Algerian nationalism in the early 1900s.

A new generation of Muslim emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s. It consisted of a small but influential class of "évolués", other Algerians whose perception of themselves and their country had been shaped by wartime experiences, and a body of religious reformers and teachers. Some of these people were members of the few wealthy Muslim families that had managed to insinuate themselves into the colonial system in the 1890s and had with difficulty succeeded in obtaining for their sons the French education coveted by progressive Algerians. Others were among the about 173,000 Algerians who had served in the French army during World War I or the several hundred thousand more who had assisted the French war effort by working in factories. Many Algerians stayed on in France after 1918, and sent the money they earned there to their relatives in Algeria. In France they became aware of a standard of living higher than any they had known at home and of democratic political concepts, taken for granted by Frenchmen in France, which "colons", soldiers, and bureaucrats had refused to apply to the Muslim majority in Algeria. Some Algerians also became acquainted with the pan-Arab nationalism growing in the Middle East.

Political movements.

One of the earliest movements for political reform was an integrationist group, the Young Algerians ("Jeunese Algérienne"). Its members were drawn from the small, liberal elite of well-educated, middle-class "évolués" who demanded an opportunity to prove that they were French as well as Muslim. In 1908 they delivered to France's Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau a petition that expressed opposition under the status quo to a proposed policy to conscript Muslim Algerians into the French army. If, however, the state granted the Muslims full citizenship, the petition went on, opposition to conscription would be dropped. In 1911, in addition to demanding preferential treatment for "the intellectual elements of the country", the group

Foreign inspiration.

Algeria's Islamic reform movement took inspiration from Egyptian reformers Muhammad Abduh and Muhammad Rashid Rida and stressed the Arab and Islamic roots of the country. Starting in the 1920s, the reform ulema, religious scholars, promoted a purification of Islam in Algeria and a return to the Qur'an and the "sunna", or tradition of the Prophet. The reformers favored the adoption of modern methods of inquiry and rejected the superstitions and folk practices of the countryside, actions that brought them into confrontation with the "marabouts". The reformers published their own periodicals and books, and established free modern Islamic schools that stressed Arabic language and culture as an alternative to the schools for Muslims operated for many years by the French. Under the dynamic leadership of Shaykh Abd al Hamid Ben Badis, the reformist ulama organized the Association of Algerian Muslim Ulema ("Association des Uléma Musulmans Algériens", AUMA) in 1931. Although their support was concentrated in the Constantine area, the AUMA struck a responsive chord among the Muslim masses, with whom it had closer ties than did the other nationalist organizations. As the Islamic reformers gained popularity and influence, the colonial authorities

Viollette Plan.

The mounting social, political, and economic crises in Algeria for the first time induced older and newly emerged classes of indigenous society to engage from 1933 to 1936 in numerous acts of political protest. The government responded with more restrictive laws governing public order and security. In 1936, French socialist Léon Blum became premier in a Popular Front government and appointed Maurice Viollette his minister of state. The Ulemas and in June 1936 the Star of Messali, sensing a new attitude in Paris that would favor their agenda, cautiously joined forces with the FEI.  Representatives of these

Polarization and politicization at the time of WWII.

Algerian Muslims rallied to the French side at the start of World War II as they had done in World War I. Nazi Germany's quick defeat of France, however, and the establishment of the collaborationist Vichy regime, to which the "colons" were generally sympathetic, not only increased the difficulties of the Muslims but also posed an ominous threat to the Jews in Algeria. The Algerian administration vigorously enforced the anti-Semitic laws imposed by Vichy, which stripped Algerian Jews of their French citizenship. Potential opposition leaders in both the European and the Muslim communities were arrested.  Allied landings were made at Algiers and Oran by 70,000 British and United States troops on November 8, 1942, in coordination with landings in Morocco. As part of Operation Torch under the overall command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Algiers and Oran were secured two days later after a determined resistance by French defenders. On November 11, Admiral François Darlan, commander in chief of Vichy French forces, ordered a ceasefire in North Africa. Algeria provided a base for the subsequent Allied campaign in Tunisia.  After the fall of the Vichy regime in Algeria, General Henri Giraud, Free French commander in chief in North Africa, slowly rescinded repressive Vichy laws despite opposition by "colon" extremists. He also called on the Muslim population to supply troops for the Allied war effort. Ferhat Abbas and twenty-four other Muslim leaders replied that Algerians were ready to fight with the Allies in freeing their homeland but demanded the right to call a conference of Muslim representatives to develop political, economic, and social institutions for the indigenous population "within an essentially French framework". Giraud, who succeeded in raising an army of 250,000 men to fight in the Italian campaign, refused to consider this proposal, explaining that "politics" must wait until the end of the war.

The manifesto of the Algerian People.

In March 1943, Abbas, who had abandoned assimilation as a viable alternative to self-determination, presented the French administration with the Manifesto of the Algerian People, signed by fifty-six Algerian nationalist and international leaders. Outlining the perceived past and present problems of colonial rule, the manifesto demanded specifically an Algerian constitution that would guarantee immediate and effective political participation and legal equality for Muslims. It called for agrarian reform, recognition of Arabic as an official language on equal terms with French, recognition of a full range of civil liberties, and the freeing of political prisoners of all parties.  The French governor general created

Demanding autonomy from france.

A new factor influencing Muslim reaction to the reintroduction of the Viollette Plan — which by that date even many moderates had rejected as inadequate — was the shift in Abbas's position from support for integration to the demand for an autonomous state federated with France. Abbas gained the support of the AUMA and formed Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty ("Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté", AML) to work for Algerian autonomie with equal rights for both Europeans and Muslims. Within a short time, the AML's newspaper, "Égalité", claimed 500,000 subscribers, indicating unprecedented interest in independence. By this time, over 350,000 Algerian Muslims (out of a total Algerian Muslim population of nine million) were working in France to support their relatives in Algeria, and many thousands more worked in towns. Messali and his PPA still rejected anything short of independence.  Social unrest grew in the winter of 1944–45, fueled in part by a poor wheat harvest, shortages of manufactured goods, and severe unemployment. On May Day, the clandestine PPA organized demonstrations

Algerian nationalism and the war of independence.

Political mobilisation.

Between March and October 1954, the CRUA organised a military network in Algeria comprising six military regions (referred to at the time as "wilayat"; singular: "wilaya"). The leaders of these regions and their followers became known as the "internals". Ben Bella, Mohammed Khider, and Hocine Aït Ahmed formed the External Delegation in Cairo. Encouraged by i.e. Egypt's President Gamal Abdul Nasser (r. 1954–71), their role was to gain foreign support for the rebellion and to acquire arms, supplies, and funds for the wilaya commanders. In October the CRUA renamed itself the National Liberation Front ("Front de Libération Nationale", FLN), which assumed responsibility for the political direction of the revolution. The National Liberation Army ("Armée de Libération Nationale", ALN), the

Defining the nation.

The many and versatile events of the war of liberation in Algeria (see Algerian war) between 1954 - 1962, one of the longest and bloodiest decolonisation struggles, have in different ways shaped past and present ideas about the Algerian nation. Both warring parties resorted extensively to violence, and the collective memory of torture during the Algerian war of Independence still lingers heavily on the national identity of Algeria.  The FLN was

The dissonant role of the Woman in Algerian nationalism.

Women played a major yet diverse role in the war of independence in Algeria (see Women in the Algerian War), as physical participants but also as symbolic contestation. The war could in one way be seen as a battle to win hearts and minds of the people, and the body and idea of the Muslim woman was an arena of major confrontation between the French and the FLN. One the one hand, French rule was justified (as in many other conflicts and contexts) by pointing

FLN as the symbol of national liberation.

The Battle of Algiers (1956-57) was a phase of the war that could be described as militarily won by the French but politically won by FLN. The French strategy, led by Charles de Gaulle and General Maurice Challe, alienated the population and resulted in international condemnation of the brutality of the French method. The first time Algerians’ right to self-determination was recognised was in a speech by de Gaule on

Evolution of Algerian nationalism after independence.

In 1963, the Nationality law defined Algerianness on the basis of ethno-cultural terms, which meant that on paper, someone's participation in the war of independence was the signifier of their nationality. This meant amongst many things that even Europeans who had fought on the Algerian side in the war could earn the right to become Algerians.

Algeria – Mecca of the revolutionaries.

In 1962, Ben Bella was after a turbulent couple of months named president of the independent Algeria, and drawing upon a largely mythical and invented past tried to ambitiously govern the post-colonial reality. The relationship between leaders and ordinary people was under the first years of independence a seemingly egalitarian one, building upon the social levelling present in Algerian nationalism even since Messali Hadj. Ben Bella contributed to the mapping of Algeria as a model country in the fight against colonial and imperial rule, and

Diverse 1970s and 80s.

During the 1970s and 80s, much happened in the Algerian society. Early on, Boumedienne made efforts to strengthen the national image, independence from the outside world was emphasised and oil and gas was nationalised. Even though the idea of a collective independence remained present, multiple identities increasingly competed to patent what it was to be Algerian. The cultural battle between French, Berber and Arabic boomed - and the political elite favoured Arabisation

"Black Decade” and the tearing apart of the collective Algerian self.

In the shift from 1980 to 1990 the political culture in Algeria was steaming. Internationally, the communist eastern bloc had just fallen and Islamism was on the rise. Meanwhile, the country was ongoing democratisation and was planning its first multi party election, which the FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) seemed to win. In this context, polarisation bloomed, the political climate toughened and materialised in violence and it got increasingly hard to debate differences verbally. The situation culminated in the Algerian civil war between multiple Islamist groups and the military, who had taken control over the

Young generation and the fall of Bouteflika.

The current anti-Bouteflika demonstrations in Algeria (Manifestations de 2019 en Algérie or 2019 Algerian protests) were, especially in the beginning, extremely careful not to be identified with the Islamist civil war of the 1990s or with the Arab spring of early 2010. The protests have been enormous and reoccurred every Friday – but remained peaceful for a long time. Later protests have seen increased presence of the military, which has a long history of intervening in Algerian politics.  Some important symbols stemming from earlier times of Algerian history have however appeared

Algerianism.

The term Algerianism has had two meanings in history, one during the French colonial era, and another one after the independence of Algeria.  During the French era, "algérianisme" was a literary genre with political overtones, born among French Algerian writers (see "Algerian literature") who hoped for a common Algerian future culture, uniting French settlers and native Algerians. The term "algérianiste" was used for the first time in a 1911 novel by Robert Randau, "Les Algérianistes". A "Cercle algérianiste" was created in France in 1973 by Pieds-Noirs, with several local chapters. It has for "purpose to safeguard the cultural heritage born from the French presence in Algeria."  In Algerian contemporary politics, "algerianist" is a political label given to Algerian nationalists whose policies focus more on the unity of Algeria's nation-state beyond regional idiosyncrasies.  The modern Arabic language actually has two distinct words which can be translated into English as "nationalism": "qawmiyya" قومية, derived from the word "qawm" (meaning "tribe, ethnic nationality"), and "wataniyya" وطنية, derived from the word "watan" (meaning "homeland, native country"). The word "qawmiyya" has been used to refer to pan-Arab nationalism, while "wataniyya" has been used to refer to patriotism at a more local level (sometimes disparaged as "regionalism" by those who consider pan-Arabism the only true form of Arab nationalism). Algerianism is the Algerian patriotism, against pan-Arabist nationalism and different forms of regionalisms.

Algerian nationalism has been shaped by Algerian-French dichotomies; tensions between the French, the Berber and the Arabic language and culture; socialist as well as Islamic ideologies; and gendered symbols of nationhood—and continues to evolve in the present manifestations taking place in Algeria. It was inspired by people such as Ben Badis and Djamila Bouhired who were two of the many opposing French colonial rule in Algeria.


Personal life.

Hernández was born in Castro, Chile on 1 December 1984. She spent her childhood years in the Chiloé Island, the second-largest island in South America. The youngest of three children, her father died when she was young. She was raised by her mother, Yorki Escobar.  Hernández studied tourism and took up modelling, then advanced her studies in Journalism. She once spent a month working as a model in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen. After that, she lived in Santiago, the capital of Chile.  She enjoys outdoor recreations such as cycling, jogging, and volleyball to maintain her figure, but not fascinated with heavy machines in the gym. She admires Oprah Winfrey and Tyra Banks and intends to be a broadcast journalist or a talk show host.

Pageantry.

Before Miss Earth.

In 2004, she represented Chile in Miss Model of the World (Semifinalist) and South American Queen 2004. She also took part in Miss World Chile 2003 (Finalist) and Miss Earth Chile 2004 (First Runner-up). A year after, she competed in Miss Earth Chile for the second time and won the title Miss Earth Chile 2005. She succeeded Nataly Chilet Miss Earth Chile 2004, who was a top eight finalist at the Miss Earth 2005 pageant.  These contests gave her the experience and path to be crowned Miss Earth 2006, the third most important international beauty pageant after Miss Universe and Miss World.

Miss Earth 2006.

In the 6th edition of Miss Earth beauty pageant, Hernández was declared the winner of Miss Earth 2006 that took place on 26 November 2006 in the grounds of the National Museum in Manila, Philippines. She beat eighty-one other delegates from other countries. She had a moment of confusion during the announcement of the winners and did not immediately realized that she won the grand title of the pageant. She stood beside Miss India (Amruta Patki) who was called first and then she was called second, but she did not remember how the order in which they were to name the grand winner. She recalled: "I congratulated her (Miss India) and then she told me that I was the grand winner and only then I realized what was happening. I was very happy with the first four places, then being the winner was just out of surprise."  Hernández was supposed the host delegate since the event was originally slated to be held in Santiago, Chile on 15 November 2006, but organizers missed the deadline for the event setup, therefore Miss Earth was moved to the Philippines. In winning Miss Earth, she delivered the second major international beauty title to Chile, 19 years after Cecilia Bolocco won Miss Universe.

Media and Environmental activism.

Hernández arrived on 19 December 2006 in Santiago, Chile from Madrid, Spain and Buenos Aires, Argentina after she won Miss Earth 2006 in the Philippines. A press conference for her victory was immediately held at the press room of Santiago International Airport after nearly two months of her absence in Chile.  Accompanied by politician and Chile personality, Andrés Celis, she graced the opening ceremony and a glamorous cocktail of Festival de Viña del Mar, a musical event in South America, held on 19 February 2007 at the Casino de Viña del Mar.  She travelled to Singapore in April 2007 where she co-hosted the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) gala event, Champions of the Earth. She joined hands with students and teachers from Zhonghua Secondary School in Serangoon, Singapore to salvage young mangrove saplings from Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve’s mudflats. She also graced the Miss Earth China 2007 pageant. Hernández proceeded to the Philippines to partake in the Earth Day activities within Metro Manila. Together with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), she and Miss Earth Water 2006 Catherine Untalan took part in The Clean Air Campaign, as well as the promotion of the use of alternative fuel and recycling fairs in conjunction with other environmental groups.  Hernández returned to the Philippines in September 2007 and graced the different environmental events in Marikina City, starting off with waste segregation, visiting schools for the recycling campaign, and the launching of the waste water treatment system of Manila Water under the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System with Mayor Marides Fernando. She was one of the guest speakers at the Environment Month Symposium at Saint Paul College, Island Park, Dasmariñas, Cavite. She then assisted in the medical mission sponsored by Traders Hotel.  She participated in several environmental activities hosted by the Philippine Tourism Authority beginning with the celebration of International Coastal Clean-up Day event in Manila with Miss Philippines Earth 2007, Jeanne Angeles Harn as well as Catherine Untalan to the School Tour projects of the Miss Earth Foundation so-called “I Love My Planet Earth” in Manila and Rizal and other cities until the end of her reign in November 2007. The school tour was an educational project to teach grade school students to take care of the environment.  In October 2007, she went to the third International Travel Exposition in Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. She led the ribbon cutting, along with the tourism ministers from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, which participated by eleven countries and spoke at the conference, "Protecting the environment green and clean and the impact of environmental issues to the development of tourism". She also participated in a fund raising event for the victims of the tragedy in Hậu River, conducted environmental forum with members of the press, addressed issues on pollution brought about by millions of motorcycles, the basic mode of transportation in Vietnam, discussed the protection of natural wonder sites like the Halong Bay, planted commemorative trees, donated the amount of 50 million (Vietnamese đồng) to support the victims of the collapsed cable-stayed bridge Cần Thơ, promoted the development of sustainable tourism, conducted a motorcade around Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City to promote the use of helmet and encourage safe and friendly driving to prevent accidents amongst the motorists, and the introduction of alternative fuels for the improvement of mass transportation to help lessen the pollution. Hernández visited the Binh Tay- one of the oldest street market in HCM City where she was introduced to the architectural history of the street market, small business owners, and shopping center. Then, continued to visit Bến Thành Market, one of the tourist symbol of HCM City and attended the Vietravel Exchange to meet with Vietnamese companies and visitors. She was also a guest at the Gala Dinner at Vinpearl Resort & Spa with performances by artists of Vietnam like Ho Ngoc Ha, Hien Thuc, and Duc Tuan. She travelled back to Vietnam in November 2007 to attend the special competition of Miss Earth 2007.  During her reign as Miss Earth 2006, she had travelled to various places to call for environmental protection, along with the implementation of development environmental programs with the USAID, promoted the use of natural biofuels and educated the people to limit the use of fuels that pollute the environment. Aside from Spain, Argentina, Singapore, Vietnam, Philippines and her home country, Chile, she also travelled in other countries, such as Puerto Rico, Bolivia, Indonesia, Hong Kong, and China to promote environmental awareness and to grace the national pageants.  She graced the crowning of Miss Teen Chile 2008 in a ceremony at the Hyatt, Santiago, Chile in February 2008. A billboard poster which featured Hernandez, disappeared in March 2008, after it was ripped from the billboard in Whanganui, New Zealand. The thieves had damaged the bottom part of the board and removed the entire frame along with the poster. It was the first time a billboard poster had been taken in 30 years in Manawatū-Whanganui region.  She travelled in February 2009 to Talca, Chile and served as one of the celebrity judges in the Miss Pelarco pageant which attended by about two thousand people.  In addition to numerous trips around Chile, so far during her reign, Hernández had travelled to the Philippines, China, Puerto Rico, Bolivia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia, Spain, Laos, New Zealand, Cambodia, Hongkong, and Argentina to promote environmental awareness and to grace the national pageants.

External links.

Hil Yesenia Hernández Escobar (born December 1, 1984) is a Chilean journalist, model, environmentalist, and beauty queen who won Miss Earth 2006 pageant becoming the first Chilean to win the coveted crown.


Influences.

Counts graduated from Baker University in 1911 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He then became a high school principal, a science and math teacher, and an athletic coach before heading off to graduate school. While attending graduate school at the University of Chicago in 1913, Counts was influenced by John Dewey and Francis W. Parker. He planned on majoring in sociology until his brother-in-law encouraged him to go into education. Counts then decided he would major in education but minor in sociology and social science. During this time he was a student of Charles Hubbard Judd, a leading proponent of the science of education. It was uncommon during this time to combine a career in education with anything other than psychology. Counts took great pride in knowing he was Judd's first student to not minor in psychology. Counts earned a doctorate in education at the University of Chicago in 1916. His experience studying sociology under Albion W. Small during this period is attributed for encouraging Counts to concentrate on the sociological dimension of educational research.

Profession.

Early career.

Counts' first position was head of the Department of Education at Delaware College from 1916–1918, then as a professor at Harris Teachers College in 1918. Counts taught at the University of Washington in 1919, then Yale in 1920. Then, in 1926, he taught at the University of Chicago. In 1924 he published "The Principles of Education," (1924) with J. Crosby Chapman. During this period Counts favored Dewey's progressive education model of child-centered learning, and this book provided a broad overview of education from that perspective.  In 1926 Counts returned to the University of Chicago. The next year he began a remarkable tenure at Columbia University Teachers College. He remained here until he was forced to retire in 1955. In 1930 Counts wrote "American Road to Culture" a global perspective on education. In this book he identifies ten "controlling ideas" in U.S. education. He also talks about individual success, national solidarity, and philosophic uncertainty. Regarding this book's case about American schools, H. G. Wells said, "the complete ideological sterilization of the common schools of the Republic is demonstrated beyond question. The sterilization was deliberate."

"Dare the School Build a New Social Order?".

After publishing two comparative studies of the Soviet education system, "The New Russian Primer." (1931) and "The Soviet Challenge to America." (1931), Counts was invited to address to the Progressive Education Association. His papers, delivered over three separate speeches, formed the core of the book, "Dare the School Build a New Social Order?", published in 1932. Counts provides a clear examination of the cultural, social and political purposes of education, and proponents the deliberate examination and navigation of teaching for political purposes.  In his address Counts proposed that teachers "dare build a new social order" through a complex, but definitely possible, process. He explained that only through schooling could students be educated for a life in a world transformed by massive changes in science, industry, and technology. Counts insisted that responsible educators "cannot evade the responsibility of participating actively in the task of reconstituting the democratic tradition and of thus working positively toward a new society." Counts' address to the PEA and the subsequent publication put him in the forefront of the social reconstructionism movement in education.  Conservative educators attacked the premise of Counts' assertion, and progressive educators recoiled at his criticism of their practices. W. E. B. Du Bois issued a rebuttal to Counts' assertions that teachers were capable of building a "new social order". In 1935 he spoke to a Georgia African American teacher's convention, curtly discounting the nature of the education system today.

Later career.

Counts continued teaching at Columbia. Several of his students, including William Marvin Alexander, went on to notability in the field of education themselves. Counts retired in 1956.  From 1942 to 1944 Counts served as New York State chairman of the American Labor Party. In 1945 he established the Liberal Party in New York, he ran as its candidate for the United State Senate in 1952. Counts was the chairman of that party from 1955 to 1959. He was a member of the National Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union from 1940 to 1973, and was President of the American Federation of Teachers from 1939 to 1942.  Counts traveled to the Soviet Union several times in the course of his life, writing several books about Soviet education and comparing Soviet and American education systems. In the 1930s William Randolph Hearst used select statements from interviews with Counts to portray American university faculty as Communist Party sympathizers.  After retirement Counts served as a visiting professor at the University of Pittsburgh, Michigan State University and Southern Illinois University.

Legacy.

Counts' theories continue to draw support from modern educators.

Bibliography.

"The New Russian Primer" (1931) and "The Soviet Challenge to America" (1931) were Counts' first works, and "Dare the School Build a New Social Order?" (1932) is regarded as his seminal work. His other books include "The Social Foundations of Education" (1934); "The Prospects of American Democracy" (1938); "The Country of the Blind" (1949), and; "Education and American Civilization" (1952). He taught at Columbia University Teachers College for almost thirty years. His final publications included "Education and the Foundations of Human Freedom" (1952) and "School and Society in Chicago" (1971).

George Sylvester Counts (December 9, 1889 – November 10, 1974) was an American educator and influential education theorist. An early proponent of the progressive education movement of John Dewey, Counts became its leading critic affiliated with the school of Social reconstructionism in education. Counts is credited for influencing several subsequent theories, particularly critical pedagogy. Counts wrote dozens of important papers and 29 books about education. He was also highly active in politics as a leading advocate of teachers' unions, the head of the American Federation of Teachers, the founder of the New York State Liberal Party, and as a candidate for the U.S. Senate.


Gameplay.

The game play is almost identical to other titles in the series. The player takes control of the Vic Viper spacecraft tasked with destroying hordes of enemies. Various traditional elements of "Gradius" are present — the moai, an undefended final boss, and the upgrade power meter. The weapons system remained mostly unchanged as the configurations available are identical to "Gradius III", with the exception that the edit mode is missing. There are four different types of weapons configurations: Balanced, (traditional "Gradius") wide area ("Salamander") power, and air-to-ground. Each configuration is indicated by the color of Vic Viper. Unlike "Gradius III", there are only two shield options — shield and force field. In addition, the S. option ("snake option") is not present in this version; the player can however choose to have the computer assign weapon power-ups automatically or purchase upgrades manually.  The game's configuration allows the player to choose between three difficulty modes, with each mode consisting of three "loops" — progressively more difficult play-throughs that are unlocked as previous loops are cleared. The Japanese version further included a challenge game play mode that had to be unlocked by achieving a high score during a single play-through of the game's normal difficulty mode. Additional challenges could then by unlocked by completing other challenges. The challenge mode was absent from the U.S. and European releases due to the game being released in Japan several months later.

Reception.

The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. "Nintendo World Report" praised the game's awesomeness and said that "it could even be considered the GBA's "Ikaruga"." "IGN" praised the game's ability to save high scores directly to cartridge. In Japan, "Famitsu" gave it a score of 32 out of 40.

Gradius Advance is a horizontally scrolling shooter handheld video game developed by Mobile21 and published by Konami in 2001. It was released later in the same month in the United States as Gradius Galaxies and in 2002 in Japan as. It is the only "Gradius" title available for the Game Boy Advance. The game's plot is set between "Gradius III" and "Gradius Gaiden". Bacterion was developing a powerful weapon to use against the planet Gradius, but it was destroyed. A few years later it crashed on a planet and the planet gradually changed into a mechanical fortress. The planet Gradius then sent the "Vic Viper" to stop it.


Background.

The Moonshine Jungle Tour was officially announced on February 10, 2013, after Mars performance at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, by William Morris Endeavor (WME). Instead of announcing everything together and starting sales later in the same week, WME decided to reveal the shows in an unconventional way. Consequently, two days after the Grammy performance, the cities were unveiled. A few days later the dates and venues were announced. Finally, the tickets were made available two-and-a-half weeks after the cities were disclosed. A promotional trailer and behind-the-scenes footage of the tour were released through Mars' official YouTube channel and website to further promote the tour.  WME decided to price each market differently, with a total of four different price points. In most markets each ticket would cost US$62, while in bigger cities the tickets were between $130 and $140. However, in minor cities the tickets were cheaper and similarly priced. One aspect that received attention was the decision to sell the front seats prior to the back ones. If that did not occur, it would mean that the front seats were too expensive, but the tour did not suffer from this problem. Unlike the prior tour, where Mars performed in theaters and ballrooms, in January 2012 it was determines that the concerts would be in arenas. This decision was based upon his successful debut tour, not only based on the amount of sold-out concerts, but also due to his "dynamic performances." John Marx, an associate and personal manager at the music division of WME, explained, regarding the previous decision, that "analytics only give you so much...it has to do with what's in your gut and what you think." Since the beginning there were plans to schedule dates in the United Kingdom and Europe, a leg of the tour that took around two months to be completed. Concerts were also scheduled in Australia and New Zealand for early 2014, as well as at 40 stages in North America. In the end, more seats were added to venues due to overwhelmingly strong ticket sales. It was Mars' first world tour to not reach South America.  The tour was first scheduled to begin in February, having been booked a year in advance. Nevertheless, not only was the album "Unorthodox Jukebox" released later than expected, but many tours were already scheduled in the first quarter of the year. This led to the tour being delayed until the summer in North America. According to Marx, this and the previously mentioned unusual announcements contributed to the success of the tour. Notwithstanding, Marx has run successful tours with several artists during the first quarter of the year.

Development.

After the tour was confirmed, Mars and his band started preparing for it. His manager at the time, Brandon Creed, said that Mars was more focused and excited than nervous. He furthered that the singer spent most of his time rehearsing, preparing, directing, and choreographing everything. Commenting on the development, Creed said, "We're going into rehearsals now, so I don't have much to share, but it's going to be... incredible... it's hectic, but it's amazing... It's a thrill to work with an artist so talented." After evaluating the American Express and Citibank suggestions regarding a presale, WME decided not to pursue the idea with th agreement of Mars' management, a decision which ending up further promoting the tour. The idea was received with some skepticism within the team; some believed it was a good idea but most were reluctant and thought it was an awful idea, as buyers find presale a crucial element of tours. Cameron Duddy was chosen as the music director for the first leg of the North American tour.  Ellie Goulding and Fitz and the Tantrums were signed as the opening act for the first leg of tour in North American. Marx recollected that the team approached several agencies and asked for suggestions. In the end, Mars decided to pick Goulding, who was seen as someone who could assure sales. Marx was pleased with the tour development since everyone's efforts, from The Smeezingtons to the label Atlantic Records, benefited it. Despite having booked tours for acts such as Lady Gaga, Peter Gabriel, and Justin Timberlake, Marx said that booking this tour was among the most exhilarating experiences during his 37-year career. He added that the setup was "unique and special". The stage configuration would vary according to the sales, having three different configurations available before selling seats in over 180-degrees arcs from the stage. Nevertheless, due to the success, the expectation was to go "into 240-degrees" and further; they ended up by opening and selling 270-degrees arcs from the stage and consequently breaking records in several venues, but they did everything to assure that all seats were suitable to experience the show in the best way possible.

Rehearsals.

Mars and The Hooligans rehearsed for the tour in a Hollywood rehearsal studio. During an interview with "Rolling Stone", the author, Brian Hiatt got a glimpse of most of the set for the tour. He watched Mars croon with his tenor voice during the act "Don't it feel good, baby". Afterwards, the singer tried to get the nonexistent crowd, hyped "Does it feel good on the left side? What about the right side now?" During this rehearse Mars tried to make the track "Show Me" "move seamlessly" into "Our First Time". He was also not satisfied with the choreography of the band, as it looked to rehearsed and is not suppose to look that way.  At this point, Mars leaves the stage and tells The Hooligans to perform the moves as he watches from in front. He points out that the guitarist, Phred, is not doing the dance moves correctly. Mars decides not to include the choreography, due to the amount of time they are spending on it. Later, he tells the band to leave, joking "We'll change everything on Monday." Mars is aware of his yelling during rehearsals, stating "I always tell everybody that we finally get to enjoy all the hard work that we've done when we play and when we sing."

Light and sound.

Lighting director Dave Marcucci and lighting designer Cory FitzGerald assembled a system capable of producing the aesthetic of the show. Of particular note, FitzGerald created a backdrop wall, which could be programmed to show animations and video. The fixtures were all controlled by a large scale computerized lighting console system.  Mars and his bandmates used Sennheiser microphones and wireless receivers. Mars' monitor engineer James Berry was the influence behind selecting Sennheiser over other industry standards such as Shure after finding Sennheiser's sonic character paired well with Mars' voice. Derek Brenner, front-of-house engineer, tested several capsules and transmitter combinations.  Brener utilized three compressors giving Mars' vocals an appropriate tonality and level consistency, he also provided a smooth and reliable verb on them. He used compressors for kicks, snares, toms, keyboard, and drums, making them enhance their own sound and amplified the guitar and horns audio. Brener had some onboard verbs for snares, acoustic guitar, and horns to use in outdoor spaces. Berry used a DiGiCo console, for most of Mars' vocals, outputs, delay, "vocal rack" and loops. Moreover, he controlled the outputs and vocals from the loop.

Concert synopsis.

Shows during the first leg of North America opened either with Goulding or Fitz and the Tantrums performing their songs. The shows in Europe had Mayer Hawthorne as the opening act for Mars, while in Australia Miguel commenced the show. In January 2014, a second leg in North America was announced with Pharrell Williams or Aloe Blacc as the supporting acts. However, Williams left the tour due to scheduling conflicts after only opening two nights for Mars at the Madison Square Garden. He was replaced by Nico & Vinz. Fitz and the Tantrums and Williams were considered to be worthy performers. However, Miguel was only considered a satisfactory opening act. As they finished their performance, a giant black curtain with drawings of gold palm trees was placed in front of the stage. A voice-over pronounced, "Welcome to the Moonshine Jungle" and suddenly the drape vanished. The band – consisting of Phredley Brown (guitar); Jamareo Artis (bass); Eric Hernandez (drums); Kameron Whalum, Dwayne Dugger and James King (horns); Phillip Lawrence (backup vocals); John Fossit (keyboards) – and Mars came into focus, wearing matching red blazers, shirts with a cheetah, and gold chains. As soon as Mars reached the microphone the music started.  "Moonshine" opened the set with Mars and The Hooligans "executing a series of slick synchronized steps." During the performance of the first segment and its follow up, "Natalie," a "hyperkinetically catchy" "booty-shaker," a giant screen behind Mars displayed flashed images and sounds of wild animals, such as panthers, gorillas, and parrots who flapped their wings in slow motion. Taking a moment to invite the audience to dance and sing along with him to the Motown and soul-funk "Treasure," a giant disco ball descended from the roof reflecting dozens of bright gold lights and multi-colored laser lights flashed. The crowd responded enthusiastically to the music. The show also included several covers of songs by other artists mashed up with Mars' tracks. A cover of Barrett Strong's "Money (That's What I Want)" was mashed up with "Billionaire" and Aloe Blacc's "I Need a Dollar" as Mars and his band gyrated with the fans. Afterwards, the stage would be colored with red, yellow, and green lights during the "reggae jam" performance of "Show Me." He then performed a "90s R&B homage" along with "demure sexual come-ons" by covering Soul For Real's "Candy Rain" and Ginuwine's "Pony." The latter was blended into Mars' "Our First Time." In the latter's medleys, Mars would sing R. Kelly's "Ignition (Remix)" and Sister Nancy's "Bam Bam." These covers would vary between concerts and could also include Ghost Town DJs' "My Boo," Aaliyah's "Rock the Boat," "Every Little Step" by Bobby Brown, Mad Cobra's "Flex," and Lloyd's "Secret Admirer." "Marry You," the next track on the setlist, showed "pleading doo-wop accents." In some venues it was preceded by The Desires' "Let It Please Be You." It was followed by "If I Knew," during which Mars chose a woman from the audience so that he and The Hooligans could serenade her to see who could impress the girl more. The recording could be interpolated with "It Will Rain" or "Nothin' on You." The latter could also be played solely. "If I Knew" plunged low and slow at the end, before bursting into the "50s-era rock" dance track "Runaway Baby" as the fans "erupted" when the singer channeled The Isley Brothers' "little-bit-softer-now/little-bit-louder-now" routine. Mars closed the track "Young Girls" with the most vehement singing of the show, which also contained a portion of "Girls Just Want to Have Fun" by Cyndi Lauper. Later on, the stage was left only to Mars and to two keyboardists; Mars introduced the heartbreaking piano ballad "When I Was Your Man" to the audience by saying that it was the most difficult song to write and sing. In this song Mars showed his potent vocal range as fans loudly sang along with him. A piano solo led up to "Grenade," which began as a "superhero theme" only to be played as a dramatic "bolero" with a rock interpretation. The singer showed not only his guitar abilities during the solo created for the track but also his powerful vocals once more. Mars dedicated "Just the Way You Are" to the audience. It was played as an anthem, making the crowd sing along. At this point the performers left the stage and, as the fans shouted for an encore, Mars returned to play a drum solo, as he did during the Super Bowl performance, with some of James Brown's vocals sampled that led to the opening notes and first encore of the show, "Locked Out of Heaven," sung powerfully as golden confetti poured down on the audience.  The show closer, "Gorilla," was a "perfect, slightly naughty end to an all-ages gig where the boundaries were given a nudge," with laser lights, fireballs, confetti and fireworks blasting as Mars sung on an elevated platform. Throughout the tour various setlists were used. "The Lazy Song" was one of the highlights of the tour as the crowd sung along. It also contained a comedic interlude when Mars’ backup singer and songwriting partner, Phillip Lawrence, shouted the verse of the track "OMG this is great!" At this moment, the music stopped, Mars introduced Lawrence to the fans and asked if they wanted to hear the same line again. "Count On Me" was only sung once, in Jakarta.

Critical response.

The tour received generally positive reviews from critics. Mikael Wood of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the concert a rave review, affirming that Mars' energy never ran out and praising the "seemingly effortless precision" that made the performance about itself. Wood summarized, "The harder he played, the easier it appeared to get." Mike Wass of Idolator gave a positive review, as he witnessed Mars' "powerful" vocals and the band's "incredible musicianship." He highlighted Mars' "swoonworthy rendition" of "When I Was Your Man," the "rock interpretation" of "Grenade," and the Pharrell duet. Jason Lipshutz, a "Billboard" magazine writer, felt that one of the most stunning aspects of the concert was the catalog of number-one records left off the live show while still making it impressive. He said that Mars is a pop artist with the "whole package," comparing him to "an ace Pixar movie." Lipshutz ended his review stating that Mars was one of the best live performers at the given moment. "The Boston Globe"'s Sarah Rodman commented that the singer kept a high level of energy during the entire concert. She added, "much work, planning, and rehearsal went in to the show, but Mars made it look easy." Lillian Altman, writing for "The AU Review", felt that "the chemistry between the nine performers was phenomenal," since the band enjoyed performing together and dancing and interacting with the public. Altman confessed that it was the first time she was walking home "singing and dancing in the streets" after attending a concert or festival as she listened to Mars' tracks on her iPod.  "The Birmingham News" Mary Colurso complemented Mars' capacity to demonstrate "major charisma," his vocals, the band, and the dynamic atmosphere in the arena. Colurso commented that Mars might not have the most deep and breathtaking music, "but he certainly knows how to get the party started." Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" said that it was a "rare, thrilling, upside-down pop concert," because Mars did not try to recreate the gleam of his most successful tracks, instead he reshaped the songbook at his will, which Richards found amazing. The reviewer also mentioned the wide range of genres that Mars approached, including "Motown, new wave, late-’70s funk, and mid-’90s R&B" influenced by pop, which earned him various generations of admirers and fans. However, he criticized the singer for not claiming his own personality through all the "genre-jumping time travel" and for not adding the band name, The Hooligans, on the ticket. Jim Farber from the "New York Daily News" praised the concert as it tried to recreate 1970s era entertainment. The reviewer compared it to some acts of that period such as The Jacksons, The Tramps, and The Bee Gees. He compared the "purity, cream and range" of Mars' voice to "mid-period Michael Jackson." Farber regarded both Mars and Jackson as "pure entertainers." He noted that "it hardly seemed to matter that the show wasn’t big on risk or depth."  John Serba of Booth Newspapers said that Mars lacks "the commanding presence of a superstar;" in contrast, he gives nothing but consistency. Serba highlighted the production, which he found outstanding and diverse. Robert Copsey from Digital Spy thought the concert had avoidably "long breakdowns and interludes." Fortunately, Mars' band added energy to those. Copsey considered it a small imperfection "in an otherwise stunning performance" from a singer who was just commencing his tours and shows. "The New Zealand Herald" Bridget Jones dubbed the singer a "showman," as he was not only able to write a "catchy pop song and sing it impressively," but he also gave a pageant. Nevertheless, and considering his showmanship and prestige in the industry at this point, Jones disapproved of the "comedic set pieces" that were brought from the previous tour. Every critic noticed and praised Mars' drumming and guitar solos, but also the special effects.

Accolades.

The Moonshine Jungle Tour was nominated for three Pollstar Awards, Most Creative Stage Production and Major Tour of the Year in 2013, and "Major Tour of the Year" again in 2014. In 2013, the tour led Mars to be nominated for Breakthrough and Eventful Fans' Choice categories at the Billboard Touring Conference and Awards, the Moonshine Jungle Tour was also nominated for Choice Summer Tour at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards.

Commercial performance.

As soon as the tour was announced and in order to assure tickets were not over-priced, five cities were used as a "test." The result was promising as a minimum of 7,000 tickets sold per city. Such results could be due to the "huge success" of "Locked out of Heaven" and the Grammy performance. Despite the fact that these two factors could spike sales, in Mars' case "everything was very consistent." Eventually, most of the dates were sold out in North America. This high demand led to an announcement of more dates in several cities despite having chosen 44 dates to begin with, which, according to Marx, was "ambitious," since tours that go above 24 dates can result in a drop in sales. There were three main factors involved in scheduling dates: research of the market, optimism on what they thought they could sell, and how they opened up the arenas. A second date in Chicago could have been done, however they booked a date in Minneapolis, which culminated in a sold out show. In Los Angeles, some shows coincided with the Jay Z and Justin Timberlake concerts. Furthermore, the tickets for Mars' show were only available one week after the Jay Z/Justin Timberlake tickets went on sale. Nevertheless, after the first sold out date in the city, a second date was scheduled and immediately sold out as well. Marx said that more dates could have been sold out in L.A, since they left at least 20,000 people in a "virtual waiting room" who could have bought tickets. All in all, and according to Marx, the team at WME was pleased with having sold 30,000 tickets, and decided to stop there.  Moreover, in Toronto there was a hold on the second date, but they ended up by re-launching and putting it on sale with 30,000 tickets being sold there. In Denver the first date was at Pepsi Center, though the arena was considered inadequate, therefore a second show was set at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre, which was chosen by the AEG team. Both shows were sold out in that day, with 18,000 tickets purchased. The only city where all the tickets were not sold was St. Louis at the Scottrade Center, since its capacity was increased to 16,000 and sold 14,000. However, "Billboard" reported 44 dates sold out of 48, totaling approximately 666,926 people and a gross of $46,417,795 after the conclusion of the first leg in North America. In Australia the concerts were scheduled for February 2014, tickets went on sale in April 2013, and by September 80% of the shows were sold out, including two dates in Sidney and in Melbourne, in arenas of 14,000 to 15,000 capacity. The total revenue was above $1 million per night in ticket sales. At that time nine dates were on sale and more were added. In New Zealand, Mars broke Vector Arena's house attendance record for a concert in "end stage" mode, with 12,142 people in attendance. The record in New Zealand contributed to a successful tour in Oceania with 10 sold out arenas and a total attendance over 130,000. Overall, the Moonshine Jungle Tour was reported to have grossed over $156.4 million, with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of $136 million.

Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show and Bruno Mars act.

After the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show, which featured Mars as the headline act and the Red Hot Chili Peppers as the special guests, tickets for Mars' second North American tour were in high demand. He became the fastest entertainer to sell out three concerts at the Blaisdell Arena in Hawaii. Since the morning of February 3, 2014, many shows were sold out and only a few tickets were available on the primary market, and the average price of a ticket was around $500 on the secondary market. Ticketmaster also struggled to keep up with demand, having to switch from their interactive seating maps for most events. The price for tickets on the primary market ranged from $49 to $100, however in bigger cities the price was between $70 and $181. On the secondary market, tickets for big venues had a wider price range of $150 to $600. At these prices, Mars' tour ranked among the most expensive in the U.S. during the summer of 2014, ahead of One Direction and Jason Aldean shows, which had the highest prices for an American tour in the same period. Two months after the Super Bowl, 27 of the 48 dates booked for the second leg in North America were sold out on the primary market. The only tickets left for those shows were available on the secondary market for a lower price than after the game. Nevertheless, the tour became one of the most expensive of 2014 due to the latter market.  Due to the huge tickets reselling activities that occurred during the week after the Super Bowl, and in order to limit that kind of profiteering, in February 2014 Hawaii Senate President Donna Mercado Kim introduced Senate Resolution 12, also known as the "Bruno Mars Act." It limits all ticket purchases within 48 hours of the on-sale to the physical box office, therefore ensuring that anyone who goes to the box office to buy tickets for a concert will get one, dissuading ticket scalping. The State Senate in Hawaii passed the law. However, the bill died at the conference committee.

Personnel.

Credits adapted from several sources: The Hooligans  Production  Management

The Moonshine Jungle Tour was the third concert tour by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars. The tour supported his second studio album, "Unorthodox Jukebox" (2012). After an official announcement on February 10, 2013, which coincided with Mars' performance at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, a promotional trailer and behind-the-scenes footage of the tour were released through Mars' official YouTube channel and website. Mars and his team selected Ellie Goulding and Fitz and the Tantrums as the opening acts for the first North American leg, while music video director Cameron Duddy was signed as creative director for the tour in North America. In Europe and Oceania, Mayer Hawthorne and Miguel, respectively, were selected to open the shows.


Ingroup vs. outgroup in meta-stereotyping.

The ingroup vs. outgroup phenomenon, originally described by sociology and social psychology, has been closely tied to human stereotyping and meta-stereotyping tendencies. While "ingroup" is commonly defined as a social group to which an individual belongs, the "outgroup" is a social group with which the individual does not identify. The criteria for group membership include but are not limited to one's race, culture, nationality, ethnicity, age, gender, religion, and sexual orientation.  The tendency to favor one's own social group is called an ingroup bias, and it can be both explicit (conscious and controllable) and implicit (unconscious and instinctual). The realistic conflict theory, social identity theory, and optimal distinctiveness theory aim to explain the ingroup bias and its possible negative impacts on the outgroups. Favoritism of one’s own group does not always lead to discrimination of and hostility towards outgroups. However, racial prejudice was found to be closely related to the development of social cognition in children around the age of 5 years.  Social projection, which is a tendency to attribute one’s own feelings and attitudes to others, is also important for understanding how the ingroup vs. outgroup phenomenon relates to meta-stereotyping. Humans tend to project and share their own social attitudes to the other members of the ingroup. For example, members of a dominant Australian group who held more negative attitudes toward members of a low status Australian group perceived greater ingroup agreement and support for their attitudes.  Social projection is important for understanding of the role of ingroup vs. outgroup in meta-stereotyping. Tajfel (1981) stated that "no social group is an island", and, therefore, it is likely that members of a particular group are aware of the opinions other groups held about them (e.g. the members of punk subculture may believe that the dominant non-punk culture perceives them as rioters). When an ingroup believes that the outgroup perceives the members of the ingroup negatively, it can reversely increase the negative stereotypes, prejudice, and hostility about the outgroup. For example, a dominant group of White Canadians held negative stereotypes about a lower status group of Aboriginal Canadians when the dominant white group thought that the lower status Aboriginal group held negative feelings towards them. Such behavior is traditionally called "outgroup meta-prejudice".  "Ingroup meta-prejudice" also exists, and it describes the way the individual members of the ingroup understand the ingroup’s collective stereotypes about a particular outgroup. For example, individuals belonging to Indonesian Sunni Muslim group held negative stereotypes about the way their own group perceived two outgroups; Ahmadiyya and Christians. Interestingly, research indicates that that ingroup meta-prejudice can mediate the effects of outgroup meta-prejudice on prejudice (i.e. ingroup members’ beliefs about the way the ingroup perceives the outgroup can influence the stereotypes and the meta-stereotypes about the outgroup held by the ingroup). For example, a member of a biker group may believe that his group of bikers thinks that outsiders perceive them as criminals. Such interaction between ingroup and outgroup meta-prejudice can strengthen prejudice and stereotypes in an individual.  Furthermore, ingroup members may attempt to modify the perceived stereotype held by the outgroup about the ingroup (i.e. meta-stereotype) to their advantage by confirming the positive traits and disconfirming the negative ones. For example, a group of undergraduate Belgian students (ingroup) were more likely to confirm self-identified meta-stereotypical traits about the Belgian population in front of a French audience (outgroup) when the trait was positive and disconfirm it when it was negative. Such attempts to present the ingroup in a more favorable light was not present when the audience was Belgian (ingroup).  Meta-stereotypes can have positive effects on the interaction between the ingroup and outgroup as well. Italian students (ingroup) were found to experience more enjoyment from expected interaction with African immigrants (outgroup) when informed that the outgroup perceives them positively. Members of minority (ingroup) who endorsed a high-dependency meta-stereotype (i.e. belief that the ingroup is dependent on the outgroup) also tend to seek more help from the outgroup, even if help-seeking reversely confirms the dependency meta-stereotype

Effects of meta-stereotypes on the individual.

The holding of certain types of meta-stereotypes has been shown to have adverse effects. For example, people who are exposed to negative meta-stereotypes about their own group tend to have lower identification with their ingroup, and that individuals may avoid seeking needed help if by doing so they may confirm negative stereotype of their group.  Other studies have shown that individuals facing meta-stereotypes tend to feel more anxious interacting with members who were not from their own racial group, and that individuals who identified negative meta-stereotypes tended to be angrier and have fewer positive attitudes towards the outgroup. Meta-stereotypes have also been associated with lower anticipated enjoyment in intergroup interactions, higher levels of anxiety in interracial conversations, and negative racial attitudes.  Meta-stereotypes have also been linked to negative effects in the workplace. Meta-stereotypes were linked to lower employability beliefs for stigmatized groups. For example, women and minorities in the workplace showed increase self-doubt, lower self-esteem, and undermined attitudes towards their ability to obtain a job. Research has also shown that meta-stereotypes affect older age individuals. Due to meta-stereotypes about age, older workers were found to perceive less work opportunities, which leads to a greater desire to retire. In general, negative meta-stereotyping is associated with more negative individual self-view.  Awareness and endorsement of meta-stereotypes have been linked to negative effects on the individual. Research supported that awareness of negative meta-stereotypes was both directly and indirectly linked to poorer health and increased alcohol use. The research revealed that being aware that others held negative stereotypes about an individual’s race, helped predict negative mental health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, and hostility. This in turn predicted reduced self-care behaviors and increased the use of drugs and alcohol for coping. Embracing meta-stereotypes have also been linked to negative effects in black women. Black women who endorsed the meta-stereotypes were more susceptible to engage in risky sexual behaviors binge drinking, and marijuana use.

Meta-stereotypes across different populations.

Minorities.

When majority members of a population felt that the minority members wanted to seek contact with them, their meta-stereotypes about themselves were more positive and that led to them having more positive attitudes about the minority group.  The collectivistic meta-stereotype of Asians may lead them to think that they need to be more of an individual. This self-perceived notion of individuation may lead to tension with their culture and a continuation of their stereotype to relieve this tension.  White Americans may hold the meta-stereotype that Black Americans perceive them negatively. The majority of Black Americans surveyed believed that White Americans think Black Americans are more likely to commit violent crimes, are better athletes, are less intelligent, would rather live off welfare than work, have low moral standards, are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol, are always whining about racism, are lazy, have no self-discipline, and are religious. These meta-stereotypes are perceived at a higher rate by Black Americans than the rate at which White Americans actually report believing these stereotypes.  Another example of meta-stereotypes can be found between Aboriginal and White Canadians. Aboriginal Canadians perceive White Canadians as egocentric, lacking feeling, prejudice, ambitious, and high status. Conversely, White Canadian’s meta-stereotype of Aboriginals was perceived as lazy, rebellious, lacking ambition, low status, unscientific in nature, and unsociable.

Age.

Younger people hold meta-stereotypes that older people think they are lazy and unmotivated, irresponsible, unreliable, inexperienced and add no value. Older people hold meta-stereotypes that younger people think they are boring, stubborn, and grumpy. These results are not representative of what young people actually think of older people.

Gender.

Men and women typically hold meta-stereotypes about the opposite genders. For example, meta-stereotypes held by men about women include women being affectionate, artificial, attentive, attractive, bad-drivers, bitchy, controlling, fearful, feminine, fussy, gentle, giving, gossipy, insecure, intuitive, moody, multitaskers, nagging, organized, sensitive, shy, soft-hearted, sweet, timid, understanding.

Religion.

Between non-believers and believers, the meta-stereotype about non-believers is being immoral (low in altruism and honesty) and high in extraversion. Non-believers also tend to exaggerate their differences on the topic of meta-stereotypes. Believers that hold strong ingroup bias feel that non-believers see them as dogmatic and dishonest.

In social psychology, a metastereotype (or meta-stereotype) is a stereotype that members of one group have about the way in which they are stereotypically viewed by members of another group. In other words, it is a stereotype about a stereotype. They have been shown to have adverse effects on individuals that hold them, including on their levels of anxiety in interracial conversations. Meta-stereotypes held by African Americans regarding the stereotypes White Americans have about them have been found to be largely both negative and accurate. People portray meta-stereotypes of their ingroup more positively when talking to a member of an outgroup than to a fellow member of their ingroup.


Club career.

Negeri Sembilan.

Aidil Zafuan began his career with Negeri Sembilan youth team. He has represented his hometown, Negeri Sembilan at 2004 Sukma Games. He has helped his side to win the gold medal during the tournament that took place at the Tuanku Abdul Rahman Stadium, Seremban. For 2005-06 season, he has been promoted to the first team after his convincing during the SUKMA Games. During his season debut, Negeri Sembilan has won their first Malaysia Super League title.

Malaysian Armed Forces.

Aidil has signed a contract with Malaysia Premier League side Malaysian Armed Forces for the 2012 Malaysia Premier League season. He has helped his side to clinch the Malaysia Premier League title in 2012.

Johor Darul Ta'zim (formerly known as Darul Takzim).

For 2013 season, Zafuan joined the rebranded club Darul Takzim FC along with his twin brother.

International career.

Youth.

Aidil has represented Malaysia since he was 14 years old. He is very experienced in international youth arena. He played for the Malaysia U-20 side on two AFC Youth Championship on 2004 in Malaysia as Malaysia reached the quarter finals but was defeated by China. At the AFC Youth Championship in India, he was chosen as the captain of the team. Malaysia failed to win all three matches and only managed to score 9 goal and conceding 7 goals.

Under-23.

Aidil started representing the Malaysia U-23 squad during 2008 Olympic Games qualifier. He continued to represent Malaysia in the 2007 Merdeka Tournament that held in Shah Alam and Petaling Jaya and managed to win the Merdeka Tournament after defeating Myanmar 3:1. He then represented Malaysia in the South East Asia Games held in Thailand. However, Malaysia failed to advance into the semi finals after drawing against rivals Singapore.

Senior.

Aidil made his debut on 18 July 2007 against Cambodia. He also scored his first international goal in his debut against Cambodia. He then became one of the players from the under-23 side who were selected into Malaysia 2007 AFC Asian Cup squad. He only made his appearance on the last game against Iran where Malaysia lost 0–2.  Aidil received his first red card in international duty during the World Cup qualifier second leg against Bahrain. As a result, he was banned by FIFA from taking part in international match for three games.  He also represented the Malaysia XI (represent Malaysia for B match) squad against Chelsea F.C. at Shah Alam Stadium on 29 July 2008. The Malaysia XI eventually lost 0–2. However, Chelsea coach Luiz Felipe Scolari praise the Malaysia XI for giving a good fight against his team.  On July 12, 2016, Aidil with 71 international caps announced his retirement from international football via his football club's website and its Facebook page. He made a return in 2017 and was part of Malaysia's 2018 AFF Suzuki Cup squad earning 82 international caps during the tournament. In 2019, he earned his 83rd international caps against Sri Lanka.

Personal life.

Aidil married actress Rita Rudaini in 2009. They had 2 children before the couple divorced in 2014. Aidil then married Zarema Zainal in the same year.

Honours.

Club.

Negeri Sembilan  Malaysian Armed Forces  Johor Darul Ta'zim

International.

Malaysia U-23  Malaysia

Mohamad Aidil Zafuan bin Abd. Radzak (born 3 August 1987) is a Malaysian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Malaysia Super League club Johor Darul Ta'zim and the Malaysia national.


Sizing and deployment.

Snow socks are sold in pairs and come in sizes that are specific to a range of tire codes. Snow sock sizes are available for different motor vehicle classes, but most snow sock brands focus on cars and pickup trucks rather than semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles. Since the largest variation of snow socks is in the market for cars and pickup trucks, wide or low-profile tires are often covered. Buses, semi-trailer trucks or larger vehicles require snow sock models that can support the heavier axle load and larger wheel dimensions. Some brands also offer snow socks for specialized vehicles such as forklifts or airport ground support equipment (e.g. pushback tugs or loaders).  Driving with snow socks usually reduces the maximum allowable speed to between and depending on the snow sock brand, snow sock size and vehicle class. These restrictions are normally stated in the product's or vehicle's owner’s manual. Neither snow socks nor snow chains are considered direct substitutes to snow tires.

Legality of use.

During inclement weather, regions may invoke snow chain laws as a precautionary measure. Snow socks are generally not considered a legal equivalent to snow chains, though some brands are individually approved.  If snow chains are prohibited, snow socks without metal components may be permitted. This depends on local legislature.

Textile snow socks.

This is a cover in textile that covers the tire and insulates the tire from snow. They do not disturb safety systems (ABS, ESP) or damage aluminum rims.  One important component is polyester. The fibres absorb the water and improves grip. They have been used safely up to.

Snow socks made of composite materials.

Michelin manufactures a composite snow sock called Easy Grip. It is coupled with an inner elastic band to facilitate installation. To strengthen the tread and maximise road holding there are 150 galvanised steel rings.

Benefits of snow socks.

Snow socks offer added benefit in that they do not disturb the safety systems on a vehicle such as ESP or ABS. Snow socks with a high polyester count absorb more surface water from the road improving grip and allowing driving at speeds up to.

Snow socks (also known as tire socks or auto socks) are textile alternatives to snow chains. Snow sock devices wrap around the tires of a vehicle to increase traction on snow and ice. Snow socks are normally composed of a woven fabric with an elastomer attached to the inner and/or outer edge. The woven fabric covers the tire tread and is the contact point between the vehicle and the road. The elastomer keeps the snow sock in place and facilitates with installation. Some snow sock models have an additional component that covers the rim of the tire, which prevents snow or debris from gathering between the tread of the tire and the inner side of the woven fabric. When winter tires aren’t enough, snow socks help to enhance the grip on snowy roads.


Early life.

Alemu was born in the Zenebework area of Addis Ababa. Her parents worked at a local hospital. Alemu attended public primary and secondary schools, and then went on to study accounting at Unity University, graduating in 2004.

Business ventures.

In early 2005, Alemu founded soleRebels to provide ecologically and economically sustainable jobs for her community.

History.

The company began out of a workshop on a plot of land owned by Alemu's grandmother in Zenebework.  SoleRebels has flourished, growing to one hundred employees, with distribution to thirty countries worldwide, selling to market kingmakers Whole Foods, Urban Outfitters and Amazon. Franchised and company-owned stores were planned to open in Austria, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the UK. Alemu wanted to create well-paid jobs which could create prosperity using the artisan talents and natural resources of Ethiopia. The selection of footwear as the launch product for the company came later. Alemu was inspired by the seleate or barabasso, the traditional recycled tire sole shoe crafted in Ethiopia, and footwear became the locus around which she chose to build the company.  In 2016 the company sold 125,000 pairs of shoes and it had created 1,200 jobs. In 2014, Alemu announced a new business venture, The Republic of Leather, via a blog post on the soleRebels website. Alemu identified the luxury leather goods industry as being "ripe for a total re-imagining," along similar lines to what she had accomplished with soleRebels and the footwear industry. Besides espousing the same ideals of ecological and economic sustainability as soleRebels, The Republic of Leather is centered on principles of customer choice—customer choice of design, producer and receiving charity of 5% of the price they pay.  In 2017, "Garden of Coffee" was added to her companies. It begins with outlets in Addis Ababa.

Philosophy.

Alemu seeks to challenge the traditional narrative about Africa and in particular, Ethiopia, "countering the shibboleth that Africa and Africans don't know how to create their way to prosperity." Alemu believes Ethiopians must wrest control of their own narrative from the "people and elites with a vested interest in positioning Ethiopia as 'needing help' and specifically needing the 'help' they happen to be offering," as Alemu explained in an interview with "The Next Woman". The global success of companies like soleRebels helps to dispel these old narratives and allows for Ethiopians to shape their own international image.

Bethlehem Tilahun Alemu (born 1980) is an Ethiopian business woman, founder and executive director of soleRebels, Africa's "fastest growing footwear company". Alemu has received honors and accolades for her business acumen, as well as her efforts to shift the discourse on Africa away from poverty to the continent's entrepreneurial spirit, social capital, and economic potential. Alemu launched "The Republic of Leather", designing sustainable luxury leather goods, and "Garden of Coffee" retail outlets to promote Ethiopian coffees.


Background.

In January 2006, a sampler was released containing full versions of "Be Easy," "Back Like That," and "Kilo," as well as shortened versions of "Big Girl" and "Charlie Brown". It also included an alternate version of "The Champ". "Charlie Brown," which was produced by MF Doom, contained a sample from Caetano Veloso's "Alfomega" that did not ultimately receive clearance, and the song did not appear on the final album. Similarly, "The Champ" was not cleared and an altered version found its way on to the album.  J Dilla created his two productions for Ghostface, but also used them on his instrumental album "Donuts"; MF Doom's productions are taken from his "Special Herbs" series of albums.

Critical reception.

Upon its release, "Fishscale" received universal acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 88, based on 32 reviews. Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" called it a crack-trade "trend record that ranks with any Biggie or Wu CD". He found Ghostface Killah's stories to be as "vivid, brutal, and thought-out as any noir" and felt that the music features "a powerfully souled and sampled Clan-type groove" and a "screeching intensity" similar to Public Enemy's 1988 album "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back". Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Raymond Fiore said that "he may not be reinventing himself with "Fishscale", but as a must-hear street storyteller, Ghostface Killah's still at the top of his game." Matt Barone from "XXL" wrote that, "with a few forced collaborations being its only flaw, "Fishscale" is Ghost’s most addictive dosage post "Supreme Clientele". Packed with vivid street tales, comic relief and straight spittin’, the album continues his standard of excellence."  Steve Jones from "USA Today" wrote that "Ghostface takes a timeworn hip-hop theme — dealing cocaine, and creates a riveting listening experience. He doesn't so much deliver rhymes as narrate graphically detailed scenes, rife with violence, passion and a little humor." AllMusic writer Andy Kellman wrote in his review "...Ghost responds by pouring all that he has, both lyrically and vocally, into every track on the album. The scenarios he recounts are as detailed and off-the-wall as ever, elaborate screenplays laid out with a vocal style that's ceaselessly fluid and never abrasive." In "Q", Ted Kessler wrote, "Rappers rarely improve with age, but Wu-Tang Clan veteran Ghostface is the exception... Whether Ghostface's explaining how to cook crack on 'Kilo', how he likes his hair cut on 'Barbershop', or how he came to swim with 'SpongeBob in a Bentley Coupe' on 'Underwater', he remains rap's finest storyteller." In his review for "The A.V. Club", Nathan Rabin wrote:

Accolades.

"Fishscale" was ranked as one of the best albums of the year by many famous publishers. It also appeared on several lists for best albums of the decade, with" Stylus Magazine" ranking it number eleven. "Uncut" ranked it number 62 on their 150 Best Albums of the 2000s, while "Pitchfork" ranked it number 75 on their Top 200 Albums of the 2000s, stating "History will remember "Fishscale" as Ghostface's "Magical Mystery Tour": an artist convinced of his own genius empties every chamber on a batshit, pseudo-conceptual headtrip." In 2009, Rhapsody ranked the album at number nine on its "Hip-Hop’s Best Albums of the Decade" list. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".

Fishscale is the fifth studio album by American rapper and Wu-Tang Clan member Ghostface Killah, released March 28, 2006 on Def Jam in the United States. The album features guest appearances from every member of the Wu-Tang Clan, as well as Ghostface Killah's Theodore Unit. It also features production from several acclaimed producers, such as MF Doom, Pete Rock, J Dilla, and Just Blaze, among others. The album follows an organized crime theme, and is named after a term for uncut cocaine.


Origin.

He was the sixth son of Lý Anh Tông. His mother was Đỗ Thụy Châu who later became Empress Dowager Đỗ. He was born Lý Long Cán (or Trát) on May 25, 1173 according to the Eastern calendar. He was enthroned when he was very young, at the age of three, as one of the youngest Emperors in Vietnam's history. Prior to this, his predecessor Emperor Lý Anh Tông disposed the former Crown Prince Long Xưởng and replaced Prince Cán with this title. Tô Hiến Thành was trusted to become the regent to help the young Emperor run the court and administer his nation. It is often noted that his age and inexperience proved to be a minimal disadvantage in his ability to govern.

Regent Tô Hiến Thành.

Tô Hiến Thành was considered a talent and competent official when he was conferred the title Regent. After the death of Anh Tông, his uppermost consort (now became Empress Dowager Chiêu Linh) wanted to dethrone her son Long Xưởng, who was the former Crown Prince. But thanks to Tô Hiến Thành's peremptoriness, Cán eventually became the successor of the throne.  Tô Hiến Thành fell ill not long after. At death's door, he recommended Empress Dowager Đỗ an official named Trần Trung Tá. She said a good word for his recommendation but it was merely something to please the dying people. After he died in 1179, she chose Đỗ An Di to become the Regent for her son.  In 1181, Lý Long Xưởng led his army in a mutiny and looted the capital. One year later, Empress Dowager Đỗ appointed Lý Kính Tu to teach her son. He was a capable official tutoring the young emperor in literature and morality. Thereafter, Empress Dowager Chiêu Linh and his son gave up the plot to mutiny.

Epicurean Emperor.

The Emperor was meek and lenient while young, but after he grew and directly administered his reign, he became more and more cruel and sent the nation into turmoil. He loved to hunt and built himself large palaces at his people's expense. The codes and rules of his reign were obscure and immoral, leading the people to conflict with the local administration and rebel from the injustice and drudgery. At worst, they devastated buildings and looted villages.  In March 1189, Cao Tông took a trip around the nation and built pagoda or temples wherever a deity or spirit was said to reside. Nine years later, he built Nghênh Thiềm palace. The apex of his indulgence was in 1203, when he had numerous palaces built. By 1208, there were multiple famines and many people died of starvation. Despite the state of his country, the Emperor continued to indulge in pleasure and personal building projects.  An official named Cao Đường Long observed a strange-bird nesting on the roof of the unfinished palace Kính Thiên (means Respecting the Heaven) and predicted that a new and more powerful dynasty would soon supersede the current dynasty. He advised the Emperor to stop the injurious building projects, but the Emperor ignored him and instead listened to a eunuch named Phạm Bỉnh Di. The Emperor also ignored the looting and robberies outside the citadel.

Turbulent era.

Some rebellions.

At that time, the affairs of the state were abandoned. Civil belief was replaced by disgust. Many revolts and secessions exploded amongst the peasantry and small local nobles. The court tried to suppress the rebellions, but it was to no actual effect.  In 1192, the civilians from Cổ Hoằng, Thanh Hóa rioted. The rebellions of Câu Diễn and Đinh Khả followed in 1198, who professed to be the descendants of Đinh Tiên Hoàng.  In August 1203, the king of Champa, Vidyanandana, entered Cửa Lò seeking asylum from a Khmer invasion. Vidyanandana killed the governor of Nghệ An, Pham Gieng. Vidyanandana then fled, never to be heard from again.  There was a potent force rebelling in September 1203 under the leading of two people from Đại Hoàng River. Many years ago they had accused Đàm Dĩ Mông of bleeding monetary and civil property. They used the turbulent society and lack of a central power to establish a force to oppose the court. All generals sent to suppress them failed. The first generals were Trần Lệnh Hinh and Từ Anh Nhữ, a minister, who were both killed, and the last general was Đỗ Kính Tu.  In 1207, in the mountainous area of Tản Viên ( now Hà Tây ) there has a revolt of some minorities, which was quite prestigious.  In addition to the internal conflict and constant hunger during this time, the Song Dynasty invaded with their Northern Army and the Vietnamese living in the areas tried to flee.

The shifty official Phạm Du.

March 1207, two squires in Hồng Châu area ( now Hải Dương and Hải Phòng) Đoàn Thượng and Đoàn Chủ rioted, built fortifications, and conferred the title Lord on themselves. Cao Tông dispatched a great number of soldiers, dividing them on some corps to conquest the rebellion. There were 4 main corps from 4 directions: the Đại Thông corps of Đàm Dĩ Mông, the Khả Liễu corps of Phạm Bỉnh Di, the Phù Đái corps of Trần Hinh, the Nam Sách corps of Bảo Trinh; they all would assemble to suppress Đoàn Thượng's army. Recognizing that confronting Du with such a large army would kill them all, Thượng bribed Du with costly furniture and willingly followed him, establishing a coalition between Du and Thượng. Thanks to Du's efforts to implore Cao Tông for forgiving Thượng, Thượng saved his neck.  Du went to Nghệ An to manage the army in 1209. This province underwent a catastrophic starvation whereby a large number of people died of hunger. The survivors left their homes and wandered, penniless. Most of them became beggars. Hence Phạm Du told the king that: "The society now is chaotic, and the pillaging and the rebellions are uncontrolled. Please allow me to recruit soldier for establishing a self-defense army..."  Cao Tông agreed with him. Du recruited the local people to blockade the transport system, both on land and water. Cao Tông identified his army as rebellious and sent Phạm Bỉnh Di with an army from Đằng Châu Hưng Yên to conquer him. Du retreated to Cổ Miệt and united with the army of Đòan Thương and Đoàn Chủ from Hồng Châu. Pham Bỉnh Di was defeated in Đằng Châu. In February 1209, Bỉnh Di fought again with an army from Đằng Châu and Khoái Châu and defeated Du, who fled in retreat. He confiscated all of Du's property and set it on fire.  Đoàn Thượng's army was overthrown in April 1209. Phạm Du bribed high-ranking officials in the capital and accused Bỉnh Di of a ferocious massacre. Cao Tông allowed Trần Hinh to convoke Phạm Du to come to the court and also called Bỉnh Di back. Phạm Du returned to the capital first and told the king false rumors about Bỉnh Di. When Bỉnh Di arrived, Cao Tông sent both him and his son to prison.

General Quách Bốc.

After being told of Bỉnh Di's imprisonment, one of his subordinates named Quách Bốc led his army to the Đại Thanh Gate of the citadel and overthrew it to save *.. Phạm Du and Phạm Kinh killed Bỉnh Di and his son and then escaped the citadel with Cao Tông.  Quách Bốc occupied the citadel and enthroned the young prince Lý Thầm. Cao Tông fled to Tam Nông, Phú Thọ and lodged at the residence of Hà Vạn, who was a minority leader holding a substantial force. The Crown Prince Sảm, who later became the succeeding king Lý Huệ Tông, fled to Hải Ấp, Thái Bình with his mother, Noble Consort Đoàn and his two younger sisters. Sảm stayed at the residence of Trần Lý and married his daughter Trần Thị Dung. Then he conferred the title Minh Tự on Trần Lý, and the title Commander of Anterior Citadel on Trần Lý's brother-in-law Tô Trung Từ. Lý Thái Tổ also held the title of Commander of the Anterior Citadel during the time he was an official of the Anterior Lê Dynasty ). They recruited soldiers from the surrounding area and fought against Quách Bốc.  When that Lý Sảm established his own court and arbitrarily conferred titles, Cao Tông sought to suppress his military power. He sent Phạm Du to associate with Đoàn Thượng, but Du missed the meeting with Đoàn Thượng because he spent time with the Princess Thiên Cực. Du was killed by the army of the landlord of Bắc Giang when crossing over Ma Lãng to go to another meeting.  Trần Lý and Tô Trung Từ led their army to the capital to defeat Quách Bốc. At the end of 1209, they suppressed the rebellion Cao Tông was once again king. Trần Lý died in battle. Because Phạm Du was dead and Tô Trung Từ held the most power in the court, Cao Tông was forced to work with him. Even though Đàm Dĩ Mông worked with the rebel Quách Bốc when he occupied the citadel, he became the Thái úy – a rather high official.  There is no document confirming how Quách Bốc and Lý Thầm died.

The ending of the reign and some comments.

October 28, 1210, Cao Tông died at the age of 38 at Thánh Thọ palace. The affairs of the court were committed to Đỗ Kính Tu who became the Regent. The Crown Prince Sảm acceded to the throne and became the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông. The society was more and more turbulent. Ten years later the Lý Dynasty was replaced by the Trần Dynasty  Historians criticize Cao Tông about his incompetence leading to the Lý Dynasty being lost. There were some comments given by Vietnamese ancient historians:  Lê Văn Hưu (1230–1322), a historian of the next generation, criticized Lý Cao Tông for presuming himself to be a Buddha.

Lý Cao Tông (1176–1210), born Lý Long Trát, courtesy name Long Cán, was the seventh emperor of the Lý dynasty, ruling for 35 years. Some consider his reign to begin the fall into decay of the Lý Dynasty because of his erroneous determinations. However, many historians agree that he had an important influence in Vietnamese history.


Plot.

In 786 AD, three large Viking ships land in England. King Harald (Folco Lulli), the only Viking chieftain interested in maintaining peace, makes a plea to King Loter (Franco Ressel). The English king sends Sir Rutford (Andrea Checchi) to work out a deal with the Vikings. Rutford stages a surprise attack on the Vikings. King Harald is felled by an arrow fired by Rutford's chief assassin. During the battle, Harold's two young sons, Erik and Eron, are whisked away by one of his chiefs. Eron is rescued but Erik is left behind in the chaos.  Later, King Loter arrives on the scene, where he threatens to strip Rutford of his title. Rutford retaliates by having his assassin kill Loter with an arrow. Loter's wife, Queen Alice (Françoise Christophe), runs away and after finding Erik hiding on the beach decides to raise him as her own son.  20 years later, the Vikings once again wage war against England. The adult Eron (Cameron Mitchell ), has fallen in love with a vestal virgin named Daya (Ellen Kessler), the identical twin sister of the vestal Rama (Alice Kessler). They hide their love out of fear of being executed. Eron tells Daya that a king is permitted to marry a vestal. Viking leader King Olaf (Jean-Jacques Delbo) makes a pact with the kingdoms of Iceland, Norway, and Sweden to invade England once again. Due to his age, Olaf appoints a younger to lead the attack. Olaf chooses Eron but his choice is contested by Garian (Joe Robinson). Garian wishes to be elected leader, and a vote by 100 warriors is taken. Olaf declares that they will have to fight to the death. Eron is victorious but refuses to kill his opponent, asking Garian to serve as his right-hand man.  In England, the adult Erik (Giorgio Ardisson) is appointed Duke of Helford and leader of the English sea forces, replacing Sir Rutford. Rutford plants an agent on board to set fire to Erik's ship while at sea.  The Viking and English fleets meet in the North Sea and a sea battle begins. Vikings board Erik's flagship just as the agent sets fire to it. In the battle, Erik and Eron meet and engage in a sword fight. Erik's ship catches fire. Erik jumps overboard and later washes ashore in Viking land. He is found by Rama. Rama points Erik in the direction of a local fishing village, where he is accepted by the Vikings as a shipwrecked fisherman.  Back in England, Sir Rutford proposes marriage to the queen, who rebuffs him. Eron and his men arrive. Eron then appoints Rutford as Regent and takes Queen Alice as a hostage back to Viking land. There, Rama is assigned to look after Queen Alice. Rama notices that the queen also wears a cross and mentions this to Erik. Demanding to know the prisoner's name, Erik is shocked to find that it's his'mother'.  The next day, Eron and Daya are to be married. As Erik watches the wedding ceremony, he mistakenly believes that it is Rama who is being married. Enraged by this imagined 'affront', Erik confronts Daya, who doesn't know him. Erik is then locked away by King Olaf to be executed the following morning.  Rama drugs Erik's guards, explains to him that the woman he saw married was her twin sister, and cuts him free. While they flee, Eron and a horde of Vikings give pursuit. Eron nearly falls to his death but Erik, urged by Rama, rescues him from certain death. Eron continues to pursue them but Erik and Rama meet up with Queen Alice and they safely sail to England.  Erik gathers a combined English-Scottish force to attack Rutford's castle but finds that Eron and the Vikings have arrived before him. Erik challenges Eron to a duel. Eron accepts, leaving Daya in Rutford's care. In the ensuing sword fight, Eron catches sight of the tattoo on Erik's chest and recognises him as his brother. He declares a ceasefire, upsetting Rutford, who responds by having his henchman fire an arrow at Erik. Eron throws himself in the path of the arrow and is fatally wounded. The enraged Vikings attempt to storm the castle, but Rutford raises the drawbridge and threatens to kill Daya by the next morning if the Vikings do not disband.  As Eron lies dying, he names Erik as his successor. Becoming more and more delirious, he asks to see Daya one last time. Erik determines to do this by breaking her out of the castle. Erik scales the castle wall. Meanwhile, Rama realizes that the dying Eron will not last much longer and poses as her sister to him. Eron is oblivious to the deception and, upon declaring his love for her, finally dies.  Erik makes his way into the castle, where he rescues Daya. At dawn, the combined Viking, English and Scottish armies attack the castle, scaling the walls and slaughtering the defenders. All of Rutford's men are killed, with Rutford himself being the last to fall when he attempts to throw a spear at the escaping Eron but is pierced with at least a dozen Viking arrows.  With peace restored, Queen Alice reclaims her throne and allows Erik to leave England to claim his title as King of the Vikings. Erik returns to Viking land with Rama, while Daya sails alone with the dead Eron.

Production.

"Erik the Conqueror" was shot in Rome's Titanus Studios.

Release.

"Erik the Conqueror" was released theatrically in Italy on 7 December 1961 with a 98 minute running time. It was released in the United States on 12 June 1963 with an 81 minute running time.

Reception.

In a contemporary review, reviewing an English-dubbed 88 minutes version, the "Monthly Film Bulletin" stated that the film is "enhanced by Mario Bava's luridly filtered photography and fluid camera technique, and his effortlessly eclectic direction" The review concluded that apart from the soundtrack which was described as "shattering", the technical credits were "above average, as is some of the acting", specifically pointing out Giorgio Ardisson and Andrea Checchi.  Due to the "effective" acting of Cameron Mitchell and the "full-sized Viking ships" this film has been named the best Viking picture made in Italy.

Erik the Conqueror (, lit. "The invaders") is a 1961 Italian-French epic swashbuckling film directed by Mario Bava and starring George Ardisson and Cameron Mitchell as long-lost Viking brothers in the 9th century, one of whom is raised in England, the other in Scandinavia. They finally meet after almost 20 years, as rivals on opposite sides of an English–Viking war. It is a loose remake of the American film "The Vikings".


Plot.

Sang-man (Cha Tae-hyun) attempts to commit suicide by overdosing on pills, but fails. He then attempts to kill himself by jumping off a bridge and into a river, but is saved. Brought to the hospital, Sang-man awakens and sees a man smoking next to him. He tells the other hospital patrons, but no one believes him. During his stay in the hospital he eventually meets four ghosts. Meanwhile, Sang-man meets nurse Jung Yun-soo (Kang Ye-won) at the hospital and quickly falls in love.  Sang-man is released from the hospital and the ghosts follow him back to his apartment. He attempts to politely ask the ghosts why they are there, but he doesn't get an answer. He decides to visit a shaman to get some help and to learn how to get rid of the ghosts. He is told that the ghosts are using his body to enter the world of the living so the ghosts can experience their unfulfilled desires. Sang-man tries to get rid of them, but ghosts haunt him everywhere he goes. Sang-man then attempts to help the ghosts fulfill their unrealized dreams to get them to leave him alone once and for all.  One ghost, an old man, wants to return a camera to his friend. Another ghost, a fat smoker, wants to get his taxi back and drive it. He also uses Sang-man's body to swim at the beach. This leads to Sang-man being arrested, because he was caught driving without a license. Another ghost, a child, wants to watch a cartoon movie. The last ghost is a crying woman who wants to cook and to eat together with people she cares about. All these events also lead to Sang-man getting to know Yun-soo better.  Yun-soo's father dies, and Sang-man is the last person he speaks with. Yun-soo is uncomfortable with this, and pushes Sang-man away until she realizes that Sang-man is telling the truth when she sees her father's last gift for her.  Sang-man tells the ghosts to go away and blames them for Yun-soo's rejection. When he wakes up, the ghosts are gone. He goes to the hospital and asks Yun-soo out for lunch, and she accepts. She tells him that some people may lose their memories from extreme shock. As soon as Yun-soo asks about the parsley in the kimbap, Sang-man remembers that his mother used to put parsley in kimbap instead of spinach.  Sang-man runs to his apartment, and on his way he remembers what has happened to him. His father was the smoker, his mother the lady, his grandfather the old man, and his older brother the kid. On a family trip, his father forgot to put gas in the car. The car stopped in the road, and was hit by a truck and pushed off a cliff. Sang-man is the only survivor of the accident, after which he lost his memory and grew up in an orphanage. Sang-man calls to them in his apartment. One by one they appear and explain that their wishes each had something to do with the promises they left for Sang-man, and helped him remember them. His mother apologizes for leaving him alone and says that they wanted Sang-man to live, and they will always be with him. At the end, it is revealed that it was his family that stopped Sang-man from committing suicide.  At the post credit scene, Sang-man tells his son about his grandpa and dad while eating at the table, Yun-soo then founds picture of his childhood lying around and his son ask who are the people with him and smiles, implying he can see ghosts too.

Remake.

The remake rights was bought by American film production company 1492 Pictures in February 2011, with Chris Columbus and Adam Sandler reportedly attached.

Hello Ghost () is a 2010 South Korean comedy film about a man's multiple suicide attempts. After the most recent one, he discovers he can see a group of ghosts. The ghosts agree to leave him alone under the condition that he fulfill their requests.