.  Also, irrespective of any specific conflict and violence, peace psychological research looks at the psychosocial conditions that hamper or promote sustainable peace. The basic aim is to transform cultures of violence into cultures of peace.  The following cultural characteristics are obstacles to the development of sustainable peace: the view of one's own group (ethnicity, religion, nation, etc.) to be superior and more valuable and others as inferior and of little value (or in the extreme case: no value); the development of enemy images, dehumanization of others, legitimization of violence and damage; underlying beliefs (ideologies) such as ethnocentrism, social dominance orientation, authoritarianism, nationalism, militarism, and an education system that promotes these ideologies; power differentials that are defended or increased by the powerful and that create unequal conditions in areas such as wealth, health, education, and political participation (structural violence).  Among factors conducive to the development of sustainable peace are: the fundamental belief that conflicts are frequent, but that they can be solved without violence and for the benefit of the various conflict parties; the concept of humanism with the features of human dignity, pacifism, empathy, respect, tolerance and solidarity, and respect for all people or for humanity as a whole; critical proximity to one's own group that – in addition to positive identification – also integrates own weaknesses, mistakes, and committed wrongdoings in the collective self-concept.  In the transformation of cultures of violence into cultures of peace the focus on human rights is of high importance. Human rights are inalienable rights that apply to all human beings, without distinction as to sex, color, ethnicity, language, religion, political opinion, or social origin (prohibition of discrimination). The UN Human Rights Charter contains the essential documents of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948) and the Twin Covenants (1966, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). The UDHR consists of 30 articles with more than 100 individual rights, including civil and political rights (e.g., right to life, prohibition of torture, right to fair and public trial, right to asylum, freedom of speech, regular elections), but also social, economic, and cultural rights (including the right to work, rest, holidays with pay, protection from unemployment, the right to food, clothing, housing, medical care, and free primary education). Of particular importance in the UN's human rights concept is that all human rights are significant (indivisibility) and that they apply to all people (universality). Psychological research on human rights has mainly examined knowledge, attitudes, and readiness to act in support of human rights. Representative surveys in Germany show that the realization of human rights is considered to be very important, but at the same time knowledge of human rights is low and inaccurate. The results show a "halving" of human rights: Some civil rights are known, while economic and social rights are hardly considered human rights. Of importance in peace psychology are also analyses of whether human rights are used in the sense of peace or whether they are abused for the construction of enemy images or to prepare wars.

In education.

Peace psychological findings are used in the content and practice of peace education at various levels, from primary school to secondary and tertiary education (e.g., in the form of peace psychology courses at universities) to vocational training.  The Conflict Information Consortium at the University of Colorado offers the Beyond Intractability project, an openly accessible, cooperative learning platform.

Practice.

Peace psychology practice refers, for example, to trauma therapeutic work, the implementation of trainings in nonviolent conflict resolution, and activities in such roles as conflict mediator or civil peace worker. Of particular importance is the cooperation between research and practice, such as in the form of evaluation research, to contribute to the continuous improvement of practice.

Peace psychology is a subfield of psychology and peace research that deals with the psychological aspects of peace, conflict, violence, and war. Peace psychology can be characterized by four interconnected pillars: (1) research, (2) education, (3) practice, and (4) advocacy. The first pillar, research, is documented most extensively in this article.


Education.

Felbermayr was born on June 24, 1976 in Steyr, Austria. From 1986 to 1994, he attended the Gymnasium der Abtei Schlierbach in Schlierbach, Austria, where he graduated "summa cum laude". He then continued his education at the Classe Préparatoire aux Hautes Études Commerciales in Vienna. In 1995, he began his studies at the Johannes Kepler University in Linz, receiving both a Magister in Economics and in International Business Administration in 2000. From 2000 to 2004, he joined the PhD program in Economics at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy under the supervision of Omar Licandro. From 2003 to 2004, he also worked as a university assistant at the University of Linz.  After graduating, Felbermayr worked as an Associate Consultant at McKinsey & Company in Vienna. He also became an academic councilor at the University of Tübingen. He subsequently completed his habilitation with a thesis on trade and unemployment under the supervision of Claudia Buch. He has had various academic posts at the University of Konstanz, the University of Zurich, and the University of Nottingham. From 2008 to 2011, he worked as a Professor of Economics at the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart. Since 2011, he has been a Professor of Economics at the University of Munich. He has regularly taught courses on Microeconomics, International Finance, and Economic Growth.  Felbermayr is an associate editor for the "European Economic Review" and the "International Review of Economics and Finance". He has also been a board member of the European Trade Study Group since 2014. He also serves as a member of the Board of Academic Advisors at the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy.

Honors and awards.

He has published numerous articles in learned journals such as the "Review of Economics and Statistics", the "International Economic Review", the "Journal of International Economics", and the "American Economic Journal". Some of his notable honors and awards include:

Kiel Institute for the World Economy.

In March 2019, Felbermayr will replace current president Dennis J. Snower of the Kiel Institute for the World Economy, who has reached the compulsory age of retirement. Prime Minister of Schleswig-Holstein Daniel Günther and Minister of Science Karin Prien confirmed Felbermayr succession, believing the Institute's focus will shift to issues on custom duties, free trade agreements, and the intersection of politics and society. Felbermayr aims to maintain the Institute's "world economic profile".

Gabriel Felbermayr (born 1976) is an Austrian economist who specializes in international economics, international trade agreements, economic policy, and environmental economics. Felbermayr is a leading economist in the field of international economics, as cited in the top 5% of all economists and has been referred to as "Germany's Chief Economist of the North" ("Deutschlands neuer Chefökonom Nordens"). Felbermayr is currently a professor of economics at the University of Munich (LMU) and Director of the Ifo Institute for Economic Research, which is based in Munich. He is the incoming president of the Kiel Institute for the World Economy.


Route.

The Hardanger Line ran from Voss to Granvin in Hardanger. From Voss to Skjervet, the line ran in relatively flat terrain, with easy construction. Along this section the route followed what is now Norwegian National Road 13. At Skjervet, the two split; towards Nesheim the gradient increased and the topography became more difficult. On this section there were four tunnels, named Skjervet Tunnel I through IV, the longest being. Between the two longest tunnels, the line was built on a shelf. Later, the tunnel was extended from to also include that portion in the tunnel. From Skjervet, the railway ran on the west side of the river Granvinvatnet, while the road ran on the east side.  The Hardanger Line was built with a minimum curve radius of, a maximum gradient of 4.5 percent and built with standard gauge tracks weighing, later increased to. In 1980, the section from Voss to Palmafoss had a permitted axle load of and a maximum speed of. From Palmafoss to Granvin, the permitted axle load was and the maximum speed was. The system had stations with buildings at Voss, Palmafoss, Mønshaug, Skjervet, Nesheim and Granvin. In addition, there were halts at Haugamo, Kinne, Bjørgum, Mala, Dalsleitet, Flatlandsmo, Såkvitno, Selland and Kolanes.  Granvin is a port on the Hardangerfjord and was the center for freight transport in Hardanger. Hardanger is dominated by a small number of large industrial companies, primarily smelters, which were responsible for more than 80 percent of the line's cargo volume. While Hardanger in the 1980s had a population of 40,000, Granvin had a population of 1,000 and was the smallest municipality in Hardanger. Granvin served as a ferry hub for services by Hardanger Sunnhordlandske Dampskipsselskap (HSD), and in 1980 there up to two daily services with the local ferry services in Hardanger, in addition to fast ferries to both Bergen and Stavanger. Buses operated to Granvin from Norheimsund and Kvanndal.  The line and power system is intact for from Voss to Palmafoss and is retained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration. From there to Skjervet, the line has been asphalted, and is used as a hiking and bicycle path. The section from Skjervet to Nesheim is disused, although it has been proposed used as a road. From Nesheim the hiking and bicycle path continues, although the last kilometer before Granvin the right-of-way is disused. The station buildings at Nesheim and Granvin remain, but the ones at Palmafoss, Mønshaug and Skjervet has been demolished.  In 2016 Palmafoss established an emergency freight terminal for the Bergen line. If the Bergen Line is closed, freight can be transferred to trucks at Palmafoss. At the same time the tracks were renovated and reestablished between Voss and Palmafoss.

History.

During construction of the Voss Line from Bergen to Voss, there was a proposal to extend the line from Voss to Granvin on the Hardangerfjord. The plans were again taken up to consideration with the construction of the Bergen Line, but also this time the plans were scrapped. Some people wanted the line to be a tramway and when it was passed by the Parliament of Norway on 12 July 1919; the plans incorporated some elements of a tramway, giving the line a lower standard than the mainline. The railway was to be built electrified, and construction started in 1921. However, there was a lack of engineers, forcing a slow pace. On 5 November 1923, parliament passed the final plans for the railway, and the pace of construction was accelerated.  In 1927, Minister of Labour Worm Hirsch Darre-Jenssen of the Conservative Party stopped the work on the railway, stating that time had run out and that there instead should be built a road. By then, had been invested and parliament decided that construction should continue. However, Darre-Jenssen convinced Hordaland County Council to make a statement against the Hardanger Line, the Flåm Line and the Namsos Line, without this stopping construction. In 1931, parliament reconsidered the electrification of the line, and there was consensus for electrification. The Hardanger Line opened on 1 April 1935 and became NSB's first line to be electrified at the time of opening. In February 1936, the line changed name from the Granvin Line to the Hardanger Line.  Three Class 64 electric multiple units (EMU) were delivered from Strømmens Værksted in 1934. Only long, they were the smallest EMUs ever operated by NSB. In addition, four passenger cars were delivered, with each multiple unit able to haul two passenger cars. Occasionally, Class 64 trains were used on the Flåm Line, after it was electrified in 1944, and El 9-hauled trains from the Flåm Line used on the Hardanger Line.  In the first year of operation, the line had 60,850 passengers, significantly over expectations. After the opening, there were five daily round trips. In 1939, the extension of the longest tunnel started, because the nearby section was subject to landslides. It was completed by the German occupational forces during World War II, but not taken into use by the railway until 1945 because of the German military's use of the tunnel as an ammunition depot. Because of the electric traction, the line was not affected by the lack of coal during World War II, and in 1945 it had 285,900 passengers. After the end of the war, the number of daily round trips increased to seven, but this was reduced to six in the 1950s. In 1955, a morning and evening coach service started between Granvin and Voss. It was further extended in 1968, when it started corresponding with services on the Bergen Line.  Initially, the freight transport was small. During the war, transport increased many-fold, particularly because of export of lumber. In 1966, a spur was built just south of Palmafoss to Voss Cementvarefabrikk. By the end of the 1960s, the line was transporting. During the late 1970s, the amount of transport fel dramatically, and reached in 1980. Nearly half of this was import of lumber to three sawmills and manufacturing companies. In 1972, Linjegods established a daily scheduled truck service to Granvin. Although Linjegods used train to and from Voss, the service from Voss to Granvin was operated parallel to the railway. In 1975, Tollpost Globe also established a similar service between Voss and Granvin. During the late 1970s, the manufacturer Bjølvefossen experienced a large drop in the demand of ferroalloys, reducing production—and thus transport on the line—by. Another issue for the line was that it has a permitted axle load of only ; this either prohibited optimal wagon weights on the main lines, or causing transshipment at Voss, both causing increased costs. In 1977, the average distance for cargo shipped from the Hardanger Line was by rail.  In 1980, the line had NOK 2.1 million in income, of which NOK 1.6 million was from freight (representing all revenue from freight that ran on the Hardanger Line). Operating expenses were NOK 4.8 million, and the deficit was covered by the national government. The line employed 21 people. In 1980, the estimated cost of upgrading the line to axle load was NOK 9.6 million. Freight volume was then estimated to increase between 100 and 300 percent, and an upgrade was calculated to give a positive net present value, although it would not be sufficient to cover the full existing deficit. The plans included introduction of a refrigerated depot at Granvin. At the same time, it was estimated that the cost of retaining a axle load would require investments of NOK 6 million.  In 1979, the concession for passenger transport between Voss and Granvin was transferred from NSB's bus division to HSD and Bergen–Hardanger–Voss Billag. At the same time, the number of weekly services increased from 14 to 34. This was largely a result of the 1975 declaration by Hordaland County Council to support the closure of the line. In 1980, the railway had 60,000 passengers. A halt was opened at Mala in 1981, but then all passenger traffic was terminated on 2 June 1985. Class 64 had remained in use until the end, and there existed no political desire to invest in new rolling stock. Freight transport was retained, at first using El 9, and later shunting locomotives because of the lack of maintenance. From 1 March 1989, all transport on the line was terminated. NSB wanted to renovate the line and continue operations. Among the plans were to transport metal from the smelters in Hardanger via the Hardanger Line to Continental Europe. This would have required the axle load to be increased. Other plans were to extend some of the departures of the Bergen Commuter Rail from Voss to Granvin or operate commercially profitable tourist trains similar to the service provided on the Flåm Line. The municipalities of Voss and Granvin wanted to use the right-of-way for a hiking and bicycle path, and NSB canceled their plans. Demolish started on 10 December 1991, although the section from Voss to Palmafoss was kept to serve a cement factory. Two of the Class 64 trains have been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Association and are based at the Old Voss Line in Bergen.

The Hardanger Line () was a railway between Voss and Granvin in Hordaland, Norway. The line connected to the Bergen Line in Voss, and ran to the Hardangerfjord and the district of Hardanger. Construction started in 1921, but the line did not open until 1 April 1935. Owned and operated by the Norwegian State Railways (NSB), the passenger transport was provided by three NSB Class 64 electric multiple units. They remained in use until 1985, when passenger transport was terminated. All transport ceased in 1988, and of the line was demolished in 1991. The from Voss to Palmafoss remains, and is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration. The line featured six stations, fourteen halts, four tunnels and was among Norway's steepest railways. It was NSB's first line to open electrified. The line was known as the Granvin Line () until February 1936. In 2016 Palmafoss established an emergency freight terminal and the tracks were reestablished.


Club career.

Tirapu began her career in SD Lagunak and played in the 2005 Copa de la Reina for CF Puebla. She then signed for Athletic Bilbao, who had just won their third Superliga Femenina in a row, as a replacement for the retiring Eli Capa. In August 2005 she played her first match for Athletic in the 2005–06 UEFA Women's Cup's qualifying stage; a 6–2 victory over Scottish champions Glasgow City.  From 2006 she was Athletic's first choice goalkeeper. Tirapu has won two Primera División titles with Athletic; in 2006–07 and 2015–16.

International career.

In 2002 Tirapu was part of the Spanish national under-19 squad which competed in the UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship finals in Sweden.  Tirapu made her senior Spain women's national football team debut in the second game of the UEFA Women's Euro 2009 qualifying series; a 2–2 draw against the Czech Republic in Plzeň on 27 October 2007. She remained as Spain's first choice goalkeeper for the rest of the stage, which ended in a 4–0 play-off defeat to the Netherlands. She also retained the position during the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification campaign.  In June 2013 national team coach Ignacio Quereda selected Tirapu in the Spain squad for UEFA Women's Euro 2013 in Sweden. She was a mainstay of the team which negotiated the group stage before being beaten 3–1 by Norway in the quarter final.  She was part of Spain's squad at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.  She has also represented the Basque Country women's national football team.

Personal life.

Tirapu has a degree in chemistry and a master's degree in environmental contagion and toxicology from the University of the Basque Country. While playing in the youth ranks of SD Lagunak she was given the nickname "Sensi" by teammates Marta Moreno and Erika Vázquez, due to her perceived sensitivity to being hurt by the ball. The nickname remained with Tirapu throughout her career.  The ex-footballer brothers Fernando Tirapu and Mariano Tirapu are distant relatives of Ainhoa.

Ainhoa Tirapu de Goñi (born 4 September 1984) is a Spanish football goalkeeper who plays for Primera División club Athletic Bilbao and the Spain women's national football team.


History.

Homogeneous catalysis is often used for enantioselective transformations. The ligands carry chiral information and thus they are modified for individual substrates. Ligands can also influence the chemoselectivity of the catalyst. The Josiphos ligands, often called privileged ligands, are important because of their ability to give high yields in enantioselective synthesis.  Josiphos ligands were developed in the 1990s by Antonio Togni in studies on ferrocenyl ligands previously discovered by T. Hayashi (1986). These studies focused of an Au(I)-catalyzed aldol reaction at The Central Research Laboratories of the former Ciba (now Novartis). Diphosphine ligands were prepared with secondary phosphines, they are today known as Josiphos ligands family, which gets the name after Josi Puleo, the technician who prepared the first one. It was first tried in an Ru-catalyzed enamide hydrogenation synthesis resulting in ee’s higher than 99% and TOF of 1000h. The ligand was successfully applied to the synthesis of the herbicide (S)-metolachlor, the active ingredient in the most common herbicide in the United States. The synthesis proceeds via the enantioselective hydrogenation of an imine (figure 2). The reaction proceeds with 100% conversion with TON over 7,000,000 and Turnover frequency ("TOF") higher than 2,000,000 h. This process is the largest-scale application of enantioselective hydrogenation, producing over 10,000 tons/year of the desired product with 79% ee. Figure 2: Xyliphos ligand  The ligands are also used in non-enantioselective reactions. They have been good ligands in Pd-catalyzed reaction of aryl chlorides and aryl vinyl tosylates with TON of 20,000 or higher. Also in the Pd/Josiphos catalyzed carbonylation. Coupling with Grignards and Negishi coupling reactions  A variety of Josiphos ligands are commercially available, under licence from Solvias. The (R-S) and its enantiomer are commonly used because they have provide give higher yields and higher enantioselectivities than the diastereomer (R,R). The ferrocene scaffold has proved to be versatile. One structural parameter that influences reactivity is the bite angle. The P1-M-P2 angle has an average value of 92.7°.  Figure 3: View of general conformation of a Josiphos ligands complex  The general consensus for the naming is abbreviating the individual ligand as (R)-(S)-RPF-PR’. The substituent on the Cp is written in front of the F and the R on the chiral center after the F.

Synthesis of Josiphos ligands.

The general approach for preparation of Josiphos ligands is outlined in figure 4, starting from Ugi's amine.  Figure 4: Scheme for general synthesis of the Josiphos ligands An important improvement since the first intent, and already pointed out in figure 4, has been using the N(CH) group as the leaving group and not acetate. Also found was that the use of acetic acid as solvent gave better yields.

Reactions using Josiphos ligands.

Some reactions that are accomplished using M-Josiphos complexes as catalyst are listed below. 1) Hydroboration of styrene  Figure 5: Hydroboration of styrene  With ee’s up to 92% and TOF of 5-10h. The reaction is conducted at -78 °C. Hayashi’s Rh-binap complex gives better yield. 2) Hydroformylation of Styrene  Figure 6: Hydroformylation of Styrene Yields of up to 78 %ee of the (R) product, however low TON and TOF, 10-210 and 1-14h, respectively.  3) Reductive amination  Figure 7: Reductive amination  This is the preparation of (S)-metolachlor. It is highly dependent on the solvent where AcOH is necessary to achieve good yields and a 100% conversion.  4) Hydrogenation of exocyclic methyl imine  Figure 8:Hydrogenation of exocyclic methyl imine  This reaction is the key step to for the synthesis of a HIV integrase inhibitor, Crixivan. This reaction gave 97% ee with TON and TOF of 1000 and 480h, respectively. This is one of the few reactions known of a homogenegeneous heteroarene hydrogenation. Bulky R groups increase the catalyst’s performance.  5) Asymmetric synthesis of chromanoylpyridine derivatives  Figure 9: Asymmetric synthesis of chromanoylpyridine derivatives  This reaction shows an intermediate for the synthesis of a chromanoylpyridine derivative used for hair growth and as an antihypertensive agent. This reaction occurs with high enantioselectivity, but low activity.  Other reactions where Josiphos ligands can be used are; hydrogenation of C==C bonds, hydrogenation of C==N, C==C and C==O, catalyzed allylic substitution, hydrocarboxylation, Michael addition, allylic alkylation, Heck reaction, ring-opening of oxabicycles, isomerization of allylamines and allylic substitution.

A Josiphos ligand is a type of chiral diphosphine which has been modified to be substrate-specific; they are widely used for enantioselective synthesis. They are named after the technician who made the first one, Josi Puleo.


Plot.

Richie Furst used to have a lucrative career on Wall Street; this history prevents him from receiving tuition assistance at Princeton, so he funds his master's degree by referring students to online gambling, for which he receives a cut. After the dean threatens to expel him for these activities, Richie tries to win his tuition using his excellent poker skills in online gambling, but he loses all his money to a cheater, something he is able to prove by statistics.  Richie travels to Costa Rica to confront Ivan Block, who runs the biggest empire of online gambling websites in the world, including the one Richie lost his money on. After Ivan sees the statistics, he finds that coders have coded the software to allow them to cheat. After firing those involved, Ivan tells Richie he'll pay him millions per year to stay in Costa Rica and assist with the site.  Richie slowly begins a romantic relationship with Rebecca Shafran, ex-lover of Ivan, who appears to have no objections. Ivan has Richie blackmail a gaming affiliate with videos of his infidelity to force him to sign with Ivan. FBI Agent Shavers kidnaps Richie and threatens to ruin his life in various ways if he does not assist in getting Ivan convicted. Shavers cannot do anything legally as he has no authority in Costa Rica, but he takes advantage of this to use tactics that would be illegal and unethical for law enforcement inside the U.S. Ivan tells Richie that everyone in the organization ends up confronted by Shavers at some point.  Over time, Ivan's organization is revealed to be less than ethical. He sends Richie to bribe Costa Rica gaming director Herrera with too small a payment, which leads to Richie being beaten. Ivan tells him it comes with the territory of such a lucrative career. When Richie tries to leave the country, Shavers has drugs planted in his bag and offers to overlook it if Richie agrees to cooperate. A local police officer reveals that the police dislike Ivan but that he would buy his way out of any trouble and destroy whoever tried to take him down.  Richie's friend Andrew Cronin, who works on the software design for Ivan, suggests that Ivan is running a Ponzi scheme; the players' accounts have no actual money, and Ivan uses the money as his own bank account, keeping just enough to allow players to cash out when they need to. Aware that Richie might be wanting out, Ivan buys the massive poker debts of Richie's father and brings him to Costa Rica, using him as a hostage.  Ivan throws Herrera and his bodyguard into the river to get eaten by the crocodiles, but pulls them out before they are eaten. Cronin disappears and is later found nearly beaten to death. Thanks to Rebecca betraying Ivan, Richie finds out that he has been setting him up all along; Ivan is about to move his operations out of Costa Rica, planning to leave Richie behind as the fall guy. Richie gives out massive bribes to local officials, including low-level police officers. When the moving day hits, Ivan calls to sarcastically apologize to Richie, telling him he will be busted, as Ivan flies away on a private jet.  When Ivan lands, he finds he has been betrayed: the bribed pilot has instead flown him to Puerto Rico, an American territory. Shavers and other FBI agents move in to arrest him as Richie and Rebecca fly away on the private jet. Shavers says they're free to go because Richie left a flash drive for him containing sufficient evidence to convict Ivan.

Production.

Principal photography took place in the summer through the winter of 2012 in Puerto Rico and on the Princeton University campus. Despite the fact the film has several graphic indications that all events are taking place in Costa Rica none of the scenes were shot in the Central America nation.

Reception.

Box office.

In its opening weekend, the film came in third place with $7.8 million behind "Gravity" and "Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2". It grossed $19.3 million in North America and $43.4 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $62.7 million.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 8% based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 4.08/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "It has an impressive cast and an intriguing premise, but "Runner Runner" wastes them on a bland, haphazardly assembled thriller with very little payoff." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.

Runner Runner is a 2013 American crime thriller film directed by Brad Furman, written by Brian Koppelman and David Levien and starring Justin Timberlake, Ben Affleck, Gemma Arterton and Anthony Mackie.


Premise.

Set in December 2021, "Resiklo" is the story of Crisval Sarmiento, an ex-military Colonel who leads a rag-tag group of survivors in the Philippines against the insect-like alien invaders known as the "Balangs" (locusts). "Because of the enormous expenditures in resources during the invasion (hinted in the movie's opening credits), the humans are forced to scavenge the destroyed landscape for anything that could be recycled and put to use at their secret sanctuary, called "Paraiso" (Paradise).  However, they are in a race against time, as in addition to the resource gathering, the survivors are fighting to eliminate the Balangs and their human collaborators, the "Mutanos" (mutated humans), while keeping Paraiso's location secret and along the way, uncovering the truth behind the invasion as well.

Production.

The majority of the visual effects were handled by Riot, Ignite Media, and Digital Dodge, with Erick Torrente supervising the special effects.

International releases.

In Japan, "Resiklo" was retitled "Transbattler" (トランスバトラー), with a film poster emphasizing the presence of giant robots in the story and playing on the popularity of the Transformers franchise.

Critical reception.

The film garnered mixed to average reviews.  The CBCP's CINEMA (Catholic Initiative for Enlightened Movie Appreciation) gave the film a score of three out of five stars, stating it as a straight and simple sci-fi movie with an "ensemble cast that acts out the story."  The mecha action scenes were dismissed as copycats of the battle scenes from "Transformers". Director Mark Reyes insisted that such was not the case, stating that the concept for the movie was made before the Hollywood film was in development.

Resiklo () is a 2007 Philippine post-apocalyptic sci-fi film written and directed by Mark A. Reyes and starring Ramon "Bong" Revilla Jr., Dingdong Dantes, and Jennylyn Mercado. It is the entry of Revilla's outfit, Imus Productions, to the 2007 Metro Manila Film Festival.


Early life.

Jakob was born in 1413 in Sienno, the son of Dobisław of Oleśnicy a local aristocrat of the Debno family and his wife Catherine Oleśnicka, daughter of Dymitr of Goraj. His father, Dobiesława Olesnica mala Dębno, was Count of Sandomierz.  His brothers were:  He studied law and Theology in Rome and from 1435 was a Canon of Kraków Cathedral.

Diplomatic career.

As a diplomat he served as Secretary of King Vladislav Varnenchik and King Casimir IV Jagiellon. He was sent on missions to Hungary in 1442 and 1448 and in 1459 he represented the King at the Congress of Mantua.

Episcopal career.

After the death of his uncle, Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki, in 1455 he was administrator of the diocese of Kraków.  Pope Pius II appointed him Bishop of Kraków. Unfortunately, the King had other plans and request the appointment of John Gruszczynski, consecrated on May 31, 1461. The conflict escalated with the Pope (Pius II) on 2 June 1461, threatening to excommunicate the King. The King then banished Jakub.  Eventually on 16 January 1462 the conflict was resolved through intersession of the papal legate Jerome Lando, Archbishop of Crete. In January 1463 at the Sejm in Piotrków the Kings appointee abdicated the bishopric of Kraków.  Pope Pius II compensated Jakob and he received the bishopric of Włocławek. In Włocławek and in Gniezno he installed oak pew stalls and rich liturgical equipment, and donated to the library of Kraków Academy.  In 1465 he represented the King at the meeting with the Teutonic Knights in Toruń, that ended the Thirteen Years' War.  In 1466 he represented the King during the discussions with the Teutonic Knights in Toruń, ending the 13-year-old war. He was a signatory to the Act of peace of 1466.  He died 4 October 1480 in Łowicz and was buried in the Cathedral of Gniezno. He erected the cross on the Cathedral, still there today.

Jakub of Sienno () was a medieval Bishop Kraków in the years 1461–1463, Bishop of Włocławek from 1464, and then Archbishop of Gniezno from 1474. He was also a 15th-century diplomat for the Polish Crown.


Qualification.

Qualification event.

Norway and Finland qualified from the qualifying event held in November 2012 in Lohja, Finland.

Teams.

The teams are listed as follows:

Round robin standings.

"Final Round Robin Standings"

Round robin results.

All draw times are listed in Moscow Time (UTC+4).

Draw 1.

"Saturday, February 16, 9:30"

Draw 2.

"Saturday, February 16, 16:00"

Draw 3.

"Sunday, February 17, 9:30"

Draw 4.

"Sunday, February 17, 15:30"  Draw 4 was postponed due to ice problems. The scheduled United States – South Korea game was moved to Draw 10, while the scheduled China – Norway and Slovakia – Sweden games were moved to Draw 11.

Draw 5.

"Monday, February 18, 9:30"

Draw 6.

"Monday, February 18, 15:30"

Draw 7.

"Tuesday, February 19, 9:30"

Draw 8.

"Tuesday, February 19, 15:30"

Draw 9.

"Wednesday, February 20, 9:30"

Draw 10.

"Wednesday, February 20, 15:30"

Draw 11.

"Wednesday, February 20, 19:30"

Draw 12.

"Thursday, February 21, 9:00"

Draw 13.

"Thursday, February 21, 14:30"

Placement Game.

"Thursday, February 21, 20:00"

Tiebreakers.

"Thursday, February 21, 20:00" "Friday, February 22, 9:00"

Playoffs.

1 vs. 2.

"Friday, February 22, 14:30"

3 vs. 4.

"Friday, February 22, 14:30"

Semifinal.

"Friday, February 22, 20:00"

Bronze medal game.

"Saturday, February 23, 9:30"

Gold medal game.

"Saturday, February 23, 15:30"

The 2013 World Wheelchair Curling Championship was held from February 16 to 23 at the Sochi Olympic Curling Centre in Sochi, Russia. Canada won their third title after defeating Sweden in the final with a score of 4–3, becoming the first nation to win three world wheelchair curling titles.


Early life.

Anton Pace von Friedensberg was born on 14 November 1851 at Burg Thurn-Gallenstein near Heiligenkreuz am Waasen. He was the son of Count Karl Maria Philipp Pace von Friedensberg and Baroness Kamilla Schweiger von Lerchenfeld. He studied law at the University of Graz, graduating in 1870.

Government career.

In 1874 he entered the civil service and served as district captain of Loitsch. He then served as Ministerial Secretary in the Ministry of the Interior before being appointed Governor of Graz in 1888. In 1889 he was transferred to the Duchy of Bukovina where he served as a Geheimrat in the Aulic Council. On 2 August 1890 he took over the official business of the Duchy's president, Baron Felix Pino von Friedenthal, whose health was failing. He was made the successor for the position on 9 January 1891 and resumed the role of President of the Duchy of Bukovina, serving as the head of the state government, on 1 August 1981. Influenced by German and Polish social circles, Pace von Friedensberg restricted the use of the Romanian language in government administration and judicial proceedings. This caused controversy in the Duchy with the Romanian population and caused conflict with the Archbishop of Chernivsti, who accused Pace von Friedensberg of defying ecclesiastical autonomy. In February 1892 the Romanian Conservative Party leader Baron Alexander Vasilko von Serecki, the Orthodox Patriarch of Bukovina, and many of the Bukovinian nobility refused to attend a festival hosted by Pace von Friedensberg in protest of his anti-Romanian leanings. Pace von Friedensberg was recalled on 17 May 1892. Although no longer the President of Bukovina, he was granted honorary citizenship by the Czernowitz city council.  Upon leaving office, Pace von Friedensberg was not honored with any decorations, unlike his predecessors, due to his lack of adversity in his administrative career. He was given a position as Vice President of the Supreme Court of Auditors in Vienna and was added to the Privy Council in 1897. He was decorated as a second class member of the Order of the Iron Crown in 1898 for his administrative work. In 1990 he became Section Chief to the Ministry of the Interior, where he remained until he retired in 1905. He was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Imperial Austrian Order of Franz Joseph in 1901.  On 27 December 1909 Pace von Friedensberg was appointed as a member of the Austrian Imperial Council for life and served as Vice-President of the Commission for Legal Reform from 1911 until 1914.  Pace von Friedensberg was considered a leading expert in administrative law. He created a legal system for the Ministry of the Interior and revised Ernst Mayerhofer's "Handbuch für die politische Verwaltungsdienst".

Personal life.

Along with government work, Pace von Friedensberg was interested in Slovene culture and literature, having translated various works by France Prešeren from Slovenian to German.  He was married to Baroness Marie von Winckler. They had two children, Countess Melitta Maria Kamilla Pace (born 1891) and Count Carlo Maria Alfred Pace (born 1892).

Count Anton Pace, Baron of Friedensberg ("Anton Graf Pace, Freiherr von Friedensberg" in German; 14 November 1851 – 29 December 1923) was an Austrian aristocrat, politician, senior government official, and Imperial and Royal Privy Councilman. He served as the President of Bukovina and later as a life member of the Imperial Council of Austria-Hungary.


Life.

Childhood.

Yang was born in Miluo, Hunan, China on 17 October 1908. His father, Yang Haizong (), had considerable discord with his wife, Li Yuxia (), and angrily left home when Jingnian was still a child, never to be seen again. At the age of one month, Yang was sent by his mother to be raised by his maternal grandfather. When Yang was 10 years old, his mother remarried.  Although he lived a poor villager's life, Yang's grandfather became a scholar and passed the county level exams during the end of the Qing dynasty. He placed much emphasis on Yang's education, which began at four years of age; the young Yang moved on to reading his grandfather's books. At the age of 13, Yang was already well versed in the four books and five classics, and was proficient in literary Chinese.

Early studies.

At the beginning of the Chinese Civil War in 1927, after graduating from Hunan First Normal University, Yang was admitted to the infantry department of the Changsha branch of Whampoa Military Academy, in order to join the Revolution. Three months later, due to the Mari Incident (), he decided to leave the Whampoa Academy because of his sentiments, as a person raised in a poor family, towards socialism and the Communist Party. For several years he made his living as a teacher.  In 1932, he was admitted the KMT Central Politics University. Unlike many others who enrolled in order to get a government office, Yang went there since they required no tuition fees. During his studies he became aware of the KMT top cadre, and mainly the university's dean Chen Guofu's tendency to demand absolute obedience, and realized he could not yield to such an attitude. He therefore abandoned the idea of a public service career and planned to continue his studies abroad. This ambition required two years of experience in the desired field of study, which he intended to complete as an economics student at Nankai University.  After a short career at the Jiangsu civil affairs bureau, Yang passed the Nankai University entrance exams. His studies at Nankai University lasted for one year until the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and all students were dismissed. During that period, Yang managed to make a living by finding jobs with some help from the Nankai economic institution director, the Chinese economist Fang Xianting, and other friends. His mind was still set on studying abroad, however, which made him quit his developing career in the Ministry of Finance.

Attending Oxford University.

In his first attempt to gain admission to Oxford University, in 1939, Yang failed the exams by 0.9 points, as the foreign students quota was limited to 20 students. Due to World War II, he had to wait until 1945 in order to get a second chance, and this time he went to Oxford, attending Corpus Christi College through India with a delegation of 100 Chinese students funded by public budgets. Life as a student in England was quite comfortable, with a scholarship that allowed Yang to study without having to work for his living. He related to his time in Oxford as an experience which opened his eyes to the world.

Back in China.

In August 1948 Yang received his PhD in Oxford and was about to move to the United States, but he was called back to Nankai University by Franklin Ho (), who had become president there. Initially the boat company denied him his ticket to China, but some help from past colleagues at the political science university who served in the Chinese embassy in the United Kingdom got him the needed tickets.  Upon reaching Hong Kong, his former teacher Chen Xujing located him and offered him a job at Lingnan University. In a talk with Ho, Ho did not mind that Yang would stay at Lingnan. At the beginning of the year, however, he prevented Yang's books, which remained in Shanghai, from being moved to Lingnan, and so without his teaching aids he was forced to move back to Nankai, as originally planned. Soon after Ho left for the United States and with, the rise of the communist regime, advised Yang to do the same. Yang refused, however, as being raised in a poor family made him quite pleased that the communists had won.

Under the Communist regime.

As the communist army took control over Nankai University, all legal, social and political studies were canceled, and so Nankai's political studies department converted into an economics school and Yang was asked to form and head the new department. In an effort to establish the new department, Yang hired specialists and signed contracts with the Ministry of Finance enabling him to get lectures from government personnel and Russian experts, and on the other hand giving his students the chance to get a practice in the Ministry of Finance. This department existed for five years.  During the cultural revolution, Yang's salary shrank into 15% of the original sum, but later raised to 50%. This salary maintained his family of five members for 20 years. Being a member of right-wing counter-revolutionary group, Yang was sent to re-education through labor. Being kept away from any academic research, and not allowed to serve as a teacher, Yang worked as a translator, translating foreign economy related works and UN documents, usually under a pen name or with no personal attribution. Later he was sentenced to detention for 3 years. Yang claims these years to be the best times of his life as his most important articles were written during these years.  In 1974 Yang's wife became paralyzed due to an accident at home. He took care of her while she was bedridden for 24 years, sleeping in a camp bed near her bed. In 1976 Yang's son, Piaopeng, has died of a grave disease. His wife died in 1998 at the age of 92. On her deathbed she begged to see Piaopeng, to which Yang lowered his head and replied "I am Piaopeng".  In 1979 Yang's reputation was rehabilitated, but he was already over 70 years old, beyond retirement age. He insisted on teaching in order to make up for the lost years. In 1994, aged 86, he reluctantly quit teaching. There was some criticism on his academic infertility during these years, but Yang felt that he did his share of academic work. At the age of 80, in 1988, Yang joined the Chinese communist party. In 1998, aged 90, he started writing his work "Discussions on Human Nature", handling the human nature from a combination of economical, political, social, psychological, and ethical point of view.  In his 90s he did not cease publishing essays, mainly on the subject of development economics, and served as a mentor for 20 research students. In 2001, at the age of 93, he translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations", feeling that it would help spread popular economics among the people. The translation took 11 months in which he worked for eight hours a day, after which he manually added an Index. Although not being the first translation into Chinese, Yang's translation became a bestseller in China. In 2008, at 100 years old, he published an autobiography. On that occasion his students gave him a memorial board saying: "Life begins at 100 years of age".

Economic views.

Unlike some other scholars in China who treated development economy as just another piece of information, or as a threat, Yang claimed that development economy should be researched, criticized and utilized. He believed that the theories of Marx, Engels and Lenin on how to handle the bourgeoisie economy of their time should be used to handle western development economics. He started writing his gwork on these views: "Outline of Western Development Economies". After five years, however, in 1957, the cultural revolution stopped his work.

Yang Jingnian (; 17 October 1908 – 4 September 2016) was a Chinese economist and translator from Miluo, Hunan Province.


Fishery.

Although the Gaspereau is a short river, the riverbed habitat and connecting lakes form an important and productive breeding ground for several species of migratory fish including Gaspereau (Alewife), Rainbow Smelt and Atlantic Salmon. Atlantic Tomcod, Atlantic Sturgeon and Striped Bass spawn in the tidal portion of the river.

History and economy.

The productive fish runs of the Gaspereau attracted a large settlement of the Mi'kmaq people near Melanson. Acadians from the settlements at Grand-Pre were also attracted to the fish runs of the river in the late 1600s and named it after the Gaspereau fish with the name "Rivière des Gasparots" first appearing in a 1701 census of Acadia. The New England Planters who settled the area after the Expulsion of the Acadians also harvested fish but also cleared the river banks for farming, notably for apple orchards and built saw mills in the upper reaches of the river. Eventually nine sawmills operated on the river system, creating employment through extensive logging of the South Mountain but also disrupting the ecology of the river with dams and sawdust deposits. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1910, a hydroelectric dam was completed a Stivers Falls near White Rock in 1920. It was the first of a series of hydroelectric dams which replaced the remaining water sawmills with a network of hydroelectric dams. Eventually eight dams and five hydroelectric stations were built along the Gaspereau River, diverting some lakes into the Gaspereau which once flowed into the Avon River. Fish ladders were built to allow some fish migration to continue. A longtime tradition of recreational tubing on the Gaspereau, floating down the river on inner tubes, has grown in popularity in recent years to the point of causing traffic and parking concerns.  Vineyards occupy a significant part of the Gaspereau Valley, up to Grand-Pré, producing white wines, such as based on the L'Acadie blanc grape variety, and red wines (for example, the Marechal Foch variety). The area has been home to wild vines since times immemorial; the Vikings, lead by Leif Erikson in the year around 1000, naming it Vinland.

The Gaspereau River is a river in Kings County, Nova Scotia, Canada. It has a length of approximately 24 km from its source at Gaspereau Lake on the South Mountain south of Kentville to its mouth at Hortonville on the Minas Basin. The lower portion of the river is tidal for 6.5 km until Melanson and there are extensive tidal marshes in the lower reaches. The upper 16 km runs swiftly over gravel beds, boulders and bedrock, except for several dammed sections which form narrow and deep channels. Damming for Hydroelectric generation has resulted in twelve major lakes being connected to the river creating a watershed of 1,375 square kilometres. A major tributary is the Black River which joins the Gaspeareau at White Rock. The Black River once flowed further north into the Cornwallis River but connected to the Gaspereau through a natural erosion process known as River capture.


Features.

It is Eswatini's largest protected area and park. The park and its adjacent dispersal areas cover of Swazi bushveld. It is a flat lowland area, covered with ancient hardwood trees like knobthorn, leadwood and tambuti, with some grasslands and shallow pans.

Fauna.

Hlane is home to the lion, elephant, giraffe, and white rhinoceros. Wildebeest, zebra and impala herds are attracted to the waterholes during the dry winter months, June to September. After a long absence, cheetah populations have been reintroduced in this park.  It has an abundant and diverse birdlife, including the highest density of nesting white-backed vultures in Africa. Raptors include martial eagles, bateleurs, and long-crested eagles, as well as several species of vultures including white-backed, white-headed, lappetfaced and the occasional Cape vulture. It has the southernmost nesting site of the marabou stork. Some bird species, such as the southern yellow-billed hornbill (Tockus leucomelas) found here are either endangered or locally extinct in the country.

Accommodation.

A network of game-viewing roads crisscrosses the park's flat terrain. Accommodation is available in thatched huts and cottages at two different sites. The main site is near the park entrance from MR3, Hlane Camp. The other site is Bhubesi Camp, almost at the northern end of the park. The road between them requires high clearance to navigate, so with a normal car, it is best to drive all the way around the park to get between them.

Transport.

The park was bisected by the MR3 Highway in the 1960s, under pressure from sugar estates at the park's borders. They claimed that the highway would cause no environmental damage, but now hundreds of antelopes, wild boar, buffaloes, and other game are struck by vehicles each year.

Hlane Royal National Park is a national park in Eswatini, roughly 67 km northeast of Manzini along the MR3 road. Prior to the park being public, it was a private royal hunting ground. Hlane, meaning 'wilderness', was named by King Sobhuza II. It is now held in trust for the Nation by His Majesty King Mswati III, and is managed by Big Game Parks, a privately owned body.


Geography.

Rothschild is located at (44.881718, -89.620670). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, of which, of it is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 5,269 people, 2,199 households, and 1,465 families living in the village. The population density was. There were 2,332 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 93.9% White, 0.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 3.8% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.  There were 2,199 households of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.2% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.4% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.90.  The median age in the village was 41.8 years. 22.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.1% were from 25 to 44; 29.2% were from 45 to 64; and 16.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.4% male and 50.6% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 4,970 people, 1,922 households, and 1,406 families living in the village. The population density was 763.1 people per square mile (294.8/km2). There were 1,988 housing units at an average density of 305.2 per square mile (117.9/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.16% White, 0.28% African American, 0.28% Native American, 2.88% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.08% from other races, and 0.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.28% of the population.  There were 1,922 households out of which 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.7% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.01.  In the village, the population was spread out with 26.4% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 25.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $50,543, and the median income for a family was $58,149. Males had a median income of $37,468 versus $25,439 for females. The per capita income for the village was $22,236. About 2.6% of families and 4.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0.2% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

Airport.

The Central Wisconsin Airport (KCWA) serves Rothschild, the county and surrounding communities with both scheduled commercial jet service and general aviation services.

Economy.

Wausau Homes Inc and Wausau Tile have their headquarters in Rothschild.  One of the larger employers in Rothschild is the Domtar Paper Mill. The mill was originally built between 1909 and 1910 by a group of local lumber barons. The mill produced its first reel of paper in 1910 and was incorporated under the name Marathon Paper Mills. At that time, the area that was to become Rothschild was still considered the Town of Weston. However, the company built and maintained several homes, a community hall, boarding house and general store. As the mill town grew around the paper mill, the area soon became incorporated as the village of Rothschild.  The paper mill has seen many upgrades over the years as well as changes in ownership. In the 1950s, the American Can Company purchased Marathon Corporation. In 1973, Weyerhaeuser purchased a large portion of the mill from American Can. Then again, in the 2000s, Domtar purchased the mill from Weyerhaeuser.  At its heyday in the early 1970s, the mill employed over 1,000 workers, operating four paper machines. Today, only one machine remains in operation.

Rothschild Area Branch Library.

The library in Rothschild opened its doors in 1949 when the Rothschild Homemakers group worked with the county librarian to establish a branch library. First located in a small cloak room in the village hall, it soon moved upstairs to a larger area.  When a fire destroyed the village hall in 1968, the village constructed a new building for the library and village offices. In 1973 the Rothschild Branch Library became a branch of the newly formed Marathon County Public Library when the Wausau Public Library and Marathon County Library merged.  By 1998, the Village of Rothschild needed more office space and the library was in need of expansion. This led to the construction of a new library/village hall complex completed in March 1999. The Schofield and Rothschild Branch Libraries were merged to form a larger branch library that had more open hours and a larger collection.

Rothschild is a village in Marathon County, Wisconsin, United States. It is part of the Wausau, Wisconsin Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 5,269 at the 2010 census. Rothschild is the northern terminus of Interstate 39, which starts in Normal, Illinois.


Career.

Shinoda was born in Ōita, Kyushu.  He began his Yakuza career in 1962 when he joined the Hirota-gumi, a Nagoya-based Yamaguchi-gumi affiliate. Following the disbanding of the Hirota-gumi, he founded the Kodo-kai with Kiyoshi Takayama among others in 1984 as the successor to the Hirota-gumi.  Under Shinoda and his long-term partner Takayama, the Kodo-kai was a successful branch of the Yamaguchi-Gumi, establishing branches in 18 prefectures—including expansion into the Kantō region, traditionally not Yamaguchi territory.  Shinoda took control of the 40,000-strong gang on July 29, 2005 after the retirement of previous don Yoshinori Watanabe. Under Shinoda, the Kobe-based Yamaguchi-gumi is expected to continue that expansion into Tokyo and Eastern Japan. According to both yakuza and police, this movement will inevitably create conflict between the Yamaguchi-gumi and the Kanto-Hatsukakai, a federation of Tokyo-based yakuza groups including the Inagawa-kai and the Sumiyoshi-kai.  Shinoda is the first Yamaguchi-gumi "kumicho" not to hail from the Kansai region. He also eschews the "supreme Godfather" image, in public at least: after his appointment as "kumicho", he insisted on taking the train to his induction ceremony instead of a chauffeured limousine. He also reportedly stopped in a street ramen noodle restaurant on the way to the lavish yakuza banquet arranged in his honor.

Arrests.

In the early 1970s, Shinoda was convicted of murdering a rival yakuza boss with a katana, and spent 13 years in prison. He was also involved, as the head of the Kodo-kai, in the Yamaguchi-gumi's numerous historic yakuza wars. Notably his achievements at the "Yama-Ichi War" in the late 1980s was a major reason for his entrance into the Yamaguchi-gumi's Kobe headquarters.  On December 4, 2005, only four months after being named "kumicho", Shinoda began serving a six-year prison sentence for gun possession after the Japanese Supreme Court finally rejected his appeal of a 1997 conviction. In the 1997 case, one of his bodyguards was caught with an illegal pistol, and Shinoda was convicted of "conspiring" with the bodyguard. He was released just under eight months early on April 9, 2011.

U.S. sanctions in 2012.

In 2012, the Obama administration of the United States imposed sanctions on him as the leader of the Yamaguchi-gumi, along with his second-in-command Kiyoshi Takayama. The sanctions also targeted several individuals linked to three other transnational organized crime groups, the Brothers' Circle of Russia, the Camorra of Italy, and Los Zetas of Mexico.

, also known as, is a Japanese Yakuza, the sixth and current "kumicho" (supreme kingpin) of the Yamaguchi-gumi, Japan's largest yakuza organization.


Career.

Parisi was born in Taio. As a student at the University of Innsbruck, he was involved in a 1904 revolt by Italian students, who asked for an Italian-speaking university in Trieste, which was at that time under Austrian sovereign. Parisi was arrested, sentenced to three months in jail and then banned from all Austrian universities. Then he moved to Turin, where he graduated in natural sciences in 1908. In 1910 he became assistant in the Zoological Department of the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, where he took over the management in 1921. In 1928, he was the successor of Ettore Artini (1866-1928) as the museum director, a post he held until his retirement in 1951.  Parisi studied a large collection of Japanese decapods (Decapoda), which the museum acquired from Alan Owston (1853-1915), a British merchant and collector of natural history objects based in Yokohama. He described 23 new taxa of decapods in the Zoological notices "I decapodi giapponesi del museo di Milano", published from 1914 to 1919 in the Museum Journal. A further seven taxa first described by Parisi come from the Mediterranean and other regions.  During air raids of Allied forces to Milan in August 1943, the museum was severely damaged by firebombs, whereby an important part of the collections and the library get lost. Parisi's office was also destroyed. From a collection of benthic decapods, Parisi collected during a cruise to the Red Sea in 1923 and 1924, just a few glasses were saved, as well as a brief note on the mantis shrimps (Stomatopoda) collected during this expedition, which was published in 1940. After the war Parisi devoted to the reconstruction of the museum, where he was actively supported by his successor Edgardo Moltoni.  In 1924, Italian zoologist Oscar de Beaux commemorated Parisi in the epithet of Parissi's slit-faced bat ("Nycteris parisii"). In 1956, Dutch zoologist Lipke Holthuis named the Malagasy decapod genus "Parisia" in honor of Bruno Parisi. Parisi died in Roverè della Luna.

Bruno Parisi (June 6, 1884 – January 26, 1957) was an Italian zoologist and museum director. His main research field were the crustaceans (Crustacea). From 1928 to 1951 he was director of the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano.


Life.

He was born in London in 1576, the second son of William Aylesbury and Anne Poole, his wife. From Westminster School Aylesbury passed in 1598 to Christ Church, Oxford, where he took the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1602 and 1605 respectively.  On leaving college he was appointed secretary to Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England. He was continued in the post by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, Nottingham's successor (1619), who befriended him actively, procuring for him the additional offices of one of the masters of requests with, from 19 April 1627, the title of baronet. He was Surveyor of the Navy from 1628 for four years, and naval commissioner inspecting the fleet at Portsmouth in 1630 with Phineas Pett.  In 1635 Aylesbury, jointly with Ralph Freeman, formed a commission exercising the powers of the Master of the Mint. This came about by the exclusion from the position of Robert Harley, in favour of the previous incumbent Randal Cranfield, who then died suddenly.  In 1642 he was, as a steady royalist, stripped of his fortune and places, and on the death of the king retired with his family to Antwerp. He moved in 1652 to Breda, and there died in 1657 at the age of 81.  Sir Thomas was married twice. His second marriage was to Anne Denman with whom he had five children: William Aylesbury, Thomas, Frances, Anne and Barbara. Frances married Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, by whom she became the mother of Anne Hyde, first wife of King James II of England. It is through Anne Hyde that he became the great-grandfather of her two daughters, the Queens Mary and Anne.

Patronage and scholarly interests.

He supported scholars with pensions, or maintained them at his country seat, Cranbourne Lodge at Cranbourne Chase, adjoining Windsor Great Park, while others enjoyed his hospitality in London. Besides his support, he also was a pupil or at times a collaborator.  Amongst his dependants were Walter Warner, who at his request wrote a treatise on coins, coinage and alloys, work also involving Charles Thynne. Another was Thomas Allen, of Oxford, whom he recommended to Buckingham, and who made him the depositary of his astrological writings.  Thomas Hariot bequeathed to Aylesbury, with Robert Sidney, 1st Earl of Leicester, his papers. Warner gave an account towards the end of his life to John Pell of how with Hariot they had carried out experiments on Snell's law at Aylesbury's house. Aylesbury was involved during the 1620s in the publication of Hariot's posthumous "Artis Analyticae Praxis", certainly as a financial supporter under a deal worked out with Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland; the editorial work was carried out by Warner, but Aylesbury may have contributed also.  Many of the papers he had accumulated, with other manuscripts and his library, were either lost during the English Civil War, or sold when he was abroad. These included the only manuscript of the "Ormulum", which from internal evidence belonged to Aylesbury before it passed to Jan van Vliet.

References.

Sir Thomas Aylesbury, 1st Baronet (1576–1657) was an English civil servant, Surveyor of the Navy from 1628 and jointly Master of the Mint from 1635, and a patron of mathematical learning. He was the great-grand father of two British Queens, Anne and Mary II.