History.

Lohnstorf is first mentioned in 1148 as "Lonestrof". In 1279 it was mentioned as "Lonstorf".  The oldest trace of a settlement is in Brühl, where the ruins of a Roman era settlement were found. By the 13th-14th century a number of Bernese patrician families owned land and rights in the village and surrounding farms. One of the landowners was Anna Seiler, who established a hospital in Bern and in 1354 willed her landholdings to support the hospital. Today she is remembered with the Anna Seiler Fountain in Bern. In 1343, the von Blankenburg family donated Kirchenthurnen and the surrounding land, which probably included Lohnstorf, to Interlaken Abbey. In 1528 Bern accepted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation and forcibly secularized the Abbey and its lands, including Lohnstorf.  Throughout its history, Lohnstorf has been part of the large parish of Thurnen which is centered in Kirchenthurnen.  The Gürbe river correction projects of 1855-1911 helped drain the marshy valley floor and opened up farmland. Today, agriculture is the major industry in the municipality, though about two-thirds of the work force commute to jobs in surrounding towns and cities. Students from Lohnstorf travel to the school in Mühlethurnen.

Geography.

Lohnstorf has an area of. As of 2012, a total of or 92.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 1.7% is forested. The rest of the municipality is or 6.7% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.1% is either rivers or lakes.  During the same year, housing and buildings made up 3.3% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.3%. All of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 57.8% is used for growing crops and 29.4% is pasturage, while 2.8% is used for orchards or vine crops and 2.2% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality and village or Lohnstorf are located in the Gürbetal (Gürbe valley) near Längenberg mountain.  On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Seftigen, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per bend Argent and Gules two Roundels in bend sinister counterchanged."

Demographics.

Lohnstorf has a population () of., 2.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 2 years (2010-2012) the population has changed at a rate of -4.4%. Migration accounted for -4.8%, while births and deaths accounted for 0.4%.  Most of the population () speaks German (197 or 99.0%) as their first language with the rest speaking French. , the population was 48.2% male and 51.8% female. The population was made up of 105 Swiss men (46.1% of the population) and 5 (2.2%) non-Swiss men. There were 116 Swiss women (50.9%) and 2 (0.9%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 77 or about 38.7% were born in Lohnstorf and lived there in 2000. There were 87 or 43.7% who were born in the same canton, while 24 or 12.1% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 6 or 3.0% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.8% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 59.2% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 16.1%. , there were 82 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 104 married individuals, 10 widows or widowers and 3 individuals who are divorced. , there were 23 households that consist of only one person and 7 households with five or more people., a total of 69 apartments (88.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 5 apartments (6.4%) were seasonally occupied and 4 apartments (5.1%) were empty. In 2011, single family homes made up 36.9% of the total housing in the municipality.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 44.4% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Social Democratic Party (SP) (20.2%), the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (16%) and the Green Liberal Party (GLP) (4.6%). In the federal election, a total of 102 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 61.8%.

Economy.

, Lohnstorf had an unemployment rate of 0.09%., there were a total of 82 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 35 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 11 businesses involved in this sector. 14 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 2 businesses in this sector. 33 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 6 businesses in this sector. There were 94 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 42.6% of the workforce. , there were 19 workers who commuted into the municipality and 55 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 2.9 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. A total of 39 workers (67.2% of the 58 total workers in the municipality) both lived and worked in Lohnstorf. Of the working population, 20.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 38.3% used a private car.  In 2011 the average local and cantonal tax rate on a married resident, with two children, of Lohnstorf making 150,000 CHF was 12.4%, while an unmarried resident's rate was 18.2%. For comparison, the average rate for the entire canton in the same year, was 14.2% and 22.0%, while the nationwide average was 12.3% and 21.1% respectively.  In 2009 there were a total of 87 tax payers in the municipality. Of that total, 34 made over 75,000 CHF per year. There was one person who made between 15,000 and 20,000 per year. The average income of the over 75,000 CHF group in Lohnstorf was 124,588 CHF, while the average across all of Switzerland was 130,478 CHF.  In 2011 a total of 0.4% of the population received direct financial assistance from the government.

Religion.

From the, 162 or 81.4% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 7 or 3.5% were Roman Catholic. Of the rest of the population, there were 3 individuals (or about 1.51% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Muslim. 23 (or about 11.56% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 3 individuals (or about 1.51% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Lohnstorf about 49.5% of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 28.6% have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 34 who had completed some form of tertiary schooling listed in the census, 58.8% were Swiss men, 38.2% were Swiss women. , there was one student living in the municipality and attending some type of school, while 30 students from Lohnstorf attended schools outside the municipality.

Lohnstorf is a former municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. On 1 January 2020 the former municipalities of Kirchenthurnen, Lohnstorf and Mühlethurnen merged to form the municipality of Thurnen.


Example.

A person is given the choice between two scenarios, one with a guaranteed payoff and one without. In the guaranteed scenario, the person receives $50. In the uncertain scenario, a coin is flipped to decide whether the person receives $100 or nothing. The expected payoff for both scenarios is $50, meaning that an individual who was insensitive to risk would not care whether they took the guaranteed payment or the gamble. However, individuals may have different risk attitudes.  A person is said to be:  The average payoff of the gamble, known as its expected value, is $50. The smallest dollar amount that the individual would accept instead of the bet is called the certainty equivalent, and the difference between the expected value and the certainty equivalent is called the risk premium. For risk-averse individuals, it is positive, for risk-neutral persons it is zero, and for risk-loving individuals their risk premium is negative.

Utility of money.

In expected utility theory, an agent has a utility function "u"("c") where "c" represents the value that he might receive in money or goods (in the above example "c" could be $0 or $40 or $100).  The utility function "u"("c") is defined only up to positive affine transformation – in other words, a constant could be added to the value of "u"("c") for all "c", and/or "u"("c") could be multiplied by a positive constant factor, without affecting the conclusions.  An agent possesses risk aversion if and only if the utility function is concave. For instance "u"(0) could be 0, "u"(100) might be 10, "u"(40) might be 5, and for comparison "u"(50) might be 6.  The expected utility of the above bet (with a 50% chance of receiving 100 and a 50% chance of receiving 0) is  and if the person has the utility function with "u"(0)=0, "u"(40)=5, and "u"(100)=10 then the expected utility of the bet equals 5, which is the same as the known utility of the amount 40. Hence the certainty equivalent is 40.  The risk premium is ($50 minus $40)=$10, or in proportional terms  or 25% (where $50 is the expected value of the risky bet: (formula_3). This risk premium means that the person would be willing to sacrifice as much as $10 in expected value in order to achieve perfect certainty about how much money will be received. In other words, the person would be indifferent between the bet and a guarantee of $40, and would prefer anything over $40 to the bet.  In the case of a wealthier individual, the risk of losing $100 would be less significant, and for such small amounts his utility function would be likely to be almost linear, for instance if u(0) = 0 and u(100) = 10, then u(40) might be 4.0001 and u(50) might be 5.0001.  The utility function for perceived gains has two key properties: an upward slope, and concavity. (i) The upward slope implies that the person feels that more is better: a larger amount received yields greater utility, and for risky bets the person would prefer a bet which is first-order stochastically dominant over an alternative bet (that is, if the probability mass of the second bet is pushed to the right to form the first bet, then the first bet is preferred). (ii) The concavity of the utility function implies that the person is risk averse: a sure amount would always be preferred over a risky bet having the same expected value; moreover, for risky bets the person would prefer a bet which is a mean-preserving contraction of an alternative bet (that is, if some of the probability mass of the first bet is spread out without altering the mean to form the second bet, then the first bet is preferred).

Measures of risk aversion under expected utility theory.

There are multiple measures of the risk aversion expressed by a given utility function. Several functional forms often used for utility functions are expressed in terms of these measures.

Absolute risk aversion.

The higher the curvature of formula_4, the higher the risk aversion. However, since expected utility functions are not uniquely defined (are defined only up to affine transformations), a measure that stays constant with respect to these transformations is needed. One such measure is the Arrow–Pratt measure of absolute risk aversion (ARA), after the economists Kenneth Arrow and John W. Pratt, also known as the coefficient of absolute risk aversion, defined as  where formula_6 and formula_7 denote the first and second derivatives with respect to formula_8 of formula_4.  The following expressions relate to this term:  The solution to this differential equation (omitting additive and multiplicative constant terms, which do not affect the behavior implied by the utility function) is:  where formula_14 and formula_15. Note that when formula_16, this is CARA, as formula_17, and when formula_18, this is CRRA (see below), as formula_19. See  and this can hold only if formula_22. Therefore, DARA implies that the utility function is positively skewed; that is, formula_22. Analogously, IARA can be derived with the opposite directions of inequalities, which permits but does not require a negatively skewed utility function (formula_24). An example of a DARA utility function is formula_25, with formula_26, while formula_27 formula_28, with formula_29 would represent a quadratic utility function exhibiting IARA.

Relative risk aversion.

The Arrow–Pratt measure of relative risk aversion (RRA) or coefficient of relative risk aversion is defined as  Like for absolute risk aversion, the corresponding terms "constant relative risk aversion" (CRRA) and "decreasing/increasing relative risk aversion" (DRRA/IRRA) are used. This measure has the advantage that it is still a valid measure of risk aversion, even if the utility function changes from risk averse to risk loving as "c" varies, i.e. utility is not strictly convex/concave over all "c". A constant RRA implies a decreasing ARA, but the reverse is not always true. As a specific example of constant relative risk aversion, the utility function formula_32 implies RRA = 1.  In intertemporal choice problems, the elasticity of intertemporal substitution often cannot be disentangled from the coefficient of relative risk aversion. The isoelastic utility function exhibits constant relative risk aversion with formula_34 and the elasticity of intertemporal substitution formula_35. When formula_36 using l'Hôpital's rule shows that this simplifies to the case of "log utility," "u"("c") = log "c", and the income effect and substitution effect on saving exactly offset.  A time-varying relative risk aversion can be considered.

Implications of increasing/decreasing absolute and relative risk aversion.

The most straightforward implications of increasing or decreasing absolute or relative risk aversion, and the ones that motivate a focus on these concepts, occur in the context of forming a portfolio with one risky asset and one risk-free asset. If the person experiences an increase in wealth, he/she will choose to increase (or keep unchanged, or decrease) the "number of dollars" of the risky asset held in the portfolio if "absolute" risk aversion is decreasing (or constant, or increasing). Thus economists avoid using utility functions such as the quadratic, which exhibit increasing absolute risk aversion, because they have an unrealistic behavioral implication.  Similarly, if the person experiences an increase in wealth, he/she will choose to increase (or keep unchanged, or decrease) the "fraction" of the portfolio held in the risky asset if "relative" risk aversion is decreasing (or constant, or increasing).  In one model in monetary economics, an increase in relative risk aversion increases the impact of households' money holdings on the overall economy. In other words, the more the relative risk aversion increases, the more money demand shocks will impact the economy.

Portfolio theory.

In modern portfolio theory, risk aversion is measured as the additional expected reward an investor requires to accept additional risk. Here risk is measured as the standard deviation of the return on investment, i.e. the square root of its variance. In advanced portfolio theory, different kinds of risk are taken into consideration. They are measured as the n-th root of the n-th central moment. The symbol used for risk aversion is A or A.

Limitations of expected utility treatment of risk aversion.

The notion of using expected utility theory's approach to risk aversion to analyze "small stakes decisions" has come under criticism from behavioral economics. Matthew Rabin has showed that a risk-averse, expected-utility-maximizing individual who,  "from any initial wealth level [...] turns down gambles where she loses $100 or gains $110, each with 50% probability [...] will turn down 50–50 bets of losing $1,000 or gaining any sum of money."  Rabin criticizes this implication of expected utility theory on grounds of implausibility—individuals who are risk averse for small gambles due to diminishing marginal utility would exhibit extreme forms of risk aversion in risky decisions under larger stakes. One solution to the problem observed by Rabin is that proposed by prospect theory and cumulative prospect theory, where outcomes are considered relative to a reference point (usually the status quo), rather than to consider only the final wealth.  Another limitation is the reflection effect which demonstrates the reversing of risk aversion. This effect was first presented by Kahneman and Tversky as a part of the prospect theory, in the behavioral economics domain. The reflection effect is an identified pattern of opposite preferences between negative prospects as opposed to positive prospects. According to this effect, people tend to avoid risks under the gain domain, and to seek risks under the loss domain. Meaning, no risk aversion is expected under the loss domain. For example, in the gain domain, most people prefer a certain gain of 3000, than a gain of 4000 with a risk of 80 percent. When posing the same problem under the loss domain - with negative values, most people prefer a loss of 4000 with 80 percent chance, over a certain loss of 3000.  The reflection effect (as well as the certainty effect) is inconsistent with the expected utility hypothesis. It is assumed that the psychological principle which stands behind this kind of behavior is the overweighting of certainty. Meaning, options which are perceived as certain, are over-weighted relative to uncertain options. This pattern is an indication of a risk seeking behavior in negative prospects and eliminates other explanations for the certainty effect such as aversion for uncertainty or variability.  The initial findings regarding the reflection effect faced criticism regarding its validity, as it was claimed that there are insufficient evidence to support the effect on the individual level. Subsequently, an extensive investigation revealed its possible limitations, suggesting that the effect is most prevalent when either small or large amounts and extreme probabilities are involved.

In the brain.

Attitudes towards risk have attracted the interest of the field of neuroeconomics and behavioral economics. A 2009 study by Christopoulos et al. suggested that the activity of a specific brain area (right inferior frontal gyrus) correlates with risk aversion, with more risk averse participants (i.e. those having higher risk premia) also having higher responses to safer options. This result coincides with other studies, that show that neuromodulation of the same area results in participants making more or less risk averse choices, depending on whether the modulation increases or decreases the activity of the target area.

Public understanding and risk in social activities.

In the real world, many government agencies, e.g. Health and Safety Executive, are fundamentally risk-averse in their mandate. This often means that they demand (with the power of legal enforcement) that risks be minimized, even at the cost of losing the utility of the risky activity. It is important to consider the opportunity cost when mitigating a risk; the cost of not taking the risky action. Writing laws focused on the risk without the balance of the utility may misrepresent society's goals. The public understanding of risk, which influences political decisions, is an area which has recently been recognised as deserving focus. In 2007 Cambridge University initiated the Winton Professorship of the Public Understanding of Risk, a role described as outreach rather than traditional academic research by the holder, David Spiegelhalter.

Children.

Children's services such as schools and playgrounds have become the focus of much risk-averse planning, meaning that children are often prevented from benefiting from activities that they would otherwise have had. Many playgrounds have been fitted with impact-absorbing matting surfaces. However, these are only designed to save children from death in the case of direct falls on their heads and do not achieve their main goals. They are expensive, meaning that less resources are available to benefit users in other ways (such as building a playground closer to the child's home, reducing the risk of a road traffic accident on the way to it), and—some argue—children may attempt more dangerous acts, with confidence in the artificial surface. Shiela Sage, an early years school advisor, observes "Children who are only ever kept in very safe places, are not the ones who are able to solve problems for themselves. Children need to have a certain amount of risk taking... so they'll know how to get out of situations."

Vaccines.

A vaccine to protect children against the three common diseases measles, mumps and rubella was developed and recommended for all children in several countries including the UK. However, a controversy arose around fraudulent allegations that it caused autism. This alleged causal link was disproved by Madsen et al., and the doctor who made the claims was expelled from the General Medical Council. However, years after the claims were disproved, some parents wanted to avert the risk of causing autism in their own children and instead chose to spend significant amounts of their own money on alternatives from private doctors. These alternatives carried their own risks which were not balanced fairly, most often that the children were not properly immunized against the more common diseases of measles, mumps and rubella.

Mobile phones.

Mobile phones may carry some small health risk. While most people would accept that unproven risk to gain the benefit of improved communication, others remain so risk averse that they do not. (The COSMOS cohort study continues to study the actual risks of mobile phones.)

Game shows and investments.

One experimental study with student-subject playing the game of the TV show Deal or No Deal finds that people are more risk averse in the limelight than in the anonymity of a typical behavioral laboratory. In the laboratory treatments, subjects made decisions in a standard, computerized laboratory setting as typically employed in behavioral experiments. In the limelight treatments, subjects made their choices in a simulated game show environment, which included a live audience, a game show host, and video cameras. In line with this, studies on investor behavior find that investors trade more and more speculatively after switching from phone-based to online trading and that investors tend to keep their core investments with traditional brokers and use a small fraction of their wealth to speculate online.

In economics and finance, risk aversion is the behavior of humans (especially consumers and investors), who, when exposed to uncertainty, attempt to lower that uncertainty. It is the hesitation of a person to agree to a situation with an unknown payoff rather than another situation with a more predictable payoff but possibly lower expected payoff. For example, a risk-averse investor might choose to put their money into a bank account with a low but guaranteed interest rate, rather than into a stock that may have high expected returns, but also involves a chance of losing value.


Administrations.

The territories fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry for the Federal Territories, which was formed under Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi's administration on 27 March 2006. The first Minister for the Federal Territories was Mohd Isa Abdul Samad. Tengku Adnan Tengku Mansor was the minister from May 2013 to 9 May 2018.

History.

The federal territories were originally part of two states - Selangor and Sabah. Both Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya were part of Selangor, while Labuan was part of Sabah.  Kuala Lumpur, the state capital of Selangor, became the national capital of the Federation of Malaya (and later Malaysia) in 1948. Since independence in 1957, the federal as well as the Selangor state ruling party had been the Alliance (later the Barisan Nasional). However, in the 1969 elections the Alliance, while retaining control of the federal government, lost its majority in Selangor to the opposition. The same election also resulted in a major race riot in Kuala Lumpur.  It was realised that if Kuala Lumpur remained part of Selangor, clashes between the federal and the Selangor state government might arise when they are controlled by different parties. The solution was to separate Kuala Lumpur from the state and place it under direct federal rule. On 1 February 1974, the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur Agreement was signed, and Kuala Lumpur became the first federal territory of Malaysia.  The cession of Kuala Lumpur had the effect of securing the Selangor state government for the Barisan Nasional until the 2008 general election. The separation of Kuala Lumpur meant that Kuala Lumpur voters lost representation in the Selangor State Legislative Assembly and could only vote for representation in the Parliament of Malaysia.  Labuan, an island off coast of mainland Sabah, was chosen by the federal government for development into an offshore financial centre. Labuan became the second federal territory in 1984.  Putrajaya is a planned city, designed to replace Kuala Lumpur as the seat of the federal government. Sultan Salahuddin, who was serving as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong at that time, was asked again to cede land to the federal government. Putrajaya became the third federal territory on 1 February 2001.  In the recent years, efforts were made to forge a common identity for the three federal territories. A flag of Federal Territory was introduced to represent the federal territories as a whole. During the 2006 Sukma Games in Kedah, Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya merged into the unified contingent of Federal Territories.

Flag and anthem.

The official anthem of the territories is "Maju dan Sejahtera", which means "Progress and Prosperity".  Apart from the flag of Federal Territories, each federal territory has its own flag.

The federal territories () in Malaysia comprise three territories: Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan, governed directly by the federal government of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is the national capital of Malaysia, Putrajaya is the administrative capital, and Labuan is an offshore international financial centre. Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya are enclaves in the state of Selangor, while Labuan is an island off the coast of Sabah.


Biography.

He was born in Göttingen, Germany, in 1952, and studied at University of Tübingen, University of Munich, and Virginia Tech. He earned his Doctorate in Philosophy (Dr. phil.) in 1979 and his Master's degree in Economics (Dipl.-Volkswirt) 1980 (both University of Munich).

Other appointments.

1980-date Chair, CIVITAS. Society for the Promotion of Science and Art, Munich; 1991-96 Member of the Jury for the Max-Weber-Prize for Economic Ethics; Visiting professor Jesus College Oxford in 1993 and Hitotsubashi University Tokyo in 1994 on invitation of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; 1989/90 Member of the Working Group "Ethical and Social Aspects of the Exploration of the Human Genome" of the German Federal Minister for Research and Technology; 1995- Member of the Board of Advisors of the German Business Ethics Network (DNWE); 1995-2002 Director, Project "East | West | Philosophy" for the Scholarly Exchange with Russia; 1997-2003 Director, Project "A Discourse of the World Religions" at the World Exposition EXPO 2000 Hannover, Germany (together with the Foundation of Lower Saxony and the Foundation of the Hannover Institute of Philosophical Research), 1997- Chair of the Froum for Economic Ethics and Economic Culture, German Philosophical Association (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Philosophie); 2002- Chair of the Working Group "Compliance and Ethics in Financial Institutions in the German Business Ethics Network"; 2001- Member, Executive Committee, ISBEE-International Society for Business, Economics, and Ethics; 2002-2003 Member of the jury for the Prize for Intergenerational Justice of the Stiftung für die Rechte zukünftiger Generationen (Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations), Germany;

Publications.

Principal books.

Koslowski has written numerous books (listed below) and co-authored/edited many more - listed on his CV. As Editor:

Peter Koslowski (2 October 1952 – 15 May 2012) was a Professor of Philosophy, especially Philosophy of Management and Organisation and History of Modern Philosophy, at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU University Amsterdam).


Signs and symptoms.

Signs and symptoms include high blood pressure, headaches, abdominal pain, blood in the urine, and excessive urination. Other symptoms include pain in the back, and cyst formation (renal and other organs).

Cause.

PKD is caused by abnormal genes which produce a specific abnormal protein which has an adverse effect on tubule development. PKD is a general term for two types, each having their own pathology and genetic cause: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD).

Autosomal dominant.

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common of all the inherited cystic kidney diseases with an incidence of 1:500 live births. Studies show that 10% of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) patients being treated with dialysis in Europe and the U.S. were initially diagnosed and treated for ADPKD.  Genetic mutations in any of the three genes PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 have similar phenotypical presentations.

Autosomal recessive.

Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) (OMIM #263200) is the lesser common of the two types of PKD, with an incidence of 1:20,000 live births and is typically identified in the first few weeks after birth. Unfortunately, the kidneys are often underdeveloped resulting in a 30% death rate in newborns with ARPKD. PKHD1 is involved.

Mechanism.

Both autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease cyst formation are tied to abnormal cilia-mediated signaling. The polycystin-1 and polycystin-2 proteins appear to be involved in both autosomal dominant and recessive polycystic kidney disease due to defects in both proteins. Both proteins have communication with calcium channel proteins, and causes reduction in resting (intracellular) calcium and endoplasmic reticulum storage of calcium.  The disease is characterized by a ‘second hit’ phenomenon, in which a mutated dominant allele is inherited from a parent, with cyst formation occurring only after the normal, wild-type gene sustains a subsequent second genetic ‘hit’, resulting in renal tubular cyst formation and disease progression.  PKD results from defects in the primary cilium, an immotile, hair-like cellular organelle present on the surface of most cells in the body, anchored in the cell body by the basal body. In the kidney, primary cilia have been found to be present on most cells of the nephron, projecting from the apical surface of the renal epithelium into the tubule lumen. The cilia were believed to bend in the urine flow, leading to changes in signalling, however this has since been shown to be an experimental error (the bending of cilia was an artifact of focal plane compensation, and also the actual effect on micturition by severe hypertension and cardiac arrest) and that bending of cilia does not contribute to alterations in Ca flux. While it is not known how defects in the primary cilium lead to cyst development, it is thought to possibly be related to disruption of one of the many signaling pathways regulated by the primary cilium, including intracellular calcium, Wnt/β-catenin, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), or planar cell polarity (PCP). Function of the primary cilium is impaired, resulting in disruption of a number of intracellular signaling cascades which produce differentiation of cystic epithelium, increased cell division, increased apoptosis, and loss of resorptive capacity.

Diagnosis.

Polycystic kidney disease can be ascertained via a CT scan of abdomen, as well as, an MRI and ultrasound of the same area. A physical exam/test can reveal enlarged liver, heart murmurs and elevated blood pressure

Natural history.

Most cases progress to bilateral disease in adulthood.

Treatment.

There is no FDA-approved treatment. However, recent research indicates that mild to moderate dietary restrictions slow the progression of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) in mice.  If and when the disease progresses enough in a given case, the nephrologist or other practitioner and the patient will have to decide what form of renal replacement therapy will be used to treat end-stage kidney disease (kidney failure, typically stage 4 or 5 of chronic kidney disease).  That will either be some form of dialysis, which can be done at least two different ways at varying frequencies and durations (whether it is done at home or in the clinic depends on the method used and the patient's stability and training) and eventually, if they are eligible because of the nature and severity of their condition and if a suitable match can be found, unilateral or bilateral kidney transplantation.  A Cochrane Review study of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease made note of the fact that it is important at all times, while avoiding antibiotic resistance, to control infections of the cysts in the kidneys, and if affected, the liver, when needed for a certain duration to combat infection, by using, "bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal drugs".

Prognosis.

ADPKD individuals might have a normal life; conversely, ARPKD can cause kidney dysfunction and can lead to kidney failure by the age of 40–60. ADPKD1 and ADPKD2 are very different, in that ADPKD2 is much milder.  Currently, there are no therapies proven effective to prevent the progression of ADPKD.

Epidemiology.

PKD is one of the most common hereditary diseases in the United States, affecting more than 600,000 people. It is the cause of nearly 10% of all end-stage renal disease. It equally affects men, women, and all races. PKD occurs in some animals as well as humans.

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD or PCKD, also known as polycystic kidney syndrome) is a genetic disorder in which the renal tubules become structurally abnormal, resulting in the development and growth of multiple cysts within the kidney. These cysts may begin to develop in utero, in infancy, in childhood, or in adulthood. Cysts are non-functioning tubules filled with fluid pumped into them, which range in size from microscopic to enormous, crushing adjacent normal tubules and eventually rendering them non-functional as well.


Plot.

An emotionally scarred waitress named Frankie attends her godson's baptism in Altoona, Pennsylvania. Meanwhile, a middle-aged man named Johnny is released from prison. Frankie returns home to New York City to her job waitressing at the Apollo Cafe. The owner, Nick, sends her co-worker Helen home early after she complains of dizziness. Johnny arrives looking for work and Nick hires him as a short-order cook despite his criminal record. After work, Frankie returns home to her apartment to find a stranger, Bobby, installing shelves, but he is revealed to be the boyfriend of her friend and neighbor, Tim. That night, Johnny solicits a prostitute, but just asks her to lay clothed in bed with him.  The next day, Nick announces to his staff that Helen has been hospitalized. Frankie and her co-worker Cora visit an unconscious Helen and share their fears of dying alone like her. The next day, after helping a man who had an epileptic seizure, Johnny asks Frankie out on a date, but she refuses. Helen dies and Frankie, Cora, and fellow waitress Nedda are surprised to see Johnny at her funeral. Back at work, Johnny asks Frankie out again. After she refuses again, he has a one-night stand with Cora, which she shares the details of with Frankie and Nedda.  Weeks pass, and Johnny asks Frankie to be his date at a co-worker's going-away party, but she again refuses. He shows up at her apartment anyway, where Bobby and Tim help Frankie decide what to wear. At the party, Johnny attempts to convince Frankie that they are a good match. After the party, he buys her a flower and convinces her to take him back to her apartment, where they spend an intimate night together.  Now convinced that they are meant to be together, Johnny shows up at her bowling night and professes his love to her. Frankie argues that he cannot love her after such a short period of time, and reveals that she cannot have children after Johnny mentions starting a family. Afterwards, Frankie avoids Johnny, not answering his phone calls and switching her shifts. However, Johnny switches his shifts too and they talk to each other. Johnny confesses that he is divorced and has two children who he hasn't seen since he got out of prison for check fraud. Frankie encourages him to see them, and she confesses that her last boyfriend cheated on her with her best friend.  After work, Johnny walks Frankie to her apartment, where they discuss their lives and listen to "Clair de Lune". However, the intimacy makes Frankie uncomfortable and they argue. She asks him to leave, but before he does, he calls the radio station and asks them to play an encore of "Clair de Lune". Frankie confesses that a previous boyfriend had physically abused her, at one point causing her to have a miscarriage which made her unable to have children. Frankie invites Johnny to stay and they watch the sunrise together.

Production.

"" was filming in a nearby studio, and Garry Marshall arranged for the actors William Shatner (James T. Kirk), Leonard Nimoy (Spock) and DeForest Kelley (Leonard Mccoy) to appear fully costumed, out of camera shot, behind a door in one scene in order to elicit genuine surprise from Al Pacino when he opened it.

Reception.

"Frankie and Johnny" currently holds a score of 66% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 29 reviews, indicating generally positive reviews.  Peter Travers in "Rolling Stone" wrote: "there hasn't been a sharper, sassier, more touching romantic comedy this year... there's no denying Marshall's expert timing. This is the director's best work yet... In its celebration of cautious optimism, "Frankie and Johnny" becomes the perfect love story for these troubled times." Janet Maslin in "The New York Times" wrote: "in the skillfully manipulative hands of Garry Marshall, who has directed from a screenplay by Mr. McNally that amounts to a complete revision, "Frankie and Johnny" has been reshaped into foolproof schmaltz. 'Foolproof' is the operative word... But somehow Mr. Marshall, Mr. McNally and their superb leading actors are able to retain the intimacy of their material. They also retain the story's fundamental wariness about romance, even when everything about Ms. Pfeiffer and Mr. Pacino has the audience wondering why they don't simply fall into each other's arms." Rita Kempley in "The Washington Post" wrote: "In its odyssey from stage to screen, "Frankie & Johnny" has undergone a sunny metamorphosis from ugly ducklings' romance to candy-coated, blue-collar valentine." "Time Out" summed it up thus: "Pacino wears a vest and bandanna and moons through the part. Pfeiffer plays dowdy. Marshall directs as if "Marty" had never happened."  Much attention was paid to the controversial casting choices of Al Pacino and Michelle Pfeiffer, two actors perceived as "beautiful movie stars" with Hollywood glamour, cast to play "lonely little people struggling to find love," originated by supposed "ordinary" actors Kenneth Welsh and Kathy Bates. Stephen Farber in "Movieline" wrote: "Michelle Pfeiffer gives a very adept and winning performance in "Frankie & Johnny", but she's simply wrong for the part of a plain, world-weary waitress. While Pfeiffer has protested to interviewers that physical beauty cannot guarantee happiness, the fact remains that anyone as gorgeous as she is has a lot more options than someone who looks like Kathy Bates (who originated the role on stage). The star casting robs the material of some of its poignancy." "The Washington Post" wrote that "casting Michelle Pfeiffer in a role written for Kathy Bates is going to have a definite effect on the story's dramatic weight. That's not to say that Pfeiffer isn't pfantastic or that this isn't the pfeel-good movie of the season. It's just... well, imagine Kevin Costner as Marty." "Variety" asserted that no one would "believe that Pfeiffer hasn't had a date since Ronald Reagan was president, and no matter how hard she tries to look plain, there is no disguising that she just gets more beautiful all the time."  However, some critics commended Pfeiffer for her performance, notably "Rolling Stone", who called it "a triumph. She is among that rarefied group of actresses (Anjelica Huston, Meryl Streep) whose work keeps taking us by surprise. Her powerfully subtle acting can tickle the funny bone or pierce the heart with equally uncanny skill." "The New York Times" wrote that "Ms. Pfeiffer's extraordinary beauty makes her fine-tuned, deeply persuasive performance as the tough and fearful Frankie that much more surprising."  Pacino also received critical praise. "Rolling Stone" wrote: "Pacino, whose recent work has been lugubrious ("The Godfather Part III") or broad ("Dick Tracy"), shows a real flair for comic delicacy." "The New York Times" wrote that "Mr. Pacino has not been this uncomplicatedly appealing since his "Dog Day Afternoon" days, and he makes Johnny's endless enterprise in wooing Frankie a delight. His scenes alone with Ms. Pfeiffer have a precision and honesty that keep the film's maudlin aspects at bay." "Variety", however, described him as "a warm, slobbering dog who can't leave people alone, Pacino's Johnny comes on real strong, and his pronounced neediness is too much at times."  Kate Nelligan was singled out for her supporting turn; "The New York Times" wrote that "Kate Nelligan, nearly unrecognizable, is outstandingly enjoyable as the gum-chewing, man-crazy one." "Rolling Stone" thought that "seeing this Royal Shakespeare Company actress cut loose with this bold and brassy performance is one of the film's zippiest treats."  The film grossed $22.8 million in the United States and Canada and $44 million overseas for a worldwide gross of $67 million.

Awards and honors.

"Frankie and Johnny" received a GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Film, along with "Fried Green Tomatoes" (1991), for its "fair, accurate and inclusive representations of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community and the issues that affect their lives."  Michelle Pfeiffer was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, but lost to Bette Midler in "For The Boys" (1991).  Kate Nelligan won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress. She received an Oscar nomination that year, but for a different film, "The Prince of Tides".  The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Frankie and Johnny is a 1991 American romantic comedy film directed by Garry Marshall and starring Al Pacino and Michelle Pfeiffer in their first film together since "Scarface" (1983). Héctor Elizondo, Nathan Lane and Kate Nelligan appeared in supporting roles. The original score was composed by Marvin Hamlisch.


Plot.

Former Episcopal priest Graham Hess (Mel Gibson) lives on a remote farm with his asthmatic preteen son Morgan (Rory Culkin) and younger daughter Bo (Abigail Breslin). Graham's younger brother Merrill (Joaquin Phoenix), a failed minor-league baseball player, has been living on the farm to help out since Graham's wife Colleen died in a traffic accident six months earlier, shown in a series of flashbacks. Graham has since lost his religious faith and abandoned the church.  Large crop circles appear in the Hess' corn field that are initially attributed to vandals. Soon after, other crop circles, eventually determined to be navigational guides, appear globally, and lights from invisible objects hover over Mexico and other cities later on. One night, Graham and Merrill chase a tall dark figure that disappears into the field. Graham later glimpses another one among the corn stalks, and strange clicking noises are heard over Bo's old baby monitor. In Brazil, an alien is filmed during a child's birthday party.  Ray Reddy (M. Night Shyamalan), the man responsible for Colleen's fatal accident, calls the Hess house but hangs up. Graham goes to investigate, finding Reddy sitting inside his car. Reddy expresses remorse for Colleen's death and Graham losing his faith. As he is about to drive to a lake, believing the aliens avoid water, Reddy warns Graham that a creature is locked inside his pantry. Graham investigates but leaves quickly when the trapped alien tries to attack him.  As a worldwide alien invasion begins, the Hesses barricade themselves inside their house. As several aliens break into the house, the family retreats to the basement. Morgan has an asthma attack but survives the night, despite being without his medication. The family emerge the next morning after radio reports say the aliens have abruptly abandoned Earth, stranding some aliens. The alien which had been trapped inside Ray Reddy's pantry enters the house and takes Morgan hostage. Recalling Colleen's dying words, Graham tells Merrill to, "swing away", using his baseball bat. The alien sprays Morgan with a toxic gas from its wrist. Graham recovers his stricken son as Merrill bashes the creature, hitting it into glasses of water left by Bo, the liquid scalding its skin. Merrill continues hitting the creature, eventually killing it. Outside, Morgan revives after Graham administers his medication. Morgan's constricted lungs prevented him inhaling the alien's poisonous gas, an act Graham attributes to God's intervention.  Months later, the Hess family has recovered from the ordeal. In the final scene, Graham is seen as having returned to the church, his faith restored.

Filming.

"Signs" was filmed in 2001. The location of the film is credited as "Bucks County, PA" in the film. All scenes shot on location were actually filmed in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Production shot all scenes of the house and cornfield inside the campus of Delaware Valley University, an agricultural college, where they had 40 acres of land to use. Production filmed the scenes in the bookstore and the pizza shop in Newtown, Pennsylvania. Production shot the pharmacy scene in Morrisville, Pennsylvania.

Soundtrack.

All music was composed by James Newton Howard. The score was conducted by Pete Anthony and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony.

Critical reception for soundtrack.

The soundtrack generally received positive reviews. William Ruhlmann of Allmusic stated in his review that: With "Signs", composer James Newton Howard again joins director M. Night Shyamalan for their third collaboration following "The Sixth Sense" and "Unbreakable", and clearly the film presents another thrilling encounter with the supernatural. From his opening "Main Theme," Howard ratchets up the tension, and his music thereafter alternates only between the ominous and the suspenseful. He overloads his lower tones, employing eight basses, five percussionists, and even a tuba, but also uses a large string section for short, fast, repetitive figures meant to keep viewers on the edges of their seats. This is not particularly imaginative music, just good old Saturday afternoon scary movie fare, the only distinguishing characteristic about it -- consistent with Shyamalan's style -- that it is so relentless. There's just no let up; dread pervades every moment of the director's films, to the point of emotional exhaustion for some, and the score has to have the same uncompromising approach, which can make it a little hard to take when listened to all the way through.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Signs" has received positive reviews from film critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 74% gave positive appraisals based on 236 reviews, with an average rating of 6.79/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "With "Signs", Shyamalan proves once again an expert at building suspense and giving audiences the chills." At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film scored a 59 based on 36 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".  Roger Ebert gave the film four stars, writing "M. Night Shyamalan's "Signs" is the work of a born filmmaker, able to summon apprehension out of thin air. When it is over, we think not how little has been decided, but how much has been experienced... At the end of the film, I had to smile, recognizing how Shyamalan has essentially ditched a payoff. He knows, as we all sense, that payoffs have grown boring." Nell Minow of Common Sense Media gave the film four out of five stars; she praised the casting and Shyamalan's direction, saying his "only flaw was not leaving anything to the audience's imagination".  Mike LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film one star out of four, thinking that the film had "few thoughts and no thrills." "Variety"s Todd McCarthy criticised the film for its lack of originality, writing "After the overwrought "Unbreakable" and now the meager "Signs", it's fair to speculate whether Shyamalan's persistence in replicating the otherworldly formula of "The Sixth Sense" might not be a futile and self-defeating exercise."  In 2004, the film was listed as No. 77 on Bravo's "The 100 Scariest Movie Moments" for the Brazilian birthday party scene.

Box office.

"Signs" grossed $227,966,634 domestically and $180,281,283 internationally, which would total up to $408,247,917 worldwide at the box office, ranking only behind "The Sixth Sense" in Shyamalan's box office success and grossing more than "The Village" and "Split".

Home media.

"Signs" was released on VHS and DVD on January 7, 2003.  On the DVD, there are some deleted scenes:

Signs is a 2002 American science fiction horror film written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan and produced by Shyamalan, Frank Marshall, Kathleen Kennedy and Sam Mercer. A joint collective effort to commit to the film's production was made by Blinding Edge Pictures and The Kennedy/Marshall Company. It was commercially distributed by Touchstone Pictures theatrically, and by Touchstone Home Entertainment in home media format. Its story focuses on a former Episcopal priest named Graham Hess, played by Mel Gibson, who discovers a series of crop circles in his cornfield. Hess slowly discovers that the phenomenon is a result of extraterrestrial life. It also stars Joaquin Phoenix, Rory Culkin, and Abigail Breslin. "Signs" explores the themes of faith, kinship, and extraterrestrials.


Errors vs. mistakes.

Chomsky (1965) made a distinguishing explanation of competence and performance on which, later on, the identification of mistakes and errors will be possible, Chomsky stated that ‘’We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence (the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete situations)’’ ( 1956, p. 4). In other words, errors are thought of as indications of an incomplete learning, and that the speaker or hearer has not yet accumulated a satisfied language knowledge which can enable them to avoid linguistics misuse. Relating knowledge with competence was significant enough to represent that the competence of the speaker is judged by means of errors that concern the amount of linguistic data he or she has been exposed to, however, performance which is the actual use of language does not represent the language knowledge that the speaker has. According to J. Richard et al (2002), people may have the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (to “perform”) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence (2002, 392).  The actual state of the speaker somehow involves and influences the speaker's performance by either causing a good performance or mistakes. Thus, it is quite obvious that there is some kind of interrelationship between competence and performance; somehow, a speaker can perform well if he or she has had already satisfied linguistic knowledge. As a support to this, Corder (1967) mentioned that mistakes are of no significance to “the process of language learning’’ (P. 167).

Error analysis approach.

Before the rise of error analysis approach, contrastive analysis had been the dominant approach used in dealing and conceptualizing the learners’ errors in the 1950s, this approach had often gone hand in hand with concept of L1 Interference and precisely the interlingual effect (Anefnaf Z. 2017), it claimed that the main cause of committing errors in the process of second language learning is the L1, in other words, the linguistic background of the language learners badly affects the production in the target language.  X. Fang and J. Xue-mei (2007) pointed out that contrastive analysis hypothesis claimed that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second language system and that a scientific, structural comparison of the two languages in question would enable people to predict and describe which are problems and which are not. Error analysis approach overwhelmed and announced the decline of the Contrastive Analysis which was only effective in phonology; and, according to J. Richard et al. (2002), EA developed as a branch of Linguistics in the 1960s and it came to light to argue that the mother tongue was not the main and the only source of the errors committed by the learners. In addition, Hashim, A. (1999) mentioned that the language effect is more complex and these errors can be caused even by the target language itself and by the applied communicative strategies as well as the type and quality of the second language instructions.  The aim of EA according to J. Richard et al. (2002) is, first, to identify strategies which learners use in language learning, in terms of the approaches and strategies used in both of teaching and learning. Second, to try to identify the causes of learners’ errors, that is, investigating the motives behind committing such errors as the first attempt to eradicate them. Third, to obtain information on common difficulties in Language Learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of the teaching materials,  The two major causes of error, coined by the error analysis approach, are the Interlingual error which is an error made by the Learner's Linguistic background and Native language interference, and the Intralingual error which is the error committed by the learners when they misuse some Target Language rules, considering that the error cause lies within and between the target language itself and the Learners false application of certain target language rules.  Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Corder and colleagues. Error analysis (EA) was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.  Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: "overt" errors such as "I angry" are obvious even out of context, whereas "covert" errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to "domain", the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and "extent", the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: "global" errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while "local" errors do not. In the above example, "I angry" would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.  From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.  Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.  In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors. Errors are classified according to:

Types of errors.

Linguists have always been attempting to describe the types of errors committed by the language learners, and that is exactly the best way to start with, as it helps out the applied linguist to identify where the problem lies. According to Dulay et al. (1982) errors take place when the learner change the surface structure in a particularly systematic manner (p. 150), thus, the error, no matter what form and type it is, represent a damage at the level of the target language production.  Errors have been classified by J. Richard et al. (2002) into two categories. The Interlingual Error and the Intralingual Error, those two elements refer respectively to the negative influence of both the speaker's native language, and the target language itself.  Interlingual error is caused by the interference of the native language L1 (also known as interference, linguistic interference, and crosslinguistic influence), whereby the learner tends to use their linguistic knowledge of L1 on some Linguistic features in the target language, however, it often leads to making errors. The example, provided by J. Richard et al. (2002) ‘’ the incorrect French sentence Elle regarde les (“She sees them”), produced according to the word order of English, instead of the correct French sentence Elle les regarde (Literally, “She them sees”). (P. 267) shows the type of errors aroused by the negative effect of the native language interference.  Intralingual error is an error that takes place due to a particular misuse of a particular rule of the target language, it is, in fact, quite the opposite of Interlingual error, it puts the target language into focus, the target language in this perspective is thought of as an error cause. Furthermore, J. Richard, et al. (2002) consider it as one which results from ‘’faulty or partial’’ learning of the target language. (p.267) thus the intralingual error is classified as follow:  Overgeneralizations: in linguistics, overgeneralizations error occur when the speaker applies a grammatical rule in cases where it doesn’t apply. Richard et al, (2002) mentioned that they are caused ‘’by extension of target language rules to inappropriate context.’’ (P.185). this kind of errors have been committed while dealing with regular and irregular verbs, as well as the application of plural forms. E.g. (Tooth == Tooths rather than teeth) and (he goes == he goed rather than went).  Simplifications: they result from learners producing simpler linguistic forms than those found in the target language, in other words, learners attempt to be linguistically creative and produce their own poetic sentences/utterances, they may actually be successful in doing it, but it is not necessary the case, Corder (as cited in Mahmoud 2014:276) mentioned that learners do not have the complex system which they could simplify. This kind of errors is committed through both of Omission and addition of some linguistic elements at the level of either the Spelling or grammar. A. Mahmoud (2014) provided examples based on a research conducted on written English of Arabic-speaking second year University students:  Developmental errors: this kind of errors is somehow part of the overgeneralizations, (this later is subtitled into Natural and developmental learning stage errors), D.E are results of normal pattern of development, such as (come = comed) and (break = breaked), D.E indicates that the learner has started developing their linguistic knowledge and fail to reproduce the rules they have lately been exposed to in target language learning.  Induced errors: as known as transfer of training, errors caused by misleading teaching examples, teachers, sometimes, unconditionally, explain a rule without highlighting the exceptions or the intended message they would want to convey. J. Richard et al. (2002) provided an example that occurs at the level of teaching prepositions and particularly ‘’ at ‘’ where the teacher may hold up a box and say ‘’ "I am looking at the box ‘’," the students may understand that ‘’ "at ‘’" means "‘’ under ‘’," they may later utter ‘’ the cat is at the table ‘’ instead of the cat is under the table.  Errors of avoidance: these errors occur when the learner fail to apply certain target language rules just because they are thought of to be too difficult.  Errors of overproduction: in the early stages of language learning, learners are supposed to have not yet acquired and accumulated a satisfied linguistic knowledge which can enable them to use the finite rules of the target language in order to produce infinite structures, most of the time, beginners overproduce, in such a way, they frequently repeat a particular structure.

Steps.

According to linguist Corder, the following are the steps in any typical EA research: collection of errors: the nature and quantity of errors is likely to vary depending on whether the data consist of natural, spontaneous language use or careful, elicited language use.  Corder (1973) distinguished two kinds of elicitation:"clinical" and "experimental" elicitation. clinical elicitation involves getting the informant to produce data of any sort, for example by means of general interview or writing a composition. experimental elicitation involves the use of special instrument to elicit data containing the linguistic features such as a series of pictures which had been designed to elicit specific features.

In linguistics, according to J. Richard et al., (2002), an error is the use of a word, speech act or grammatical items in such a way it seems imperfect and significant of an incomplete learning (184). It is considered by Norrish (1983, p. 7) as a systematic deviation that happens when a learner has not learnt something, and consistently gets it wrong. However, the attempts made to put the error into context have always gone hand in hand with either language learning and second-language acquisition processes, Hendrickson (1987:357) mentioned that errors are ‘signals’ that indicate an actual learning process taking place and that the learner has not yet mastered or shown a well-structured competence in the target language.


Formal definition.

An odd composite number "n" = "d" · 2 + 1 where "d" is odd is called a strong (Fermat) pseudoprime to base "a" if:  or  The definition is trivially met if so these trivial bases are often excluded.  Guy mistakenly gives a definition with only the first condition, which is not satisfied by all primes.

Properties of strong pseudoprimes.

A strong pseudoprime to base "a" is always an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime, an Euler pseudoprime and a Fermat pseudoprime to that base, but not all Euler and Fermat pseudoprimes are strong pseudoprimes. Carmichael numbers may be strong pseudoprimes to some bases—for example, 561 is a strong pseudoprime to base 50—but not to all bases.  A composite number "n" is a strong pseudoprime to at most one quarter of all bases below "n"; thus, there are no "strong Carmichael numbers", numbers that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Thus given a random base, the probability that a number is a strong pseudoprime to that base is less than 1/4, forming the basis of the widely used Miller–Rabin primality test. However, Arnault  gives a 397-digit Carmichael number that is a strong pseudoprime to every base less than 307. One way to reduce the chance that such a number is wrongfully declared probably prime is to combine a strong probable prime test with a Lucas probable prime test, as in the Baillie–PSW primality test.  There are infinitely many strong pseudoprimes to any base.

Examples.

The first strong pseudoprimes to base 2 are The first to base 3 are The first to base 5 are  For base 4, see, and for base 6 to 100, see to. By testing the above conditions to several bases, one gets somewhat more powerful primality tests than by using one base alone. For example, there are only 13 numbers less than 25·10 that are strong pseudoprimes to bases 2, 3, and 5 simultaneously. They are listed in Table 7 of. The smallest such number is 25326001. This means that, if "n" is less than 25326001 and "n" is a strong probable prime to bases 2, 3, and 5, then "n" is prime.  Carrying this further, 3825123056546413051 is the smallest number that is a strong pseudoprime to the 9 bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, and 23.  So, if "n" is less than 3825123056546413051 and "n" is a strong probable prime to these 9 bases, then "n" is prime.  By judicious choice of bases that are not necessarily prime, even better tests can be constructed. For example, there is no composite formula_3 that is a strong pseudoprime to all of the seven bases 2, 325, 9375, 28178, 450775, 9780504, and 1795265022.

In number theory, a probable prime is a number that passes a primality test. A strong probable prime is a number that passes a "strong" version of a primality test. A strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes a strong version of a primality test. All primes pass these tests, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them "false primes".


Overview.

The city is well connected to the rest of Spain. The Autovia de Andalucia, NIV Madrid-Cádiz, is located to the west at Bailén. There is a railroad station at Linares-Baeza, with lines connecting Madrid and Cádiz, and Madrid-Granada-Almería.  Near to Linares is the ancient town of Castulo, which dates to antiquity and earned much of its revenue from the lead mines located there. It was at Castulo that Carthaginian general Hannibal married the local Iberian princess Himilce on the eve of the Second Punic War.  The Linares Advanced Technical College is located in Alfonso X "the Wise" Street and offers a wide range of engineering studies, belonging to the University of Jaén since 1 July 1993. The Scientific-Technological Campus is still under construction.  Linares is also the place where the annual Linares chess tournament was held.

History.

Around the middle of the nineteenth century Linares became an important mining center with lead mines nearby. The smelting of lead, the manufacture of lead sheets and pipes, and the production of by-product silver from the lead ores led to a significant population increase. The 6,000 inhabitants in 1849 became 36,000 in 1877. This commercial and industrial growth brought the concession of the title of city in 1875.

Economy.

The lead mines of Linares were in almost interrupted activity from pre-Roman times until the 1990s. There were also lead smelters and gunpowder, dynamite and rope factories as auxiliary to the mining industry. Currently, the mines of Linares are protected as cultural heritage.  Santana Motor, the former producer of all-terrain vehicles for the Spanish Army which was recently shut down due to the economic recession. There is also a factory producing trains (CAF), another one producing components for wind turbines (Grupo Daniel Alonso y Gamesa), and a beet sugar plant (Azucareras Reunidas de Jaen S.A.), which now produces biodiesel from colza oil, palm oil, soybeans, and sunflower oil.

Personalities.

The bull ring in Linares is famous for the death in 1947 of bullfighter Manolete (Manuel Rodríguez Sánchez). On 28 August every year, people place flowers on his statue in Linares. Manolete's death is remembered in the ring by putting a bunch of roses in the place where he fell.  Linares is the birthplace of classical guitarist Andrés Segovia, singer Raphael and the hometown of jazz vocalist Virginia Maestro and Blessed Manuel Lozano Garrido, who was beatified on Saturday 12 June 2010 in Linares.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Linares is twinned with:

Linares () is a city located in the Andalusian province of Jaén, Spain. It is considered the second most important city in that province and had a population of 62,347 in the most recent census. The altitude is and the total area of the municipality is. It is located on kilometer 120 on the Valencia-Córdoba highway (N-322) and is from the capital, Jaén.


Gameplay.

Simulating duties on a real farm, "SimFarm" puts players in charge of building up the land, placing the buildings, buying and selling livestock and planting crops. A weather and season system are in place as well, presenting the same kind of challenges found in a real-world farm. As with "SimCity", there are disasters that can wreak havoc on the player's farm. Tornadoes, droughts, pests, and dust storms are some of the events that can disrupt farm crops and harvests. There are four types of livestock in "SimFarm", all of which have specific food requirements, need water, and breed new livestock. Animals' value can be increased by making a barn available for their use.  "SimFarm" also has a small town included in its simulation. This town is reminiscent of "SimCity" in its form and function. The player may interact with the town occasionally by suggesting new tile types and joining competitions with livestock (such as sending in a prize pig to potentially earn a blue ribbon and a cash prize.) Suggesting an airport to be built in the town will usually cause its construction, thus unlocking the ability to buy and use a crop duster.  The homestead in "SimFarm" is where the player lives and is expanded at the beginning of each game year if the player has made enough money in the previous year. "SimFarm" allows the player to choose a location derived from the region and climate of one of nine areas of the US or to design one's own climate by selecting average winds, rainfall, and temperatures.  Equipment is necessary to maintain your farm and bring your crops to harvest. Structures store equipment, livestock, seeds, etc. The minimum equipment required to bring one field to harvest is one tractor, one planter, one plow, one harvester, one truck, and one trailer. The crops are the main revenue-raising item in "SimFarm". All crops have specific maturity cycles, water requirements, temperature requirements, and resistance to pests, weeds, and diseases.

Reception.

"Computer Gaming World" in 1993 approved of the game's graphics and documentation. The magazine concluded that "it's not perfect, but learning how to "SimFarm" is a lot of fun". Despite giving an overall fun rating of 74%, PC Games Magazine expressed disdain for the game's monotony, further stating, "On the packaging they advertise it as "Sim City's Country Cousin", and you should not expect anything more from this program."

SimFarm: SimCity's Country Cousin is a video game in which players build and manage a virtual farm. It was developed by Maxis and released in 1993 as a spin-off of "SimCity". The game included a teacher's guide to teaching with "SimFarm" with black line masters for photo copying for the class and a user's manual. In 1996 SimFarm alongside several of Maxis' simulation games were re-released under the "Maxis Collector Series" with greater compatibility with Windows 95 and differing box art, including the addition of "Classics" beneath the title.


Pattresses.

Pattresses contain devices for input (switches) and output (sockets and fixtures), with transfer managed by junction boxs. A pattress may be made of metal or plastic. In the United Kingdom, surface-mounted boxes in particular are often made from urea-formaldehyde resin, or alternatively PVC, and usually white. Wall boxes are commonly made of thin galvanised metal. A pattress box is made to standard dimensions and may contain embedded bushings (in standard positions) for the attachment of wiring devices (switches and sockets). Internal pattress boxes themselves do not include the corresponding faceplates, since the devices to be contained in the box specify the required faceplate. External pattress boxes may offer include corresponding faceplates, limiting the devices to be contained in the box.  Although cables may be joined inside pattress boxes, due simply to their presence at convenient points in the wiring, their main purpose is to accommodate switches and sockets. They allow switches and sockets to be recessed into the wall for a better appearance. Enclosures primarily for joining wires are called junction boxes.

New work boxes.

New work boxes are designed to be installed in a new installation. They are typically designed with nail or screw holes to attach directly to wall studs.

Old work boxes.

Old work boxes are designed to attach to already-installed wall material (usually drywall). The boxes will almost always have two or more "parsellas" (from Latin: "small wing "or" part). The parsellas flip out when the box screws are screwed, securing the box to the wall with the help of the four or more tabs on the front of the box.

Alternative systems.

In some countries, for instance in Germany, wall boxes for electrical fittings generally are not actual rectangular boxes at all but standard-sized round recessed containers. This has the advantage that the corresponding round holes can be simply drilled out with a hole saw rather than needing the cutting-out of a rectangular cavity to accommodate the wall box. Even with those round-hole systems, the faceplates that cover them are mostly rectangular however.

A pattress or pattress box or fitting box (in the United States and Canada, electrical wall switch box, electrical wall outlet box, electrical Ceiling box, switch box, outlet box, electrical box, etc.) is the container for the space behind electrical fittings such as power outlet sockets, light switches, or fixed light fixtures. Pattresses may be designed for either surface mounting (with cabling running along the wall surface) or for embedding in the wall or skirting board. Some electricians use the term "pattress box" to describe a surface-mounted box, although simply the term "pattress" suffices. The term "flush box" is used for a mounting box that goes inside the wall, although some use the term "wall box". Boxes for installation within timber/plasterboard walls are usually called "cavity boxes" or "plasterboard boxes". A ceiling-mounted pattress (most often used for light fixtures) is referred to as a "ceiling pattress" or "ceiling box". British English speakers also tend to say "pattress box" instead of just "pattress". Pattress is alternatively spelt "patress" and Wiktionary lists both spellings. The word "pattress", despite being attested from the late 19th century, is still rarely found in dictionaries. It is etymologically derived from "pateras" (Latin for bowls, saucers).


Life.

Georg Graf was born in Münsingen, Germany, in 1875. He entered the seminary of Dillingen, where he studied Greek, Latin and Hebrew, while privately he also studied Syriac and Arabic. In 1902-1903 he completed his studies at Munich, studying ancient Egyptian, Coptic, modern Greek and later Georgian. In 1903 he obtained a doctorate of philology with his thesis on Arabic-Christian literature up to the 11th century, which was published in 1905. This brought him to the attention of the founder of the journal al-Machriq, Louis Cheikhô, for whom Graf held a high regard. From 1910 - 1911 he studied Christian literature at monasteries, while living in Jerusalem. He also visited Beirut for a short stay.  In 1918 Graf obtained a doctorate of theology from the University of Freiburg with a monograph on Marqus Ibn al-Qunbar ("Ein Reformversuch innerhalb der Koptischen Kirche im zwölften Jahrhundert"), published in 1923. Further research visits to Egypt, Syria and Palestine followed. In 1930 he was named Honorary Professor for Christian Oriental literature at the theology faculty of the university of Munich. In 1946 he was appointed a papal chaplain. He died in Dillingen an der Donau in 1955. The tennis star Steffi Graf is a distant relative.

Legacy.

Graf's "Nachlass", (collected documents) is housed in Munich. The Centre for Christian Arabic Literature and Research in Beirut CEDRAC continues his work in the field of research.

Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur.

Five Volumes; 2,384 pages.  Literaray encyclopedia of Arab-Christian authors, with related biographic and bibliographic material, summary of their works, editions, translations and studies, and index to the manuscripts sources. Many works listed remain unpublished and untranslated.

Other Works.

Graf published over 270 books, articles and essays on the Christian orient. At the time much of the literature in Arabic remained unpublished. He was a long-term contributor to the Arabic series of the Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium and the journal "Oriens Christianus".  He translatied a number of Arabic texts into German, including the works of Theodore Abu-Qurrah.

Georg Graf (15 March 1875 – 18 September 1955) was a German Orientalist. One of the most important scholars of Christian-Arabic literature, his 5-volume "Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur" is the foundational text in the field.


Local subdivisions.

Neustadt bei Coburg is subdivided into 22 local unites (Ortsteile):

History.

The Middle Ages.

In the second half of the 12th century, Count Hermann von Wolweswac founded the town of Neustadt with the building of a castle. Governance of the city was left to the Counts of Andechs, the later Dukes of Meranien. Neustadt is first mentioned in a document from the 16th of June, 1248, describing the "market forum" ("Marktflecken") of Neustadt. In 1316, Neustadt was designated a City, and in 1353, Neustadt came under the care of Coburg, making it a possession of the House of Wettin, which is remained until the First World War. Under Wettin rule, the city acquired the two-tailed, red and black lions which grace its coat of arms.  Neustadt lay on a major trade route between Nürnberg and Leipzig, and in the 14th century, the city received a parish church. By the end of the Middle Ages, the city had a population of roughly 570.

Thirty Years' War.

By the time the Thirty Years' War began, Neustadt's population had grown to roughly 1000. When the war began, the leaders of Coburg declared their neutrality. However, because the trade route on which Neustadt lay came to be used as a route of transportation by the various combatants, the city suffered greatly. Still greater damage came in 1636, when a large fire, unrelated to the war, which burnt down over half of the city.  In 1839, a second, larger fire destroyed 179 of the city's 226 houses, as well as the city hall and archives, and heavily damaged the church.

End of World War I, decision to join Bavaria.

When the First World War ended in 1918 and the Weimar Republic was founded, the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ceased to be a duchy. At first, it formed the Free State of Coburg. This state proved so small as an administrative unit that the decision was made to have the Free State become a part of either Thuringia or Bavaria. A referendum, held in 1919, saw Neustadt (and the rest of the Free State of Coburg) decide, by overwhelming majority, against Thuringia and thus for Bavaria. Neustadt politician and industrialist Max Oscar Arnold had actively campaigned for union with Bavaria.

Religion.

Most residents of Neustadt bei Coburg are members of the Evangelical Church (Lutheranism). But there are also communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists and Muslims.

Mayor.

The mayor of the town is Frank Rebhan (SPD). Frank Rebhan started in office in 1995. The predecessor was Irene Schneider-Böttcher (independent). Rebhan was reelected in 2001, 2007 and 2013.

Neustadt bei Coburg (also written "Neustadt b. Coburg") is a town in the district of Coburg in northern Bavaria, Germany. It is situated 15 km northeast of Coburg, as its name indicates.


Structure.

The transverse abdominal, so called for the direction of its fibers, is the innermost of the flat muscles of the abdomen, being placed immediately beneath the internal oblique muscle.  The transverse abdominal arises as fleshy fibers, from the lateral third of the inguinal ligament, from the anterior three-fourths of the inner lip of the iliac crest, from the inner surfaces of the cartilages of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the diaphragm, and from the thoracolumbar fascia. It ends anteriorly in a broad aponeurosis (the Spigelian fascia), the lower fibers of which curve inferomedially (medially and downward), and are inserted, together with those of the internal oblique muscle, into the crest of the pubis and pectineal line, forming the inguinal conjoint tendon also called the aponeurotic falx. In layman's terms, the muscle ends in the middle line of a person's abdomen.  Throughout the rest of its extent the aponeurosis passes horizontally to the middle line, and is inserted into the linea alba; its upper three-fourths lie behind the rectus muscle and blend with the posterior lamella of the aponeurosis of the internal oblique; its lower fourth is in front of the rectus abdominis.

Innervation.

The transverse abdominal is innervated by the lower intercostal nerves (thoracoabdominal, nerve roots T7-T11), as well as the iliohypogastric nerve and the ilioinguinal nerve.

Function.

The transverse abdominal helps to compress the ribs and viscera, providing thoracic and pelvic stability. This is explained further here. The transverse abdominal also helps a pregnant woman to deliver her child.  Without a stable spine, one aided by proper contraction of the TVA, the nervous system fails to recruit the muscles in the extremities efficiently, and functional movements cannot be properly performed. The transverse abdominal and the segmental stabilizers (e.g. the multifidi) of the spine have evolved to work in tandem.  While it is true that the TVA is vital to back and core health, the muscle also has the effect of pulling in what would otherwise be a protruding abdomen (hence its nickname, the “corset muscle”). Training the rectus abdominis muscles alone will not and can not give one a "flat" belly; this effect is achieved only through training the TVA. Thus to the extent that traditional abdominal exercises (e.g. crunches) or more advanced abdominal exercises tend to "flatten" the belly, this is owed to the tangential training of the TVA inherent in such exercises. Recently the transverse abdominal has become the subject of debate between Biokineticists, kinesiologists, strength trainers, and physical therapists. The two positions on the muscle are (1) that the muscle is effective and capable of bracing the human core during extremely heavy lifts and (2) that it is not. Specifically, one recent systematic review has found that the baseline dysfunction of TVA cannot predict the clinical outcomes of low back pain. Similarly, another systematic review has revealed that the changes in TVA function or morphology after different nonsurgical treatments are unrelated to the improvement of pain intensity or low back pain related-disability. These findings have challenged the traditional emphasis of using TVA-targeted intervention to treat low back pain.

Exercise.

The most well known method of strengthening the TVA is the vacuum exercise. The TVA also (involuntarily) contracts during many lifts; it is the body's natural weight-lifting belt, stabilizing the spine and pelvis during lifting movements. It has been estimated that the contraction of the TVA and other muscles reduces the vertical pressure on the intervertebral discs by as much as 40%. Failure to engage the TVA during higher intensity lifts is dangerous and encourages injury to the spine. The TVA acts as a girdle or corset by creating hoop tension around the midsection.

The transverse abdominal muscle (TVA), also known as the transverse abdominis, transversalis muscle and transversus abdominis muscle, is a muscle layer of the anterior and lateral (front and side) abdominal wall which is deep to (layered below) the internal oblique muscle. It is thought by most fitness instructors to be a significant component of the core.


Inner workings.

The data used to encrypt the BAC communication can be read electronically from the bottom of the passport called the machine readable zone. Because physical access to the passport is assumed to be needed to know this part of the passport it is assumed that the owner of the passport has given permission to read the passport. Equipment for optically scanning this part of the passport is already widely used. It uses an OCR system to read the text which is printed in a standardized format.

Security.

There is a replay attack against the basic access control protocol that allows an individual passport to be traced. The attack is based on being able to distinguish a failed nonce check from a failed MAC check and works against passports with randomized unique identifiers and hard to guess keys.  The basic access control mechanism has been criticized as offering too little protection from unauthorized interception. Researchers claim that because there are only limited numbers of passport issued, many theoretically possible passport numbers will not be in use in practice. The limited range of human age ranges further reduce the space of possibilities.  In other words, the data used as an encryption key has low entropy, meaning that guessing the session key is possible via a modest brute force attack.  This effect increases when passport numbers are issued sequentially or contain a redundant checksum. Both are proven to be the case in passports issued by the Netherlands. There are other factors that can be potentially used to speed up a brute force attack. There is the fact that dates of birth are typically not distributed randomly in populations. Dates of birth may be distributed even less randomly for the segments of a population that pass, for example, a check-in desk at an airport. And the fact that passports are often not issued on all days of the week and during all weeks of a year. Therefore, not all theoretically possible expiration dates may get used. In addition, the fact that real existing dates are used further limits the number of possible combinations: The month makes up two of the digits used for generating the key. Usually, two digits would mean 100 (00−99) combinations in decimal code or (36×36=1296) combinations in alphanumeric code. But as there are only 12 months, there are only 12 combinations. It is the same with the day (two digits and 31 combinations or less, depending on the month).  The German passport serial-number format (previously 10-digit, all-numeric, sequentially assigned) was modified on 1 November 2007, in response to concerns about the low entropy of BAC session keys. The new 10-character serial number is alphanumeric and generated with the help of a specially-designed block cipher, to avoid a recognizable relationship with the expiry date and increase entropy. In addition, a public-key based extended access control mechanism is now used to protect any information in the RFID chip that goes beyond the minimum ICAO requirements, in particular fingerprint images.

Basic access control (BAC) is a mechanism specified to ensure only authorized parties can wirelessly read personal information from passports with an RFID chip. It uses data such as the passport number, date of birth and expiration date to negotiate a session key. This key can then be used to encrypt the communication between the passports chip and a reading device. This mechanism is intended to ensure that the owner of a passport can decide who can read the electronic contents of the passport. This mechanism was first introduced into the German passport on 1 November 2005 and is now also used in many other countries (e.g., United States passports since August 2007).


History.

The area was first settled in the 19th century, when it was known as Newburg's Landing. When the railway was built, however, the area's name was changed to Sloanes Station. In 1881, after a vote, the town was incorporated under its present name inspired by the Canadian city of the same name, which civic leader Thomas M. Daniels felt was a place worth emulating.  In the 20th century, the town became a center of heavy industry with a number of large factories in and around the town. In the 1980s and 1990s the city, along with the rest of the region, declined sharply as manufacturing jobs left. Today TIMET, the world's largest supplier of titanium metals, is the major employer in the city.

Geography.

Toronto is located at (40.462266, -80.604443), and is about 45 minutes from Pittsburgh. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 5,091 people, 2,278 households, and 1,395 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 2,516 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 97.1% White, 1.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.8% of the population.  There were 2,278 households of which 26.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.5% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.8% were non-families. 34.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.84.  The median age in the city was 44 years. 20.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.1% were from 25 to 44; 30.5% were from 45 to 64; and 18.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.9% male and 53.1% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 5,676 people, 2,452 households, and 1,593 families living in the city. The population density was 3,014.6 people per square mile (1,165.7/km2). There were 2,627 housing units at an average density of 1,395.2 per square mile (539.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.60% White, 1.00% African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.07% from other races, and 0.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.48% of the population.  There were 2,452 households out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.3% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.0% were non-families. 31.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.90.  In the city the age distribution of the population shows 22.8% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $30,905, and the median income for a family was $38,585. Males had a median income of $37,042 versus $19,405 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,761. About 11.1% of families and 13.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.2% of those under age 18 and 7.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Public education in the city is provided by the Toronto City School District. The district has two campuses and a new campus that has been recently built. – Karaffa Elementary School (Grades Pre. K – 5), Toronto High School (Grades 6-12). Toronto High School is a member of the Ohio Valley Athletic Conference.  Toronto has a public library, a branch of the Public Library of Steubenville and Jefferson County.

Toronto is the second-largest city in Jefferson County, Ohio, United States, along the Ohio River 6 miles northeast of Steubenville. The population was 5,091 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Weirton-Steubenville, WV-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Life.

Zeune was born on 12 May 1778 in Lutherstadt Wittenberg as the son of Johann Karl Zeune, professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg. In his parents' house, he was educated by his father and tutor. In 1798 Zeune started studying at the Wittenberg University enrolled. He graduated with his thesis on the history of geography, and was awarded for a short time the dignity of an academic faculty, as a Quasi-professor of Geography. His novel „Höhenschichten-Karte” "Topological map" of the earth, had made him famous in academic circles.  In 1803, he moved to Berlin and became a teacher at the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster (gray convent school). In Berlin, where he lived as a scholar, he was on friendly terms with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and the historian Johannes von Müller. He applied unsuccessfully for an expedition into the interior of Africa, and shortly thereafter went into the "inner world of the blind". In the field of ophthalmology Zeune expanded his knowledge to the founder of the first European foundation for the Blind, Valentin Haüy in Paris. King Frederick William III decreed on 11 August 1806 to create a foundation for the blind in Berlin. Zeune was offered that job. On 13 October the same year he was able to start classes. It was the first blind school in Germany.  With money from friends and his own fortune, he saved the school by the time of distress. Johann August Zeune was a professor of geography in 1810 in Berlin. From 1811 to 1821 he lectured at the University of Berlin also about German language and literature. Educational skills were presented in his Manual of Education of the Blind "Belisarius" (1808) and the work "Gea. Attempt at a scientific geography" (1808).  After the French occupation, he joined as a political journalist of decidedly patriotic stance.  As a Germanist, Zeune stood under the spell of romantic notions. He fought against the usage of foreign words and worked on the publication of the Nibelungenlied; of which he published a prose translation (1813) and a paperback edition (1815).  August Zeune died on 14 November 1853 in Berlin, after he had lost his eyesight in old age. He was buried at the Berlin St. George's Cemetery in the Greifswald Street 229/234.  In his honor, the Johann August Zeune School for the Blind in Berlin-Steglitz and the Zeunepromenade where named after him (see Rothenburg (Berlin)).

Johann August Zeune (12 May 1778 –14 November 1853) was a German teacher of geography and Germanic languages, as well as the founder of the Berlin Foundation for the Blind.