Background.

Power rates in the New York metro area and Long Island have long been among the highest in the U.S. and according to the U.S. Department of Energy, the city is the "epicenter" of grid congestion in the eastern United States. The congestion problem in the New York City area and on Long Island is compounded by the fact that the area uses two-thirds of the state's electricity while most generation and import capacity is located upstate and near the Great Lakes.  Over the years, a number of proposals to increase transmission capacity to the New York City and Long Island markets have encountered hostile reactions and determined opposition from environmental groups and communities along the planned paths. For instance, construction of the Cross Sound Cable, a 328-MW submarine DC cable linking Connecticut to Long Island via the Long Island Sound, was authorized in 2002, but its commissioning was delayed for a year because of a dispute involving the promoter and the state of Connecticut. Another project, the Neptune Regional Transmission System has been operational since 2007. The 500 kV cable connects New Jersey and Long Island. It runs buried in the Atlantic Ocean and has a capacity of 660 megawatts. A proposed HVDC line, West Point Partners, that would have interconnected the grid from a substation in Athens, New York to a substation near the Indian Point Energy Center was tabled when the landowner where the southern converter station would be located, Con Edison, sold the land to the Village of Buchanan. The Village of Buchanan then sold the rights to use the land to the natural gas company Spectra for their new proposed natural gas pipeline.  However, a 400 kilovolts DC line between the Rock Tavern substation, 60 miles north of New York, and the Marcy hub in central New York, has been marred by controversy. Launched in 2006, the proposed "New York Regional Interconnect" (NYRI) had a 1,200 megawatts capacity. It was shelved by its developers in early 2009 after two years of staunch opposition from several groups concerned by the impact of pylons along the proposed route.

Project.

TDI, whose board is chaired by former Ontario Premier David Peterson, is backed by Blackstone and was announced on February 23, 2010. Since then, the CHPE Project has made significant progress in terms of securing the governmental approvals. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission authorized the Project developers to sell transmission rights at negotiated rates in July 2010. Less than a year later, the New York State Department of State issued its Coastal Zone Consistency determination for the project.

Settlement.

On February 24, 2012, the parties participating in the detailed review of the project being conducted before the New York State Public Service Commission (PSC) announced that they had reached a settlement of all of the issues in the proceeding. On April 18, 2013, the New York State Public Service Commission granted the CHPE project a Certificate of Environmental Compatibility and Public Need.  The CHPE project tries to avoid difficulties encountered by other proposals by presenting itself as an "environmentally benign" solution. By avoiding overhead wires and 10 story high towers, the promoter hopes to avoid the fate of previous projects, such as NYRI. The initial project involved two 1,000 MW lines, the first one to New York, and the second going all the way to Connecticut, via the Long Island Sound. The construction cost for the two lines and converter stations in the U.S. was estimated at $3.8 billion. The line to Connecticut was cancelled in July 2010.  According to the company's president and CEO, Donald Jessome, choosing an underwater route avoids " disrupt[ing] communities with overhead transmission". The developer says that the cable also provides economic and environmental benefits to the state, bringing low-cost and clean power to critical load centers.

Opposition to Project.

According to the Atlantic chapter of the Sierra Club, some towns in Rockland had called on Governor Cuomo to press then-President Obama to stop this agreement. As this is an agreement with a foreign country, his approval was needed. In continuation, as of September 2017 the newly elected Donald Trump administration has also not addressed this issue. Part of Iona Island which contains a bird sanctuary is to be blasted to make way for CHPE project. Three planned CHPE cooling stations are to be located in a state park in the Haverstraw/West Haverstraw vicinity. Residents of this area are also concerned about property seizures under eminent domain.  There is also opposition from New York labor unions because most construction jobs will go to workers from out of State.  The Atlantic chapter of the Sierra Club has asked its members to oppose this project. New York wind energy producers currently cannot get their electricity carried to the New York City. It is the Sierra club's contention that CHPE will stop any chance of New York City getting locally produced wind power and in general dampen the market for local alternative energy production.

Route.

The proposed cable would have a length of approximately between the Canada-U.S. border and its southern terminal, in New York City. The two cables would be buried at varying depths of under Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, Harlem, and East Rivers.  The cables would cross the border under Lake Champlain and would run southward to the Town of Dresden north of the Village of Whitehall. On its way to the Hudson, the cables would be routed briefly taken along State Route 22 and then parallel the Delaware & Hudson Railroad right-of-way to Rotterdam, at which point it accesses the right-of-way of a CSX Transportation rail line, continuing southwards until it enters the Hudson River in the Town of Catskill.  Once the cables are in the Hudson River, they continue south to the Town of Stony Point, where the CSX railroad right-of-way is again relied on until the cables re-enter the Hudson in the Town of Clarkstown. The cables next make landfall in the Harlem River Intermodal Yard in the Bronx, traverses the East River to reach Queens, and terminates at a converter station on the large energy campus in the Astoria neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens.

Economics, emission levels, and reliability.

In an economic analysis filed on behalf of the promoter to the New York Public Service Commission in July 2010, London Economics International estimates that the projected line would save New York customers $8.1 billion (2010) on their electricity bills over the first 10 years of operations, between 2015 and 2024. In addition, the proposed cable would have positive impacts on the electricity grid, since power carried by the cables could force the retirement of older, uneconomic power plants in New York.  The planned line, which would carry 7.64 terawatt-hours of renewable electricity per year, would lower emissions by 6,800 tonnes, emissions by 10,800 tonnes and emissions by nearly 37 million tonnes during the first decade of operation.  A study released by TDI in February 2012 concludes that the CHPE will create hundreds of jobs directly and thousands of indirect and induced jobs. The Project will also reinforce the reliability of New York's bulk power delivery system.  The proposed CHPE project has applied to the U.S. Department of Energy for a Presidential Permit, and to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for permits issued pursuant to the federal Clean Water Act and Rivers and Harbors Act, and hence, is subject to the requirement that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) be prepared. The CHPE EIS is of an Environmental Impact Statement currently under preparation.

Hydro-Québec's position.

According to the promoter, the Quebec section of the line would start at a DC conversion station to connect with Hydro-Québec TransÉnergie's Hertel substation (735-315 kV) near La Prairie, and would reach the junction point at the international border in Lake Champlain.  The initial reaction of Hydro-Québec (HQ)and the Quebec government to the CHPE project was first met with some skepticism, considering the 400 to 500 million Canadian dollars price tag for the Quebec section of the line. In addition, the CHPE could be seen as competing with a proposed 1,200 MW HVDC line to be built by the company in association with NSTAR and Northeast Utilities, which is expected to increase exports of Quebec hydropower to New England. Reflecting on the project in April 2010, Hydro-Quebec's CEO, Thierry Vandal, stated that it was technically "very complex" and "very costly".  Despite its mixed initial reaction, the Quebec utility intervened in support of the proposal before the FERC in May 2010, and the PSC in March 2012.[18] In the March 2012 letter, HQ cited the CHPE project's potential to bring large quantities of renewable energy to downstate New York at no cost to New York ratepayers and the CHPE project's progress before the PSC as the reasons for entering into "active discussions" with TDI.  Late in January 2013, Hydro-Québec formally filed a project notice to build the Quebec part of the line to the Quebec Minister of Sustainable Development, Environment, Wildlife and Parks, Yves-François Blanchet. The ±320 kV power line would start at the Hertel transmission station, near La Prairie, to reach the US border on the shore of lake Champlain. The project includes the deployment of a DC terminal at Hertel TS, but in contrast to the US part of the line, Hydro-Québec excludes running the line in the Richelieu riverbed.

The Champlain Hudson Power Express (CHPE) is a proposed high-voltage direct current (HVDC) submarine power cable project linking the Montreal area to the New York City neighborhood of Astoria, Queens. If approved, the line is expected to be commissioned in 2021.


Toponymy.

The park takes its name from the local area of Great Heaton. Heaton is derived from Old English heah ‘high’ + tun ‘enclosure’ or ‘settlement’.

History.

Heaton Hall had been owned by the Holland family since the Middle Ages. In 1684, when Sir John Egerton, 3rd Baronet of Wilton, married Elizabeth Holland, the hall came to the Egerton family. In 1772, Sir Thomas Egerton, 7th Baronet (later the 1st Earl of Wilton), commissioned the fashionable architect James Wyatt to design a new home for his young family. Although Wyatt had already established a reputation for himself as an innovative architect, he was only 26 years old and Heaton Hall was his first country house commission. Wyatt's neo-classical masterpiece was built in phases and was mostly completed by 1789.  The park was originally laid out by William Emes in the style of Capability Brown. It has long been used for public events such as Heaton Park races, which were established by the second Earl in 1827. The races were run on a course around the park which included the site of the present day boating lake until 1839 when they moved to Aintree near Liverpool, now the venue for the Grand National. During the 19th century when the railway to Bury was being laid, it stopped short of Heaton Park, as Lord Wilton was not prepared to see his estate disfigured by a railway. As a compromise the line was run under the estate in a tunnel and a railway station opened adjacent to the Whittaker Lane/Bury Old Road entrance in 1879 (now Heaton Park Metrolink station). Consequently, the decision by Lord Wilton to put the hall and park up for sale was greeted with dismay, especially when it became known that the site was being eyed by a property developer. A pressure group was formed to persuade Manchester City Council to purchase it as a museum and municipal park. Alderman Fletcher Moss, a prominent antiquarian was a notable influence in this movement. The park was purchased and opened to the public in 1902. Unfortunately, the council was not prepared to purchase the contents of the hall, so the furniture and paintings were sold by auction. The hall was considered by the council to be of little architectural or historical significance and the saloon was initially used as a tea-room.  During the First World War, the park was used as a training camp for the Pals battalion of the Manchester Regiment, whilst Heaton Hall became a military hospital.  In the Second World War, the park was a camp for the Royal Air Force, where 133,516 aircrew were trained. The park was home to a barrage balloon anchorage and an ackack emplacement. Two "prefab" housing estates and an infants school were built in the south of the park, the houses providing much-needed homes until they were demolished in the 1960s. The school building was used by Manchester City Council until 2012, when it was demolished.

Heaton Hall.

The hall, has been a Grade I Listed Building since 1952 and has been called "the finest house of its period in Lancashire". It is built of sandstone and stuccoed brick, in a traditional Palladian design with the entrance on the north side and the facade on the south. The landscaping was designed to make the most of the uninterrupted views of the rolling hills across to the Pennines. A feature of this was the ha-ha, used to keep the grazing animals, so important to the landscaping, away from the formal lawns, with a barrier that was all-but invisible from the house.  The state rooms include the Library, the Music Room, Dining Room and upstairs, a rather rare Etruscan Room. The rooms of the hall were exquisitely finished by the finest artists and craftsmen of the period, with most of the furnishings and mahogany doors being made by Gillow's of Lancashire. Most of the decorative paintings, the Pompeiian Cupola Room and the case for the 18th century chamber organ built by Samuel Green in 1790, were the work of Italian artist, Biagio Rebecca. The organ fills one wall of the Music Room. The ornate plasterwork was created by the firm of Joseph Rose II of York.  There are 13 rooms occasionally open to the public in the central core and east wing. Manchester City Galleries restored the decorative detail in the 1980s and early 1990s. The ground floor rooms on the north east front have been converted to an expansive space that houses temporary exhibitions. The first floor rooms include the Cupola which was originally Lady Egerton's dressing-room. The room was styled in the 1770s "Pompeiian" style with mirrored walls and a domed ceiling — there are only three such rooms left in Britain.  The library was remodelled by Lewis Wyatt in the 1820s. Heaton Hall's collections are managed by Manchester Galleries. The hall is currently (February 2017) listed on Historic England's Heritage at Risk register.

Landmarks and features.

Temple.

Designed by James Wyatt in 1800 for the First Earl, the ornamental temple is a simple, small rotunda of Tuscan columns with a domed roof and lantern. This Grade II listed building stands on the highest point of the city of Manchester giving views across the golf course, which was originally the deer park. It has its own fireplace and is thought to have been used as an observatory by the Earl who is known to have owned a telescope bought from Dollond's of London. The cost of the telescope was £18.5s.0d (£18.25) – the same amount earned in a year by the Earl's under-butler. The temple has recently been enclosed by a stone balustrade and gravelled path and is used as a summer studio for artists, and for astronomy sessions.

Dower House.

The Dower House was a plain brick building that was transformed with a decorative columned facade in 1803. The ha-ha in front of the house stopped the cattle from grazing on the formal lawns, making a barrier which cannot be seen from the house. In 2004 the house became the home of the Manchester and District Beekeepers Association and is furnished with an observation hive, equipment and displays with an apiary in the garden behind the house.

Smithy Lodge.

This "pepperpot" building located at the east entrance to the park, now on Middleton Road, was designed by Lewis Wyatt for the 1st Earl of Wilton in 1806. It was built in an unusual octagonal shape as a cottage to be viewed from the house in a romantic, rural setting, as well as being a home for the lodge keeper. The name comes from a blacksmith's forge which was located nearby on Middleton Road. The lodge was fully restored with a grant from the Lottery Heritage fund in the late 1990s and is now rented out to the public as short stay accommodation.

Grand Lodge.

Commissioned in 1807 by Sir Thomas Egerton, the Grand Lodge was designed by Lewis Wyatt as an impressive main entrance to the park from the south. The lodge is built of ashlar sandstone as a large triumphal arch and originally led onto one of the longest carriage drives to the house. It has two floors of accommodation, cellars under the west wing and an attic over the arch. The construction of the lodge completed the enclosure of the park by a high boundary wall. It was refurbished as part of the millennium project and is now rented out to the public as short stay accommodation. There is a memorial plaque here dedicated to the memory of the Manchester Pals who trained in the park in 1914.

Western pleasure grounds.

These ornamental gardens were probably laid out in the early 19th century as a peaceful retreat for the family. The gardens have recently been returned to their original design with pools, summerhouses and plants appropriate to the period. A tunnel leads from the flowergarden to the dell and carries a causeway at high level across the gardens to allow the cattle, from the fields to the south of the garden, to be taken to the farm for milking without entering the gardens. The tunnel entrance is faced with large stones to give it the appearance of a natural cave.

Orangery.

The orangery was added to the house by the 2nd Earl of Wilton around 1823. It was probably designed by Lewis Wyatt as it is similar to his orangeries at Tatton Park and Belton House. It was probably built for the wife of the 2nd Earl, Lady Mary Stanley, who was a keen botanist. It was designed with a domed, glazed roof, fronted by a formal garden with two large copies of the Borghese Vase. The ornate glass roof was removed, to be replaced with a flat roof after Manchester City Council purchased the park in 1902. The orangery is now a function and conference venue, run by Manchester City Council's Hospitality and Trading Service.

Boating lake.

The boating lake was constructed between 1908 and 1912 by previously unemployed men using only shovels and hand-pulled trucks. The lake, which is overlooked by the Lakeside Cafe, has three islands and is home to large numbers of ornamental birds and wildfowl including geese, ducks, swans and fantail doves. There are rowing boats for hire during the summer months. The lake is noted for its excellent carp fishing and is also stocked with roach, rudd, bream, tench and chub. Fishing rights to all the waters in the park are held by the King William IV Angling Society.

Colonnade.

An interesting structure in the park is the Colonnade, which once formed the front of Manchester Town Hall in King Street. When that building was scheduled for demolition a successful campaign to save the facade resulted in the colonnade being re-assembled in the park at the end of the boating lake.

Walled Garden and Horticultural Centre.

The 18th century Walled Garden was the Earl of Wilton's kitchen garden supplying fruit and vegetables for the estate. The walls provide a warm microclimate for crop cultivation and support for climbing plants. The Horticultural Centre staff now grow plants for the city's displays and for sale to the public. There are also demonstration gardens open to the public during the summer and a sensory garden. "The Friends of Heaton Park", a group formed in 1992 to promote an interest in the care of the park and to act as a communication link between the park users and the Heaton Park management team, are based at the centre.

Farm Centre, Stables Cafe and Animal Centre.

The farm centre was originally built as a stable block for Sir Thomas Egerton. It was designed by Samuel Wyatt and built between 1777 and 1789. It now houses the Stables Cafe and is also the administrative centre for the park. The Animal Centre is housed behind the stables in the area that was Home Farm, on the site of the 19th century glasshouse range where exotic foods and flowers were grown for the family. The Animal Centre was built in 2003–04 to replace the old Pets' Corner and houses goats, cattle, pigs, donkeys, Hebridean sheep, alpacas and Kune Kune pigs plus small pets.

Hazlitt Wood Pond.

Hazlitt Wood Pond, also known as the "Golly Pond", is located in Hazlitt Wood to the far north of the park. This area of the park can only be reached on foot and hence remains quiet and secluded.

Heaton Park Tramway.

Shortly after the Heaton Park was bought by Manchester Corporation the tramway was extended into the park and the first tram arrived on 31 May 1903, bringing visitors from Manchester. By 1934 buses were taking over from trams and the tramway was disconnected from the main system and covered in tarmac for use by buses.  The initial idea, to construct a new tramway from Grand Lodge to Heaton Hall, was considered too expensive, as it would require remedial works to carry it across the railway tunnel. Therefore, a new scheme was proposed to open up the old Manchester Corporation Tramways spur from Middleton Road to the old tram shelter some 300 yards (270 m) inside the park.  The work was completed in 1979 and the Heaton Park Tramway was officially opened on 28 March 1980. The tramway currently has an operating fleet of 3 electric trams and one horse tram. One of these, tramcar, No 765, was to be seen in the museum at Crich in Derbyshire, before moving to Heaton Park.

Heaton Park Golf Course.

The municipal golf course is a championship standard golf course, built on the former deer park to the south of the hall with views across to the Pennines. Designed by five times Open Champion John Henry Taylor, it was opened to the public in 1912 and has been the venue for a number of professional and amateur events. The golf centre, which has its own private driving range used for teaching purposes, is located at the Smithy Lodge, entrance to Heaton Park. The 11th hole is played across water to a plateau green and was rated by Open Champion Henry Cotton as "the toughest par-3 in England". The course was voted the best municipal golf course in England in 2005.

Events in the park.

On 31 May 1982 Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass in the park for over 100,000 people and ordained 12 new priests. This event is commemorated by the papal monument in the south-west of the park.

Music.

In 1909, the great Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, performed at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester. The concert was attended by William Grimshaw, a gramophone salesman from Prestwich and a few days later, he took his gramophone to Heaton Park and played recordings of the songs performed by Caruso to an assembled crowd of 40,000 people who, according to the "Prestwich and Heaton Park Guardian", "remained as if spellbound from the moment of arrival to the close of the programme, which, it is hardly necessary to say, was intensely enjoyed." Caruso later wrote to Mr. Grimshaw to thank him for the way his voice had been reproduced, sending him a signed cartoon of himself. Grimshaw was the first person in Britain to give gramophone concerts in the open, an idea which soon spread across the country. The concerts were carried on for several seasons and as they grew in popularity, Grimshaw became known across Lancashire as the "Gramophone King"  Since the 1980s a number of open air pop concerts have been held in the park, headlined by popular bands of the day such as Travis and Supergrass. The park has been the venue for the BBC's "Proms in the Park" on a number of occasions.  Manchester band, Oasis, performed to a total audience of 210,000 over three nights in June 2009. In June 2012, Manchester band The Stone Roses played three sold-out shows at Heaton Park as part of their Reunion Tour. It was announced in February 2013 that Manchester's annual Parklife Weekender music festival will be held at Heaton Park for the foreseeable future.  Manchester band Courteeners played their biggest headline show to date at the park on 5 June 2015.  On 1 July 2016, the park hosted a concert and exhibition as part of the "National Commemoration of the Centenary of the Battle of the Somme", which was centred on Manchester. An act of Remembrance at the Cenotaph in St Peter's Square, Manchester was followed by the National Commemorative Service in Manchester Cathedral. People were invited to make a commemorative tile, with the results laid as a path through the park. An evening concert at Heaton Park featured a national children's choir, archive film, dance, spoken word and Manchester's Hallé Orchestra. The "Experience Field" (where visitors could learn more about life on the home and western fronts in 1916) was located in and around Heaton Hall.  On 27 November 2019, Liam Gallagher announced he would be playing a show in the park on 12 June 2020 The Manchester-born's show sold out within 3 hours after being put on sale at 9:00 am on 29 November 2019.

Theatre.

In recent years the park has hosted some open-air theatre productions. From 1998 Feelgood Theatre Productions performed open-air promenade productions many of which received Manchester Evening News Theatre Awards and the Horniman Award for outstanding service to theatre. Productions include: "Blue Remembered Hills" (Potter), "The Wizard of Oz, The Wind in the Willows, The Three Musketeers, Arthur - King of the Britons, Dracula - The Blood Count,"" Shakespeare's "Midsummer Night's Dream" and Macbeth. In 2016 Feelgood returned and performed the world premier of Whispers of Heaton (May and Nov) and Ghost Story of Heaton (October). Feelgood is now (2016) the official theatre partner for Heaton Park and hall and is planning a programme of theatre and music events. In 2005 there was a screening of Pulp Fiction with a film inspired set from the Fun Lovin' Criminals.

Sport.

A 5 km run against the clock is organised by parkrun on Saturday mornings.  There are often charity run events such as the 'Race for Life' and seasonal fairs are located near the Papal monument. There is a large bonfire and firework display held on 5 November (Guy Fawkes Night) each year. The Shakespeare's Globe Theatre performs open-air theatre annually with performances of Shakespeare's greatest works in 2008, 2009 and "A Midsummer Night's Dream" in June 2010.

Heaton Park is a municipal park in Manchester, England, covering an area of over. The park includes the grounds of a Grade I listed, neoclassical 18th century country house, Heaton Hall. The hall, remodelled by James Wyatt in 1772, is now only open to the public on an occasional basis as a museum and events venue.


History.

The town was founded in 1798 by James Campbell. The borough was incorporated in 1853.  The Jamestown area is served by the Jamestown Area School District, and is home to Combined Systems, Inc., a tactical weapons producer that exports tear gas and smoke grenades.  The Gibson House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

Geography.

Jamestown is located at (41.486417, −80.438354).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of, of which, of it is land and 1.27% is water.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 636 people, 269 households, and 171 families residing in the borough. The population density was 819.5 people per square mile (314.8/km). There were 297 housing units at an average density of 382.7 per square mile (147.0/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 99.53% White, and 0.47% from two or more races. There were 269 households, 26.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.1% were non-families. 29.7% of households were made up of individuals, and 15.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.97.  In the borough the population was spread out, with 24.8% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 24.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% 65 or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 87.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.  The median household income was $26,979 and the median family income was $40,000. Males had a median income of $31,875 versus $17,917 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $15,199. About 11.6% of families and 15.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.3% of those under age 18 and 3.4% of those age 65 or over.

Jamestown is a borough along the Shenango River in northwestern Mercer County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was reported as 617 on the 2010 census. It is part of the Youngstown-Warren-Boardman, OH-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Description.

"Banksia baueri" grows as a many-branched spreading shrub reaching high, and wide but does not form a lignotuber. Its bark is thin and grey with long fissures, while new growth is covered in fine pale brown fur. New growth occurs in summer. The leaves are usually narrow egg-shaped with the narrower end towards the base, long and wide with serrated edges, tapering to a petiole long. The inflorescence develops over 5–6 months, and can reach in diameter, high and is borne on a short side branch. The flowers are cream, yellow or brown and hairy, the perianth long and the pistil long with a glabrous style. The fruit is a hairy, elliptical follicle long.

Taxonomy.

Robert Brown described "Banksia baueri" in 1830, after it had been collected by William Baxter at King Georges Sound in 1829. The description was published in Brown's supplement to his "Prodromus". It was named for the brothers Austrian botanical artists Franz and Ferdinand Bauer, Ferdinand having travelled with Brown on his 1801–05 voyage.  Under Brown's taxonomic arrangement, "B. baueri" was placed in subgenus "Banksia verae", the "True Banksias", because the inflorescence is a typical "Banksia" flower spike. "Banksia verae" was renamed "Eubanksia" by Stephan Endlicher in 1847, and demoted to sectional rank by Carl Meissner in his 1856 classification. Meissner further divided "Eubanksia" into four series, with "B. baueri" placed in series "Quercinae" on the basis of its toothed leaves. When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in "Flora Australiensis", he discarded Meissner's series, replacing them with four sections. "B. baueri" was placed in "Cyrtostylis", a heterogeneous section containing 13 species that did not readily fit elsewhere. This arrangement would stand for over a century.  In 1891, German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name "Banksia" L.f., on the grounds that the name "Banksia" had previously been published in 1775 as "Banksia" J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to the genus now known as "Pimelea". Kuntze proposed "Sirmuellera" as an alternative, republishing "B. baueri" as "Sirmuellera baueri". The challenge failed, and "Banksia" L.f. was formally conserved.  It is placed alone in series "Banksia" series "Bauerinae". In his 1981 monograph on the genus, Alex George classified it in the reinstated but much-reduced series Quercinae, alongside "Banksia quercifolia" and "B. oreophila". However he noted its follicles, which are beaked after they open, and cotyledon shape, did not fit with the other taxa and pondered an affinity with "B. menziesii" and "B. sceptrum"  Common names include woolly banksia, possum banksia, woolly-spiked banksia, pussy cat banksia or teddy bear banksia, all of which relate to the large furry flower spikes.

Distribution and habitat.

"Banksia baueri" is found in southern Western Australia in three disjunct areas - from Bremer Bay in the east to Jerdacuttup, on the south Stirling Plains, and to the northwest inland between Kweda and Tarin Rock. Plants grow in shrubland or mallee, on flat or genty sloping ground, on white or grey sand or on shallow sand over laterite or quartzite.

Ecology.

A 1985–86 field study in the Fitzgerald River National Park found it to be a main wintertime food source for the nectar-feeding honey possum ("Tarsipes rostratus").

Use in horticulture.

Its unusual flower spikes are an attractive horticultural feature. It requires well-drained soil in full sun or part shade. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 20 to 49 days to germinate.

Banksia baueri, commonly known as the woolly banksia, is a species of shrub that is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It has serrated leaves and a distinctively large and hairy looking inflorescence with cream, yellow or brown flowers, and hairy fruit.


Taxonomy.

"C. sloani" is part of the Chauliodus genus, which includes all viperfish. Viperfish are deep-sea fish with photophores (light-producing organs), long teeth, and hinged jaws. There are nine other species in the genus, including "C. danae" and "C. pammelas", both of which appear alongside "C. sloani" in primary literature. "C. sloani" is distinguished from other "Chauliodus" species by its range and the size of its teeth, which are large relative to its body even for the daggerfish.

Distribution.

"C. sloani" is found in tropical and temperate waters. It is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean and the western Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Indian and Pacific oceans.  In the Atlantic, its latitudinal range is from 35°N - 55°N, with highest abundance around 45°N. In the Arabian Sea, its range is primarily south of 10°N. It generally stays at depths from 200 m - 1000 m, both day and night, in contrast to "C. danae", whose individuals exhibit diurnal migration. Some small individuals of "C. sloani" also exhibit some limited diurnal migration. Larger individuals tend to live farther north.  In the central Mediterranean Sea, "C. sloani" is eaten as a primary part of the diet of the Atlantic bluefin tuna. Analysis of several cetaceans' stomach contents found remnants of "C. Sloani", including the pygmy sperm whale and Gervais’ beaked whale. Both were found beached on the Canary Islands, indicating these as predators of the viperfish.

Anatomy.

Jaw anatomy.

The primary feature of interest in "C. sloani" is its enormous teeth. When the jaw is closed, the teeth fit together to form a cage in which prey can be trapped. Its jaw can be unhinged, allowing it to open its mouth up to 90° to catch prey up to 63% its own body size. Its teeth, however, are fixed in place, attached firmly to the jawbone rather than being depressible like in some other fish species. The immobility of its huge teeth requires it to be able to open its jaw so wide. Also helping with jaw expansion is the fact that its mouth does not have a floor.  The size, shape, location, and number of teeth are consistent across individuals of "C. sloani", and each fang is highly specialized. "C. sloani" likely lures prey to its mouth with its photophore, or by arching its long dorsal ray to dangle in front of its mouth. The foremost premaxillary tooth, which is relatively straight and has sharp ridges, may then be used to wound larger prey. The curved second premaxillary tooth is thought to be used like a dagger, retaining larger prey. All teeth come together into a cage to retain smaller prey.  A study in 2009 showed that the teeth of "C. sloani" have dentin tubules while another study, a decade later, showed the teeth of "Aristostomias scintillans", another member of the family Stomiidae, lack dentin tubules. The reason behind difference in presence of dentin tubules in two species of the same family has yet to be addressed.  The jaw musculature of "C. sloani" contains a third adductor facialis muscle ventral to the skull. Recent research suggests that it improves the mechanical advantage of the system by anteriorly displacing the intersegmental aponeurosis during adduction, which increases bite force and angular velocity.

General anatomy.

"C. sloani" has a forked caudal fin, an adipose fin, and a dorsal fin located immediately behind head. Almost all of its fins contain soft rays. "C. sloani" has a low lipid content (~2.4%). The body is enveloped in a thick, transparent, gelatinous casing. Like many stomiiformes, its scales and caudal skeleton are poorly ossified and it lacks a gas-filled swim bladder.

Diet.

"C. sloani" is a major consumer of myctophidae, or lanternfish, having a significant effect on their population in the Arabian Sea. An average "C. sloani" individual probably consumes at least one lanternfish every twelve days and there is no evidence to suggest that they increase their intake of food the bigger they are. Consequently, the stomachs of smaller individuals have been found containing proportionally larger prey than the prey found in the stomachs of larger individuals. However, they are not picky in their diet—they also eat other fish, eggs, and algae. This is another thing that distinguishes them from the "C. danae", which feeds mainly on crustaceans, however there has been evidence that shows smaller variations had crustaceans included in the stomach during stomach content analysis. "C. Sloani" typically feed on large prey, and in some cases was documented to consume prey up to 50% of its own bodyweight, and the size of their prey allows them to feed in little frequency while maximizing energetic efficiency. This is consistent with the observation that only individuals under 120 mm in length were found with crustaceans in their stomach contents. The fish is considered a specialist predator given the small list of prey that were observed in the stomach contents following analysis. In a study to determine the effect of seasonal changes on feeding behavior, no significant difference was determined for the "C. Sloani", and all of the prey observed were fishes. Earlier research found that of the 28 fish species preyed on, 18 were myctophids. There was no observation of a diurnal feeding pattern, meaning their feeding was not affected by time of day.

Bioluminescence.

The photophores on the sides of the viperfish allow it to display bioluminescence. The viperfish has bioluminescence at the end of its fins that it can move forward towards its mouth in order to attract prey. In a recent study, it was determined that the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline both contribute to bioluminescence in the viperfish, with adrenaline levels being higher in the photophores. The study also observed that when the tail of the viperfish was squeezed, the viperfish emitted light for about 5–10 seconds.

Sloane's viperfish, Chauliodus sloani, is a predatory, mesopelagic dragonfish found in deep-pelagic waters across the world. The species was first described by german scientists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider in their 1801 book "Systema ichthyologiae: iconibus CX illustratum", volume 1. Its size can range from 64 mm to 260 mm, and it is an iridescent silver-blue color. It has two rows of photophores, one on each side of the ventral part of its body. It is believed that "C. sloani" adjusts the intensity of ventral photophores during diurnal migrations to camouflage itself from predators that might see its shadow from below.


History.

Zoológico Guadalajara started operating in 1988 as a project to promote conservation and research. As the first true zoo of the city, and the largest in the state of Jalisco, the park has been enormously successful and is one of Guadalajara's most popular tourist attractions.

Animals.

The Guadalajara Zoo is noted for its diversity of species, especially birds. There are many species of mammals as well, including some endangered species from Mexico and elsewhere: Bengal tigers, jaguars, lions (including rare white lions), leopards (including black panthers), orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, African elephants, white rhinoceroses, three species of crocodiles (Nile crocodile, Morelet's crocodile and American crocodile), Aldabra giant tortoises, giraffes, American bison, American black bears, red kangaroos, Komodo dragons, reticulated pythons, green anacondas, monocled cobras (including albino specimens), golden eagles, ostriches, cassowaries, and more.  Some species are important for conservation; for example, the zoo has bred the rare Mexican wolf, as well as the endangered Morelet's crocodile.  The aquarium at the zoo recently opened a new jellyfish display and jellyfish culture lab, the first in this part of the world. Some of the most famous species in the Guadalajara Zoo:

Famous inhabitants.

Among the most famous animals in the zoo's collection are:  The park is famous for several reasons, the most important being its collection of exotic wild animals, including some rare and endangered species including the white rhinoceros ("Ceratotherium simum"), African savannah elephant ("Loxodonta africana"), lowland gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla"), Bengal tiger ("Panthera tigris"), and Komodo dragon ("Varanus komodoensis").  It is also noted for being located on the Barranca of Huentitan (Huentitan Canyon), a natural park in the limits of the city which is in fact one of the natural spots the zoo has been trying to preserve. The zoo is constantly opening new exhibits, both temporary and permanent.

Exhibits.

The park has some permanent exhibits that are always opened to the public. The charge for these attractions is included with the entrance ticket.  Herpetarium: Widely known as the largest reptile house in Latin America. It recently housed a frog exhibition, and among its common residents are many kinds of snakes, lizards, tortoises, fish and arachnids. The Herpetarium was part of the original design of the zoo, and today remains one of its most popular attractions.  Aviaries: Birds are the most abundant kind of animals in the zoo. There are many large cages around the limits of the zoo housing large bird species, just like parrots, hornbills and several kinds of raptors (the central exhibit being that of the golden eagle, which is the bird depicted in the Mexican coat of arms). There are also two large pyramidal aviaries that house songbirds and tropical birds, specially those found in Mexican territory, though there are some exotic species as well.  Nocturnario: Named "Huentitan: Naturaleza de noche", the nocturnario is the largest in the country and houses mainly nocturnal animals from the neighboring Huentitan Canyon, including owls, raccoons, coatis, vampire bats, fruit bats and some exotic species like African porcupines, maras, Australian gliders etc. The exhibit is dark and cold and there are always sounds of crickets and frogs playing, adding to the feeling of walking at night in the Huentitan canyon itself. Just outside the Nocturnarium, there is a lake and an island where spider monkeys roam free. The zoo has projects of conservation of spider monkeys (which are one of the two native species of monkeys of the country).  Selva Tropical: This exhibit includes animals from the tropical rainforest ecosystems of four different continents. Among them there are jaguars, cassowaries, monkeys, sloths, chimpanzees and orangutans. Also, it is home to Norton, the male tapir that appeared in Mel Gibson's Apocalypto along with tapirs of other Mexican zoos.  Safari Masai Mara : This is one of the newest exhibits in the zoo. It features animals from the African savannah roaming free in a large, fenced area. Among its inhabitants there are zebras, buffalo, several kinds of antelopes, flamingo, cheetah and white rhinoceros. Visitors can take the ride on a train-like vehicle, while a guide dressed as a member of the Masai tribe gives information about the animals and Masai traditions.  Amazonia: Monkey Jungle: It is an exhibit where visitors can enter a large dome and feed squirrel monkeys.  Villa Australiana: In this exhibit there are some Australian animals, the most famous now being the red kangaroo, but also wallabies of two different species, several kinds of Australian parrots and parakeets, and, in a temporary exhibit, koalas. There are plans to bring more Australian animals in the near future.  Aquarium: The zoo's aquarium houses 95 species of fish and other aquatic creatures, including three species of shark, the nurse shark, the Milbert shark and the hammerhead shark.

Zoológico Guadalajara (Guadalajara Zoo) is the main zoological park in the Mexican city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, and is widely considered the most important in Latin America. It is the largest in the country with respect to species population.


Rosh Hashana with Rebbe Nachman.

The first Rosh Hashana kibbutz was initiated by Rebbe Nachman of Breslov during his lifetime. He strongly encouraged his followers to spend each Rosh Hashana with him in the town of Breslov. Hundreds of followers would gather for the holiday prayer service, festive meals, and special Torah lessons taught by the Rebbe. When asked why Rosh Hashana was so significant, Rebbe Nachman explained, "My Rosh Hashana is greater than everything. I cannot understand how it is that if my followers really believe in me, they are not all scrupulous about being with me for Rosh Hashana. No one should be missing! Rosh Hashana is my whole mission."  To one follower who said he preferred to visit the Rebbe on the Shabbat after Rosh Hashana, when he would have more space to pray, eat and sleep, the Rebbe replied, "Whether you eat or don't eat; whether you sleep or don't sleep; whether you pray or don't pray (i.e. with the proper concentration); just make sure to be with me for Rosh Hashana, no matter what!"  Elsewhere, Rebbe Nachman explained that traveling to a tzaddik on Rosh Hashana is a time-honored practice which helps to mitigate and "sweeten" Heavenly decrees at their source, at the beginning of the new year. The Rebbe also mentioned before the last Rosh Hashana of his life (in 1810) that there were people who were unable to achieve their "tikkun" (self-rectification) all year, nor was he able to help them then. On Rosh Hashana, however, these "tikkunim" could be effected.  In 1843, on the last Rosh Hashana of his own life, Nathan of Breslov ("Reb Noson"), the Rebbe's closest disciple and leader of the movement after the Rebbe's death, expounded on the meaning of Rebbe Nachman's Rosh Hashana in this way:  We see that on Rosh Hashana, Jews flock to the synagogue, to their leaders. They come from all the towns and villages to be together on Rosh Hashana. This is because the Jewish People are likened to a flock of sheep who gather around their shepherd. When the shepherd wishes to call his flock, he blows his horn. This is the reason for the blowing of the shofar on Rosh Hashana. The shepherd, the true tzaddik, is calling his "flock" together, seeking ways to help each one of them fulfill his destiny."  Rebbe Nachman died in October 1810 and was buried in the Uman cemetery. Afterwards, Reb Noson explained to the other Hasidim that Rebbe Nachman had stressed the importance of the Rosh Hashana kibbutz that year because he wanted them to continue to "be with him" for the holiday even after his death. He encouraged them to continue to gather at the Rebbe's gravesite in Uman every Rosh Hashana.

Pilgrimage established by Reb Noson.

Reb Noson arranged the first Rosh Hashana kibbutz the following year (1811) and continued to run it until his death in 1844. In the following decades, hundreds of Hasidim arrived annually from Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. So many joined the pilgrimage, in fact, that the local synagogue was unable to accommodate them. Fearing that people would stop attending the kibbutz, Reb Noson acquired a property, applied for a government permit, raised funds and oversaw the construction of a large Breslover synagogue in Uman in 1834. Known as the "kloyz", it housed the annual Rosh Hashana kibbutz through the 1930s.  Reb Noson once said, "Even if the road to Uman were paved with knives, I would crawl there — just so I could be with my Rebbe on Rosh Hashanah!"  In each generation, the most pious representatives of the movement were honored with leading the prayer services at the annual Rosh Hashana kibbutz. They included: Nachman Chazan, Abraham Sternhartz, Levi Yitzchok Bender, Michel Dorfman, and Itzel Korsinski.  The annual Rosh Hashana pilgrimage effectively redirected the focus of Breslover Hasidut from the town of Breslov to the town of Uman. Today, the town of Breslov is considered a side-trip for visitors to Ukraine, as the only sites of interest to Breslover Hasidim there are the graves of Reb Noson and other Breslover figures.

Under Socialism.

The Rosh Hashana pilgrimage ground to a halt with the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, which sealed the border between Russia and Poland. Uman became a "closed city" and foreigners were strictly prohibited from entering. Rabbi Yitzchok Breiter, a Breslover Hasid in Poland who drew thousands of his countrymen closer to the Hasidut in the 1920s and 1930s, established a Rosh Hashana kibbutz in Lublin for their benefit. Hasidim who emigrated to Israel established Rosh Hashana kibbutzim in Jerusalem and in Meron (the latter at the gravesite of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai), which continue to this day. Later, other Rosh Hashana kibbutzim were established in New York City and in Manchester, England.  Shmuel Horowitz, a native of Safed, Mandate Palestine, was the last foreign citizen to sneak across the Polish border into Russia around 1929. He participated in three Rosh Hashana kibbutzim in Uman before he was discovered and arrested for illegal entry. After spending three months in a Soviet prison, Horowitz was released with the intervention of the Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook, and returned in 1933.  Despite the Communist ban on public prayer gatherings, Breslover Hasidim in Russia continued to gather clandestinely every Rosh Hashana during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1934, the Soviets ostensibly granted permission for 28 Hasidim to travel to Uman for Rosh Hashana. In fact, it was a ruse to discover their identities — 16 were murdered while still in Uman and 12 were exiled to Siberia. Only four of the exiles survived. In 1936, the authorities shut down the "kloyz" built by Reb Noson and turned it into a metalworking factory.  The Rosh Hashana kibbutz was relocated to a rented apartment in 1936 and 1937. The last kibbutz before World War II was held in 1938. Twenty-seven Hasidim risked their lives to participate in this gathering.  World War II and the Holocaust decimated the numbers of Breslover Hasidim living in Russia. The Rosh Hashana pilgrimage resumed on a drastically smaller scale in 1948, when 11 Hasidim independently traveled from cities throughout Russia to Uman for Rosh Hashana. From then until the 1970s, when most of the remaining Hasidim were permitted to emigrate to Israel, only between 9 and 13 Hasidim braved the annual trip. They were often forced to change the location of their prayer services from year to year to escape discovery by the authorities.  Beginning in the 1950s, Michel Dorfman in Moscow became the official organizer of the Rosh Hashana kibbutz. Hasidim from throughout Russia would contact him for details about each year's event, and he wrote letters to others, encouraging them to continue this practice of being with Rebbe Nachman for Rosh Hashana despite the long journey and the threat of government surveillance.

International focus.

In the 1960s, when the majority of Hasidim in the Breslover movement resided outside the Soviet Union, Rebbe Nachman's gravesite began to turn from being an internal Russian destination to an international one. A young New York Hasid named Gedaliah Fleer was the first foreign citizen to enter Uman without permission in 1963, with Dorfman's help. The Soviets would only issue tourist visas to larger cities like Kiev and Odessa, not to Uman. Fleer returned to Uman in 1965 to join the Rosh Hashana kibbutz with 12 other Russian Hasidim. Fleer pretended to be from the Soviet Republic of Georgia and that he did not speak Yiddish or Russian in order to protect his identity. Had the participants known that a foreign citizen was in their midst, they would have quit the kibbutz immediately.  From the 1960s until the fall of Communist Government in 1989, several hundred American and Israeli Hasidim made their way to Uman, both legally and illegally, to pray at the grave of Rebbe Nachman. Sometimes the government issued individual tourist visas to Uman, but no one was allowed to stay in the city overnight. In 1975, however, Rabbi Herschel Wasilski, the official American representative of Breslover Hasidut, received permission to conduct a minyan at the Rebbe's gravesite on the eve of Rosh Hashana with 11 other men and spent the holiday in the city. In 1988, glasnost and continuing international pressure finally forced the Soviet government to permit 250 foreign citizens to stay in Uman over Rosh Hashana.  The next year, the fall of Communist government opened the gates entirely. Between 700 and 900 Hasidim gathered in Uman for Rosh Hashana 1989. In 1990, 2,000 Hasidim attended. Large factory sites were called into service to house the crowd. The numbers have continued to grow apace. The Rosh Hashana kibbutz in Uman surpassed the 10,000-person mark in 2000. In 2005, approximately 20,000 men and boys from all countries and all backgrounds converged on the town for the annual event. In 2008, the numbers reached 25,000.  Coordinators of the Rosh Hashana kibbutz fly in fully catered, kosher holiday meals for all participants, temporary lodgings, an infirmary and emergency medical technicians from Israel.  Despite the dormitory-style accommodations, the gathering is infused with much spiritual devotion and unity of purpose. Besides the communal prayer services, Torah classes are conducted in Yiddish, Hebrew, English, Russian, and French. A visual highlight of the Rosh Hashana kibbutz is the Tashlikh ceremony, held on the afternoon of the first day of the holiday (if the first day of Rosh Hashana falls on Shabbat, Tashlikh is postponed to the second day of Rosh Hashana). Thousands of Hasidim, dressed entirely in white, sing and dance through the streets of Uman as they make their way down to the river to perform this holiday ritual.

The Rosh Hashana Kibbutz (; plural: kibbutzim: קיבוצים, "gathering" or "ingathering") is a large prayer assemblage of Breslover Hasidim held on the Jewish New Year. It specifically refers to the pilgrimage of tens of thousands of Hasidim to the city of Uman, Ukraine, but also refers to sizable Rosh Hashana gatherings of Breslover Hasidim in other locales around the world. In recent years the pilgrimage to Uman has attracted Jewish seekers from all levels of religious observance and affiliation, including introducing Sephardic Jews to Hasidic spirituality. This has added to Breslov's position in the Baal teshuva movement of Jewish outreach.


Rise.

Musa ibn Musa was descendant of Cassius, who converted to Islam after the Muslim conquest of Iberia. His father, Musa ibn Furtun, appears in scattered accounts of the late 8th century, and was apparently assassinated in Musa's youth. His mother, whose name is unknown, was also mother by another husband of Basque chieftain Íñigo Arista, Musa's half-brother. Musa's early years are obscure, although he is presumed to have supported the Basques against the Franks in the Second Battle of Ronceveaux, a battle generally credited as giving birth to the nascent Kingdom of Pamplona. Likewise it is claimed that in 839 his son Furtun ibn Musa led a campaign that resulted in a rout of the "king of the "Gallaecians"", "Loderik" or "Luzriq" and he leveled the defenses of Álava.

Rebellion.

It is in 840/41 that we first hear of Musa ibn Musa himself. In response to attacks on the lands of his half-brother, Íñigo Arista, and the expulsion of kinsman Abd al-Jabbar ibn Qasi by the brothers Abd Allah and Amir ibn Kalayb, governors respectively of Zaragoza and Tudela, Musa and Íñigo rose in rebellion against emir Abd ar-Rahman II. This led to a reprisal campaign under the leadership of the emir's son, Mutarrif, and general Abd al-Wahid ibn Yazid Iskandarani. In 842, Musa was in charge of the vanguard of the emir's army marching against Cerdanya, but believing himself mistreated by the commanding general, Musa again rebelled and along with his nephew, García Íñiguez of Pamplona, defeated a Cordoban army. Musa ibn Musa and Íñigo Íñiguez again joined forces to ambush and capture one of Abd ar-Rahman's commanders in 843, al-Harit, but the consequence was a massive military response from Córdoba, led by the Emir in person, resulting in the defeat of the allies and the taking of slaves in the vicinity of Pamplona. A second retaliatory expedition in 844 inflicted a further defeat, in which Fortún Íñiguez, the premier soldier of Pamplona, was killed and Musa and Íñigo barely escaped, while hundreds of the Pamplona nobility defected to the Cordoban side.  Musa submitted and in November led his troops to Seville, helping to defeat a large army of Viking raiders who had sacked the city. However, he again rebelled the next year. When Muhammad, son of Abd ar-Rahman, took Tudela, Musa submitted, offered his sons as hostages and went to the emir's court. In 846 Musa again was forced to submit, this time to the emir's son Hisham, but Abd ar-Rahman was again forced to launch punitive campaigns against Musa in 847, and in 850 when Musa and Íñigo again joined in rebellion, Musa's son Isma'il ibn Musa playing a critical role in the uprising.  Throughout this time, Musa faced opposition from within his family. Ibn Hazm reports that his brother, Yunus ibn Musa, remained loyal to Córdoba, and joined with the sons of their uncle Zahir ibn Fortun to fight Musa ibn Musa for most of his life, about 30 years.

Third King of Spain.

The Islamic year 237 (851/2) proved critical for Musa ibn Musa. In this year his half-brother and repeated ally in rebellion, Íñigo Arista, died, as did the emir, Abd er-Rahman II. Musa also gained a great victory in a two-day battle, defeating Basque or Gascon forces near Albelda. The next year, Musa's control over his territories and his links to the emirate were formalized, the new emir, Muhammad, naming Musa "Wāli" of Zaragoza and governor of the Upper March of Al-Andalus. The next decade marked the height of his power. He would control Zaragoza, Tudela, Huesca and Toledo, forming what was, in effect, a Taifa state stretching from Nájera to Zaragoza and Calatayud, and viewed as equivalent to the emirate of Córdoba and the Kingdom of Asturias, Musa being referred to as “The Third King of Spain”.  In 854, Toledo rebelled, supported by Ordoño I of Asturias and García Íñiguez, and the emir Muhammad launched a punitive campaign which ended in the Battle of Guadalacete, Musa apparently participating on Córdoba's behalf. The next year(855) Musa led a Cordoban attack on Álava, in the southeastern section of the Kingdom of Asturias, and in 856 he launched an independent expedition against Barcelona and Terrassa. Apparently in 859, Musa's son Lubb ibn Musa ibn Qasi was appointed "Wali" of Toledo, and the same year, Musa permitted a Viking force to pass through his lands to attack Pamplona, where they captured Musa's nephew and former ally García Íñiguez and ransomed him for either 70,000 or 90,000 gold dinars. This further soured relations between the kinsmen, and García joined with Ordoño in an assault on Musa's lands, which led to a second battle at Albelda. The Christians divided their forces, besieging the town and pursuing Musa’a army to a refuge on Mount Laturce. They dealt Musa a crushing defeat, killing his son-in-law, an otherwise unknown Basque prince García, and forcing Musa to flee. This victory would be remembered in Christian sources in the form of the legendary Battle of Clavijo.

Decline and Death.

The Christian victory at Albeda led to the end of Musa's autonomy. In 860, emir Muhammad removed Musa as "wali" and governor, and personally led an army through Musa’a lands on a month-long punitive campaign against Pamplona which resulted in the capture of prince Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. In 861, Muhammad required Musa to play a subservient role in a campaign against Barcelona. The next year, 862, saw Musa trying to re-exert his power, directing a military show of force against his son-in-law, the Berber Azraq ibn Mantil ibn Salim (). Musa attacked Guadalajara, but received several wounds, being unable to mount a horse. He withdrew to Tutila, where he died 26 September 862.

Family.

Musa ibn Musa is reported by the "Códice de Roda" to have married a daughter of his half-brother Íñigo Arista. She was not his only wife, as he also married a cousin Maymuna (), daughter of his paternal uncle Zahir ibn Furtun and mother of his younger son Isma'il. No source reports the mother of his other sons: Lubb, Mutarrif and Furtun. He had at least two daughters; Auria (, "Awriyah"), wife of Basque prince Garcia, killed at Mount Laturce, and by him having a son Musa ibn Garshiya; and another daughter, "the most beautiful girl in Al-Andalus", married to Azraq ibn Mantil.

Legacy.

The death of Musa led to a decade-long disappearance of the family from the political scene but it returned to rule over a shrinking territory for another half-century. However, their position between the growing powers of the caliphate to the south and the Christian principalities to the north proved untenable, and after three generations of varied success, the leaders of the family, Musa's great-great grandsons, were displaced, exiled or killed by the end of the 920s and the last vestiges of Musa's principality disappeared. His pseudo-autonomy from a Córdoba unable to maintain direct control foreshadowed the Muwallad rebels of the early 10th century and the later Taifa kingdoms.

Musa ibn Musa al-Qasawi (Arabic: موسى بن موسى القسوي) also nicknamed "the Great" (Arabic: الكبير, Al-Kabīr) (born "circa" 790 – 26 September 862) was leader of the Muwallad Banu Qasi clan and ruler of a semi-autonomous principality in the upper Ebro valley in northern Iberia in the 9th century.


Background.

Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy and Mike Heidorn began their musical careers in the 1980s playing in a garage band, The Plebes. After a few gigs, creative differences between the members led to the development of a punk rock sound for the band. As punk rock was unpopular in the St. Louis region, the band changed their style to blues-rock and renamed themselves Uncle Tupelo. At this point, they stopped performing covers and began to write their own songs.  The band discovered a musical niche around Washington University in St. Louis, where bands such as Brian Henneman's Chicken Truck performed in a similar style. The trio recorded its first professional tracks in Champaign, Illinois with future Chicago punk producer Matt Allison. The demo tape, "Not Forever, Just for Now", contained early versions of several songs that would later appear on their debut album, including "Train", "Whiskey Bottle", "Flatness", "Screen Door", and "Before I Break".  That demo, as well as the band's rigorous touring schedule, attracted the attention of several music scouts. Record labels initially were wary of signing the band whom they perceived as straddling "the divide between the countrified punk of early 1980s such as Green on Red, Jason & the Scorchers, and X—none of whom had bum-rushed the charts—and the Pacific Northwest grunge of Mudhoney and Nirvana, which was still years from breaking out commercially". However, the influential "CMJ New Music Report" gave the demo tape a favorable review in 1989, praising its "mature, developed, seriously thought-out songwriting". This review prompted New York City-based distributor Dutch East India Trading to provide funding for the band to record an album on their Giant Records label, shortly before the label was renamed to Rockville Records.

Recording.

Six months before signing a full contract with Giant/Rockville, Uncle Tupelo recorded the tracks for "No Depression" over ten days in January 1990 at Fort Apache South, a musician-run studio in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. As the trio could not afford the cost of recording at a twenty-four track studio in nearby Cambridge, they settled on the cheaper Fort Apache studio. The album cost US$3,500 to produce, $1,000 of which went to in-house producers Sean Slade and Paul Q. Kolderie. The band was interested in working with Slade and Kolderie after hearing their production of Dinosaur Jr.'s album "Bug". The producers allowed Farrar to use the same 1961 Gibson Les Paul guitar that J. Mascis used on "Bug", which gave the power chords on "No Depression" a richer tone.  Slade and Kolderie suggested that the band deemphasize the roots rock influences heard on "Not Forever, Just for Now" and convinced them to replace the harmonica parts with pedal steel guitar. For this, Slade and Kolderie recruited guitarist Rich Gilbert of Human Sexual Response for the recording. The tracks were recorded using little overdubbing; only a few banjo and acoustic guitar parts were later added to the songs. At the suggestion of Slade and Kolderie, "No Depression" was recorded on eight-track, so "the music would compress and "jump" off the tape during playback". The recording sessions occurred before Uncle Tupelo officially became affiliated with Giant Records, so there was little input from the label.  Lyrically the songs reflected the band members' experiences growing up in Belleville. Farrar and Tweedy romanticized tales about unemployment, alcoholism, and the feeling of living in a small town in an effort to emulate the profundity of songwriters such as Woody Guthrie. Musically, "No Depression" was influenced by the start-stop musical pattern of the Minutemen. The cover of the album features a blurry photo of the band, taken by J. Hamilton, reminiscent of the albums released on Folkways Records.

Promotion and reception.

"No Depression" was released by Rockville Records on June 21, 1990. The promotional tour for the album began at Cicero's Basement, a St. Louis bar associated with Washington University. The tour took Uncle Tupelo to both the East Coast and the Southwestern United States. Missouri radio stations KDHX and KCOU frequently played tracks off the album. By March 1991, "No Depression" had sold over 15,000 units, a hit by independent record standards. The proceeds from the album recuperated the $3,500 cost of the album, but Rockville refused to pay the band any royalties. Farrar and Tweedy later successfully sued Rockville CEO Barry Tenenbaum to attain the royalties. The surprise success of the album prompted Columbia Records to pay the band to record additional tracks with Slade and Kolderie at Fort Apache Studio in the summer of 1990, but the results were not released. "Rolling Stone" did not publish a review of the album upon its initial release, although the magazine later featured Uncle Tupelo in an article about rising stars alongside The Black Crowes. "Rolling Stone" later called the album "one of the loudest, loneliest wails in recent memory to arise from the Midwest's recession-plagued plains". Robert Christgau dismissed the album as a "dud".  After the lawsuit with Tenenbaum, Farrar and Tweedy received the rights to their first three albums (including "No Depression"), which were previously held by Rockville. In 2003, Uncle Tupelo remastered and re-released "No Depression" with six bonus tracks through Legacy Records, a Sony Music label. Among the bonus tracks were cover versions of the Flying Burrito Brothers' "Sin City", the Carter Family's "Blues Die Hard", and The Vertebrats' "Left in the Dark". The liner notes for the re-release featured an article written by Mike Heidorn about Uncle Tupelo's early days and the creation of "No Depression". Upon re-release, AllMusic referred to the album as "Uncle Tupelo's landmark opening salvo", praising its "undeniable electricity" and remarking that it brought "new life" to the fusion of country and punk rock. "Rolling Stone" critic Tom Moon lauded "the band's impressive songwriting range", but noted that the bonus material was "pleasant but unconsequential". "Pitchfork" gave the re-issue an 8.4 rating out of 10, proclaiming ""No Depression" is a significant record".  "No Depression" is cited by RealNetworks as one of the most important albums in the alternative country genre. This was partly due to the success of the alternative country periodical "No Depression", which took its name partly from the album. Due the impact of the album on alternative country, "No Depression" is sometimes used as a synonym for the genre. AllMusic critic Jason Ankeny noted that the album helped the band "kick-start a revolution which reverberated throughout the American underground". In 1999, "Spin" listed the album as one of the "Top 90 Albums of the 90s".

Track listing.

Original release.

All songs written by Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn except as indicated.

No Depression is the first studio album by alternative country band Uncle Tupelo, released in June 1990. After its formation in the late 1980s, Uncle Tupelo recorded the "Not Forever, Just for Now" demo tape, which received a positive review by the "College Media Journal" in 1989. The review led to the band's signing with what would become Rockville Records later that year. The album was recorded with producers Sean Slade and Paul Q. Kolderie at Fort Apache Studios, on a budget of US$3,500.


Career and Family.

Not much is known about the early years. One of the earliest mentions of Tia is on a block now in the University of Chicago Oriental Institute (no. 10507). Tia and a man named Amenwashu are shown before King Seti I and the then crown-prince Ramesses II. Habachi conjectured that Amenwashu was Tia's father, but there is no evidence to support this idea. The identification of the man Tia on the Chicago stela with the official Tia is based on the rarity of the name. It is not known when Tia married Ramesses's sister Tia.  Tia had several honorific titles including hereditary prince and governor, seal-bearer of the King, sole companion, overseer of the secrets of the royal palace, favorite of the Horus in his palace, eyes of the King, and ears of the King. Tia's executive titles include, King's scribe, fanbearer on the right of the King and his most common title: overseer of the treasury in the Temple of Usermaatre Setepenre in the Domain of Amun.  A limestone block shows Tia and Tia in the presence of Queen Tuya. This scene likely comes from the tomb in Saqqara is now in the Royal Ontario Museum (no 955-79-2). Tuya is said to be a God's Wife and a King's Mother. Tia is clearly stated to be the King's sister and this scene shows that she was indeed the sister of Ramesses II.

Tomb at Saqqara.

Tia and Tia are best known from their tomb at Saqqara which was placed between the tomb of the 18th Dynasty general Horemhab (the later king) and the "overseer of the treasuries" Maya, the latter had the same title as Tia. The tomb is not very well preserved. The main entrance was on the east side. There was a first courtyard and a second one that was adorned with columns. At the back there were chapels and at the very back a small pyramid.  The outer courtyard of the tomb contained two smaller tomb-chapels. One of the chapels belonged to Iurudef, while the name of the owner of the second chapel is not known. A stela of an official belonging to the household of Tia, named Panakhtenniut, was found nearby. There is, however, no evidence that he was the owner of the chapel.  Tia was already known from several objects before his tomb was discovered. A "pyramidion" reached England in 1722 and was brought there from Alexandria. It is only known from old drawings, but they are good enough to read the name and titles.  Tia was once buried in a set of three coffins. There was a wooden inner, anthropoid coffin, a middle granite, anthropoid coffin and an outer, wooden, rectangular coffin. The coffins were only found in small fragments.

Chapel at Kafr el-Gebel.

Not all materials mentioning Tia and Tia comes from the tomb in Saqqara. Ahmed Mahmoud Moussa discovered a funerary chapel at Kafr el-Gebel which is located to the south of the Giza Pyramid Plateau at the edge of the desert. In Chapel G a stela showing Ramesses II before Osiris and the deified Seti I. A lower register of the stela depicts Queen Tuya followed by Tia and Tia before the goddess Isis and Ahmose (or a statue of the King).

Inscriptions.

The 1997 excavation report contains a list of known inscriptions associated with Tia and Tia. Below is a small sample of those inscriptions. These inscriptions are also mentioned in Kenneth Kitchen's Ramesside Inscriptions or are otherwise notable.

Tia was an ancient Egyptian high official under king Ramses II. His main title was that of an overseer of the treasuries. Tia was married to a woman with the same name, the princess Tia who was sister of Ramses II.


Origins.

Historically, alterable objects of art have existed since the Renaissance, for example, in the Triptych "The Garden of Earthly Delights" by Hieronymus Bosch or in the so-called "alterable altarpieces", such as the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald, or Albrecht Dürer's Paumgartner altarpiece, where changing motifs could be revised in accord with the changing themes of the ecclesiastical calendar.

20th century.

Beginning in the first half of the 20th century, a number of contemporary artists sought to incorporate kinetic techniques into their work in an attempt to overcome what they saw as the predominantly static nature of art. Alexander Calder's mobiles are among the most widely known demonstrations of physical dynamism in the visual arts, in which form has the potential to continually vary through perpetual motion, sometimes even without the agency of the human hand. Jean Tinguely's efforts to create a self-destructive art machine constitute perhaps the ultimate expression of art's mutability, in this case by taking the form of its total eradication. Victor Vasarely postulated in his "Manifest Jaune" in 1955 in Paris that works of art should feature the properties of being multiplicable and repeatable in series. More recently, the notion that visual art need not be conceived solely in terms of perpetually fixed objects is embodied in performance and installation art by virtue of their unfolding and temporary qualities.

Industrial design and architecture.

Modularity enters the modern artistic repertory largely through the disciplines of industrial design and architecture. Belgian architect Louis Herman De Koninck led a team of countrymen in creating one of the first modular product systems in their Cubex kitchen series of 1932. The series consisted of standardized and industrially produced components that could be combined and arrayed in limitless combinations to accommodate almost any size kitchen. New York designer Gilbert Rohde crafted several lines of modular casework for the Herman Miller Corporation in the 1930s and 40s; like De Koninck, Rohde standardized the units in dimensions, materials and configurations to facilitate mass production and interchangeability. His Executive Office Group (EOG) line, launched in 1942, was a similarly ground-breaking systems approach to office furniture. Just a year before Eero Saarinen and Charles Eames had jointly produced a suite of modular domestic furniture for the Red Lion Company, a result of a competition held by the Museum of Modern Art in New York. In 1950 Herman Miller brought out the EAS Storage Unit series by Charles and Ray Eames, a very successful modular shelving and wall unit system that remains in production today.  The module enjoys a long history in the realm of architecture. In antiquity architects utilized the module primarily as a unit of measurement guiding the proportions of plan and elevation. The Roman author and architect Vitruvius deployed the modular method in his descriptions of the classical orders and the composition of buildings in his treatise "Ten Books on Architecture", the only complete text on architecture to survive from antiquity. Architects of the Renaissance perpetuated the Vitruvian system in their resurrection of the classical orders, a tradition which continues to the present day. Among modern architects, the module is frequently employed as a design and planning tool.

Modular constructivism.

Architecture and modular sculpture intersected starting in the 1950s in the work of Norman Carlberg, Erwin Hauer and Malcolm Leland. All three received commissions to design perforated architectural screens built out of repetitive modular motives cast in concrete. Non-structural, the screens were used on building exteriors to divide space, filter light and create visual interest. Their work has come to be described as modular constructivism, reflecting both its compositional methodology and its architectural context. Each created stand-alone modular-themed sculptures into the 1960s and after as well.

Modularity in the fine arts.

Robert Rauschenberg's "White Painting" of 1951; consisting of just four equal white squares, with its geometry of interlocking forms, is among the earliest statements of modularity as an autonomous subject of art. Rauschenberg explored this theme that same year in a three- and seven-panel format; the linear array of rectangular panels in these versions suggests their potentially infinite replication. The cool abstraction of these canvases presages the emergence of modularity as a full-fledged topic of minimalist art in the 1960s. Tony Smith, Sol LeWitt, Dan Flavin and Donald Judd are among this school's most prolific exponents during the period. In particular, the work of Smith is key to understanding the transformation of modularity from a compositional and production tool into a broadly investigated artistic theme in its own right.  Smith began his career as an architectural designer. To further his education he apprenticed himself on some projects by Frank Lloyd Wright for a couple of years starting in 1938. From Wright he learned to utilize modular systems in generating architectural designs in two-dimensional plans as well as in three-dimensional applications, such as the development of building sections and interior built-ins. As an architect, Wright himself was part of a centuries-old continuum stretching back through Vitruvius to Greco-Roman antiquity in which the module was utilized to proportion built and sculpted form. In the case of Wright, the interest in modular design also may have derived from his familiarity with modular practice in traditional Japanese architecture (such as "tatami").  Wright's Hanna House of 1937 is a clear example of the master's facility with modern modular design in multiple dimensions. Its striking angled forms are built up from the individual hexagonal modules that define the floor plan and various vertical elements. Wright's use of the hexagon here is by no means an arbitrary aesthetic choice, but an example of how he rooted his architecture in nature by drawing from its forms and principles – the interlocking hexagonal cells of the bee's honeycomb being nature's most perfect representation of modular design. Not surprisingly, this project is sometimes referred to as the "Honeycomb House".  Smith would employ the hexagon and other elemental geometries in his own architectural practice and again in the sculpture he began to fabricate in the early 1960s. Freed from the programmatic and extensive structural requirements of his architectural work, Smith's sculptures are three-dimensional extrusions of modular form with no ostensible pragmatic purpose beyond aesthetic contemplation.  Significantly, Smith himself did not manually fabricate the final version of his sculptures. Instead, he outsourced their production to skilled ironworkers in foundries and industrial facilities, who worked off his drawings and models to manufacture the designs. In part this reflects Smith's training as an architect, who customarily designs and documents but does not construct his art. It further reinforces the idea of modular art as a generative system in which the arrangement of pre-determined formal units – rather than wholesale imaginative invention – defines the creative act. Finally, it is consistent with the notion implicit in modularity that the supply of modules in a modular system must be infinite, that is, that they be industrially rather than artisanally produced, for the system to be realized. (Bees in a honeycomb are essentially operating as an industrial enterprise insofar as the production of cells is without end.)  The work of Smith and the minimalist school constitute the most far-ranging exploration of modularity in art before the millennium. However, neither it nor the explorations of movable and alterable art in the preceding centuries synthesized the two central features of modular art. Mobiles and other kinetic pieces were not modular, and the modular work of the mid-century Minimalist artists was, with a few exceptions, not changeable.

Theory in the 21st century.

Co-creativity.

A school of thought coming out of the United States emphasizes modular art's alignment with the post-industrial character of 21st century culture and its contrast with traditional notions of art. Core characteristics of post-industrialism, as largely defined by the theorist Daniel Bell in his 1973 book "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society", include the emergence of a service economy in place of a manufacturing one; the social and economic pre-eminence of the creative, professional and technical classes; the central place of theoretical knowledge as a font of innovation; the strong influence of technology on daily life; and high levels of urbanization.  Modular art appears to synchronize perfectly with several of these criteria. For example, its manual changeability opens up the possibility of co-creative art, in which the collector or user collaborates with the originating modular artist to jointly determine the appearance of the work of art. This presupposes the existence of creative people capable of and interested in serving such a role – a demographic evolution that was already underway in Bell's time and that has since been studied in works like Richard Florida's "Rise of the Creative Class" (2002).  Co-creation is closely associated with mass customization, a production model that combines the opportunity for individual personalization with mass production. Modular art and mass customization share a commonality in their synthesis of two opposing qualities. On the one hand, as previously stated the very concept of modularity implies a limitless supply of identical modules such as only industrial production can provide; on the other hand, the ability of the individual to re-arrange these modules in the work of art based on aesthetic criteria re-injects a subjective and purely human dimension into the creative act.  Mass customization is itself only made possible with the advent of computers and a type of software known as a configurator. A configurator is a software tool used by the buyer to configure a product from the options made available by the vendor. Applied to the purpose of composing a work of modular art onscreen, it can greatly facilitate the design of a modular assembly by allowing the user to study multiple design options more quickly and in far greater depth than by using analog methods. Once the design is established a computer file is then sent over the air to a manufacturing facility where robotically controlled equipment produces the object according to its specifications. Not only does this computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) allow for the customization of mass-produced objects, it also enables a much higher level of precision and fit – qualities critical for modules to be physically joined together. Bell's identification of technology as a central axis of post-industrial life is underscored in the intertwining of the digital with the physical realization of modular art.

The de- and re-constructive approach in Europe.

In Europe, where the 1960s Minimalist school of modular art was often seen as a principally American phenomenon, the discussion of modularity often focuses on its changeability. For example, the mutability of art is a core principle of Arte Povera, a contemporaneous movement that emerged in Italy which holds that works of art "should not be seen as fixed entities", but as objects of change and movement to "include time and space in a new manner. At stake is the issue of transferring the phenomenology of human experience" into the arts.  More recently, the artist Leda Luss Luyken has produced modular paintings, composed of movable painted panels set in steel frames. Luss Luyken has dubbed her work "ModulArt". In her work, changing the configuration of a modular painting constitutes a form of motion, offering the spectator alternative views and alternative interpretations, and thus aligning the work more closely than a static object to the dynamism of physical human experience. Art historian and theorist Denys Zacharopoulos called this "a new way of motion in painting". The concept of modular art allows the user to de-compose and to re-compose a work of art that is already completed by re-arranging its parts, thus providing numerous possibilities for ever newer pictures not yet imagined. The original painting can be re-contextualized ad libitum and ad infinitum.

Modular artists and their work.

Visual artists.

Working in the 1950-60s in Manchester (UK), American artist Mitzi Cunliffe developed sculptures consisting of multiple blocks about twelve inches square which she put together in a variety of combinations to give a sculptured effect on a large scale. She referred to them as "modular sculptures". The University of Manchester and the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) acquired some of these works, although there are no references to them in published accounts of her work.  Sculptor and ceramicist Malcolm Leland designed in 1954 a similar modular sculpture system based on a single 23-inch tall module that could be stacked vertically by means of a centering pin; the module has a generally biomorphic, curvilinear outline that yields an undulating silhouette when multiple modules are placed on top of each other. The technique of stacking repetitive elements in the round recalls Constantin Brâncuși's "Endless Column" of 1938.  Starting in the 1970s, Leland's contemporary Norman Carlberg produced groups of square framed prints which he placed together on a wall in a tight grid, each print conceived as an independent module. The viewer is then invited to rotate or reposition them to generate new composite images. The abstract quality of the prints enhanced the creative possibilities of their re-orientation insofar as they are non-directional and geometrically inter-related.  Greek-born conceptual artist Leda Luss Luyken, who was initially trained as an architect, has been exploring modularity in the medium of painting since the 1990s. In her work standardized canvas panels are mounted as modules onto a steel frame within which they can be moved and rotated.  In the U.S. Moshé Elimelech created what he has called "Cubic Constructions". These are multiple groupings of approximately three-inch cubes set inside pockets in a framed shadow box. On each cube he applies paint in fields of bright color and abstract pattern with precise, controlled brush strokes. Like Carlsberg, Elimelech then invites the viewer to reposition any or all of the cubes to display one of their six sides, each of which is painted in a different pattern. Exhibiting since the 1980s, Elimelech shows primarily in California galleries, and has work represented in several museum design stores as well.  Another portfolio of interactive modular art comes out of Studio for A.R.T. and Architecture, a New York-based firm headed by Donald Rattner. Rattner has designed modular art in the media of wall sculpture, rotational paintings, tapestries, artist's wallpapers and artist's books. To bring his work and those of other "modulartists" to the marketplace, Rattner founded A.R.T. (art-rethought), an art storefront focused on co-creative and modular work. In his writings Rattner has emphasized the post-industrial aspect of the most recent trends in modular art, coining the term "New Industrialism" to denote mass customization, production on demand, open innovation, co-creative design, tele-fabrication, robotics and other computer-driven technologies that are re-defining how things are made in the global marketplace.

Composers.

Modularity in music can be seen as bringing two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture. For this very reason the contemporary composer Minas Borboudakis has dedicated the third part of his trilogy ROAI III for piano and electronics to the modular methodology.  Italian composer and arts theoretician Stefano Vagnini has developed a theory of open-source composition based on modular aggregation. The concept of a musical work of art being something closed, limited and immobile disappears in favor of a process of numerous aggregations that allow a composition to become infinite in principle. Several such compositions were performed in Europe, South America, Asia and in North America and discussed through conferences in Europe. The approach is being academically discussed at the University of West Georgia and the Carrollton Cultural Arts Centre in the USA. Writer, painter, and art theorist Gian Ruggero Manzoni described the modularity of Vagnini's compositions as "circular like the existence, his works are not finished, but merely stimulus for new voices".

Modular art is art created by joining together standardized units (modules) to form larger, more complex compositions. In some works the units can be subsequently moved, removed and added to – that is, "modulated" – to create a new work of art, different from the original or ensuing configurations.


Transport.

Traffic to Budapest from Western Hungary enters the city in this district; a main road, Budaörsi út is the direct continuation of motorways M1 and M7. Three bridges on the Danube are located in the district; the bridges Liberty, Petőfi and Rákóczi/Lágymányosi connect the district to the neighboring 5th and 9th districts on the Pest side.  Kelenföld Railway Station, the fourth largest railway station of Budapest is in the district. Most of the trains heading to Western Hungary and Western Europe pass through the station (including commuter trains to the agglomeration). The district also has a smaller station, the Albertfalva station.  Kelenföld Railway Station is also the terminus for Metro Line M4; the line, opened in 2014, is the first of the Budapest Metro to serve the district, where it has 5 of its 10 stations. It connects the district with Keleti Railway Station, the largest railway station in Hungary. Next to the Kelenföld Railway Station there is also a major bus station for local buses and another for buses serving the nearby towns.  The district has 46 bus lines, 9 night bus lines and 11 tram lines (among them Lines 4 and 6, two of the most important tram lines of the city, both of which have their terminus in the district).  There are no airports with scheduled flights within the district, however, it is home to Budaörs Airport, the pre-1950 main airport of Hungary. This was the second international airport in Budapest (after Mátyásföld Airfield), and the oldest still existing one, although today it serves general aviation only. During World War I one of the first military airfields, Albertfalva Military Airfield was located in the district, next to the first Hungarian airplane factory.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Újbuda is twinned with:

Újbuda (lit. "New Buda") is the 11th district of Budapest (), Hungary. It is the most populous district of Budapest with 137,426 inhabitants (2008). Until the 1890s, Újbuda's present territory was a field south of the historical town of Buda. The construction of a new residential area started in the 1900s, the present district was formed in 1930. From 1880 to 1980, Újbuda's population increased from 1,180 to 178,960. There are boulevards, avenues with tram lines, and communist-era housing estates in the district. Line 4 of the Budapest metro passes through Újbuda.


Life and career.

He was born in 1909 in Brentwood, Essex and attended Brentwood School before studying for a degree in forestry at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He then joined the Colonial Service, and in 1934 was appointed as Forestry Officer for the Gold Coast (now Ghana), where he started collecting animals for a friend who worked at Paignton Zoo. He used local children to help him collect specimens, and as a result discovered several new species. He began supplying animals for several zoos, including London Zoo.  In 1947 he was recruited by the Zoological Society of London as their Superintendent, a post which he held until 1953. During that period he began to broadcast for the BBC, on early wildlife programmes such as "Heads, Tails and Feet", "Looking at Animals" and "All About Animals", the latter two of which won the Royal Television Society's Silver Medal in 1952. He also made regular appearances on "Children's Hour" on BBC radio.  From the 1960s onwards, he was a regular guest on "Blue Peter", described by the programme's producer Biddy Baxter as "...television's zoo man - the large, avuncular studio guest who would show the presenters how to bath six-foot pythons, produce bush-babies from his trouser pockets and tarantulas out of his turn-ups...Children loved him because he was quirky, authoritative and uncondescending." The "Blue Peter" tortoise, George, was affectionately named after him in 1982. David Attenborough paid tribute to Cansdale in 1992, saying that, thanks to Cansdale's bringing animals to the television studios, "a great many people, young and old, acquired their first insights into taxonomy and comparative anatomy from what he said. He spoke good natural science."  In the 1960s Cansdale became Director of Marine Land in Morecambe, Chessington Zoo and Natureland in Skegness. He also developed, with his son, a method of obtaining clean seawater by filtering it through beach sand, and set up a company, SWF Filtration Ltd, which won the international IBM Award for Sustainable Development in 1990.  Cansdale wrote many books for the Ladybird Company.  His books included "Animals of West Africa" (1946), "Animals and Man" (1952), "George Cansdale's Zoo Book" (1953), "Belinda the Bushbaby" (written with his wife, 1953), "Reptiles of West Africa" (1955), "The Ladybird Book of British Wild Animals" (1958), "West African Snakes" (1961), "Behind the Scenes at a Zoo" (1965) and "Animals of Bible Lands" (1965).

Personal life.

He married Margaret Williamson, who had been a fellow student at Oxford, in 1940. They were both active Christians. George Cansdale was Churchwarden of All Souls, Langham Place, from 1950 to 1971, and President of the evangelical Crusaders Union. He died in Great Chesterford, Essex in 1993 at the age of 83.  George also featured on the BBC Home Service's Desert Island Discs. His music choices included Mozart, Bach, Beethoven and Handel. His luxury item was a pair of field glasses.

George Soper Cansdale (29 November 1909 – 24 August 1993) was a British zoologist, writer and broadcaster. He was Superintendent of the Zoological Society of London, and one of the best-known presenters of wildlife programmes and items on British television between the 1950s and 1980s.


Career.

Volta started his career with minor league club Carpenedolo.

Sampdoria.

In January 2007 Volta was signed by Sampdoria in co-ownership deal for €200,000 in 41⁄2 year contract. Volta spent rest of 2006–07 Serie C2 season with Carpenedolo.

Parma.

During 2007–08 season Parma bought Carpenedolo's stake for €200,000. Volta spent his 2007–08 season with the third division club Foligno. In June 2008 Parma and Sampdoria renewed the co-ownership deal. Volta moved up one level again and played for Vicenza in 2008–09 Serie B. Volta also spent 2008 pre-season with the Genoese team, wearing no. 87, but left on loan on the last day of transfer window. In summer 2009 Volta signed a new five-year deal with Sampdoria, the co-ownership deal also renewed again in June 2009. In August 2009 Volta left for Serie B newcomers Cesena, where he was one of the main protagonists of the club's rise into the top flight.

Return to Sampdoria.

In June 2010 Sampdoria and Parma agreed to renew the co-ownership agreement again, with Volta joining the "Blucerchiati" for the new season. In summer 2010 he signed a new five-year contract again with Samp. He made his debut with Sampdoria in the Third Qualifying Round of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League against Werder Bremen. That season he rotated with Stefano Lucchini as the centre-back, which Volta played 6 out of 6 group stage matches of 2010–11 UEFA Europa League, and Lucchini mainly for domestic league. The other centre-back was Daniele Gastaldello.  After Sampdoria relegated, Sampdoria bought Volta outright from Parma for €900,000 in June 2011, and Lucchini was released.  Volta was a regular starter for Doria in 2011–12 Serie B. The team promoted back to Serie A just 1 season. On 31 August 2012, Volta left for Spanish club Levante UD.

Cesena (loan).

On 21 January 2013, Volta was signed by Serie B club Cesena. The loan was extended on 11 July 2013. He renewed his loan deal with Cesena again on 18 July 2014, prior to the 2014–15 Serie A.

Perugia.

On 7 July 2015, Volta was sold to A.C. Perugia Calcio.

Benevento.

On 24 July 2018, Volta signed to Benevento a loan with an obligation to buy.

Massimo Volta (born 14 May 1987) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Serie B club Benevento.