United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction

Biological weapons.

During the Second World War, British scientists studied the use of biological weapons, including a test using anthrax on the Scottish island of Gruinard which left it contaminated and fenced off for nearly fifty years, until an intensive four-year programme to eradicate the spores was completed in 1990. They also manufactured five million linseed-oil cattle cakes with a hole bored into them for addition of anthrax spores between 1942 and mid-1943. These were to be dropped on Germany using specially designed containers each holding 400 cakes, in a project known as Operation Vegetarian. It was intended that the disease would destroy the German beef and dairy herds and possibly spread to the human population. Preparations were not complete until early 1944. Operation Vegetarian was only to be used in the event of a German anthrax attack on the United Kingdom.  Offensive weapons development continued after the war into the 1950s with tests of plague, brucellosis, tularemia and later equine encephalomyelitis and vaccinia viruses (the latter as a relatively safe simulant for smallpox).  In particular five sets of trials took place at sea using aerosol clouds and animals.  The programme was cancelled in 1956 when the British government renounced the use of biological and chemical weapons. In 1974, biological weapons were banned, and the United Kingdom ratified the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in March 1975.

Chemical weapons.

The UK was a signatory of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) which outlawed the use of poison gas in warfare. However, during the First World War, in retaliation to the use of chlorine by Germany against British troops from April 1915 onwards, British forces deployed chlorine themselves for the first time during the Battle of Loos on 25 September 1915. By the end of the war, poison gas use had become widespread on both sides and by 1918 a quarter of artillery shells were filled with gas and Britain had produced around 25,400 tons of toxic chemicals.  Britain used a range of poison gases, originally chlorine and later phosgene, diphosgene and mustard gas. They also used relatively small amounts of the irritant gases chloromethyl chloroformate, chloropicrin, bromacetone and ethyl iodoacetate. Gases were frequently mixed, for example "white star" was the name given to a mixture of equal volumes of chlorine and phosgene, the chlorine helping to spread the denser but more toxic phosgene. Despite the technical developments, chemical weapons suffered from diminishing effectiveness as the war progressed because of the protective equipment and training which the use engendered on both sides. See Use of poison gas in World War I.  After the war, the Royal Air Force dropped mustard gas on Bolshevik troops in 1919, and Winston Churchill, secretary of state for war and air, suggested that the RAF use it in Iraq in 1920 during a major revolt there. Historians are divided as to whether or not gas was in fact used.  The UK ratified the Geneva Protocol on 9 April 1930. The UK signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on 13 January 1993 and ratified it on 13 May 1996.  Despite the signing of the Geneva Protocol, the UK carried out extensive testing of chemical weapons from the early 1930s onwards. In the Rawalpindi experiments, hundreds of Indian soldiers were exposed to mustard gas in an attempt to determine the appropriate dosage to use on battlefields. Many of the subjects suffered severe burns from their exposure to the gas.  Many ex-servicemen have complained about suffering long term illnesses after taking part in tests on nerve agents. It was alleged that before volunteering they were not provided with adequate information about the experiments and the risk, in breach of the Nuremberg Code of 1947. Alleged abuses at Porton Down became the subject of a lengthy police investigation called Operation Antler, which covered the use of volunteers in testing a variety of chemical weapons and countermeasures from 1939 until 1989. An inquest was opened on 5 May 2004 into the death on 6 May 1953 of a serviceman, Ronald Maddison, during an experiment using sarin. His death had earlier been found by a private MoD inquest to have been as a result of "misadventure" but this was quashed by the High Court in 2002. The 2004 hearing closed on 15 November, after a jury found that the cause of Maddison's death was "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment".

Nuclear weapons.

British nuclear weapons are designed and developed by the UK's Atomic Weapons Establishment. The United Kingdom has four submarines armed with nuclear-tipped Trident missiles. The principle of operation is based on maintaining deterrent effect by always having at least one submarine at sea, and was designed during the Cold War period. One submarine is normally undergoing maintenance and the remaining two are in port or on training exercises.  Each submarine carries up to sixteen Trident II D-5 missiles, which can each carry up to twelve warheads, for a maximum of 192 warheads per vessel. However, the British government announced in 1998 that each submarine would carry only 48 warheads (halving the limit specified by the previous government), which is an average of three per missile. However one or two missiles per submarine are probably armed with fewer warheads for "sub-strategic" use causing others to be armed with more.  The British-designed warheads are thought to be selectable between 0.3 kilotons, 5–10 kt and 100 kt; the yields obtained using either the unboosted primary, the boosted primary, or the entire "physics package". The United Kingdom has purchased the rights to 58 missiles under the Polaris Sales Agreement (modified for Trident) from the United States Navy's "pool". These missiles are fitted with United Kingdom–built warheads and are exchanged when requiring maintenance. Under the agreement the United States was given certain assurances by the UK regarding the use of the missiles, however the United States does not have any veto on the use of British nuclear weapons. Some non-nuclear components for the British nuclear warhead are procured from the U.S. for reasons of cost effectiveness.  The United Kingdom is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" (NWS) under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which the UK ratified in 1968.  The UK permits the U.S. to deploy nuclear weapons from its territory, the first having arrived in 1954. During the 1980s nuclear armed USAF Ground Launched Cruise Missiles were deployed at RAF Greenham Common and RAF Molesworth. As of 2005 it is believed that about 110 tactical B61 nuclear bombs are stored at RAF Lakenheath for deployment by USAF F-15E aircraft.  In March 2007, the UK Parliament voted to renew the country's Trident nuclear submarine system at a cost of £20bn. In July 2008, "The Guardian" claimed that the decision had already been made to replace and upgrade Britain's nuclear warhead stockpile at a cost of £3bn, extending the life of the warheads until 2055.  On 25 February 2020, the UK released a Written Statement outlining that the current UK nuclear warheads will be replaced and will match the US Trident SLBM and related systems.

The United Kingdom possesses, or has possessed, a variety of weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. The United Kingdom is one of the five official nuclear weapon states under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and has an independent nuclear deterrent. The UK has been estimated to have a stockpile of 120 active nuclear warheads and 215 nuclear warheads in total. It had renounced the use of chemical and biological weapons in 1956 and subsequently destroyed its general stocks.


Synopsis.

Giovanni, recently returned to Parma from university in Bologna, has developed an incestuous passion for his sister Annabella and the play opens with his discussing this ethical problem with Friar Bonaventura. Bonaventura tries to convince Giovanni that his desires are evil despite Giovanni's passionate reasoning and eventually persuades him to try to rid himself of his feelings through repentance.  Annabella, meanwhile, is being approached by a number of suitors including Bergetto, Grimaldi, and Soranzo. She is not interested in any of them, however. Giovanni finally tells her how he feels (obviously having failed in his attempts to repent) and finally wins her over. Annabella's tutoress Putana (literally, "Whore") encourages the relationship. The siblings consummate their relationship.  Hippolita, a past lover of Soranzo, verbally attacks him, furious with him for letting her send her husband Richardetto on a dangerous journey she believed would result in his death so that they could be together, then declining his vows and abandoning her. Soranzo leaves and his servant Vasques promises to help Hippolita get revenge on Soranzo, and the pair agree to marry after they murder him.  However, Richardetto is not dead but also in Parma with his niece Philotis. Richardetto is also desperate for revenge against Soranzo, and convinces Grimaldi that to win Annabella, he should stab Soranzo with a poisoned sword. Unfortunately, Bergetto and Philotis, now betrothed, are planning to marry secretly in the place Richardetto orders Grimaldi to wait. Grimaldi mistakenly stabs and kills Bergetto instead, leaving Philotis, Poggio, and Donado distraught.  Annabella resigns herself to marrying Soranzo, knowing she has to marry someone other than her brother. She subsequently falls ill and it is revealed that she is pregnant. Friar Bonaventura then convinces her to marry Soranzo before her pregnancy becomes apparent.  Meanwhile, Donado and Florio go to the cardinal's house, where Grimaldi has been in hiding, to beg for justice. The cardinal refuses due to Grimaldi's high status and instead sends him back to Rome. Florio tells Donado to wait for God to bring them justice.  Annabella and Soranzo are married soon after, and their ceremony includes masque dancers, one of whom reveals herself to be Hippolita. She claims to be willing to drink a toast with Soranzo, and the two raise their glasses and drink, on which note she explains that her plan was to poison his wine. Vasques comes forward and reveals that he was always loyal to his master, and in fact he poisoned Hippolita. She dies spouting insults and damning prophecies to the newlyweds. Seeing the effects of anger and revenge, Richardetto abandons his plans and sends Philotis off to a convent to save her soul.  When Soranzo discovers Annabella's pregnancy, the two argue until Annabella realises that Soranzo truly did love her and finds herself consumed with guilt. She is confined to her room by her husband, who plots with Vasques to avenge himself against his cheating wife and her unknown lover. On Soranzo's exit, Putana comes onto the stage and Vasques pretends to befriend her to gain the name of Annabella's baby's father. Once Putana reveals that it's Giovanni, Vasques has bandits tie Putana up and put out her eyes as punishment for the terrible acts she has willingly overseen and encouraged.  In her room, Annabella writes a letter to her brother in her own blood, warning him that Soranzo knows and will soon seek revenge. The friar delivers the letter, but Giovanni is too arrogant to believe he can be harmed and ignores advice to decline the invitation to Soranzo's birthday feast. The friar subsequently flees Parma to avoid further involvement in Giovanni's downfall.  On the day of the feast, Giovanni visits Annabella in her room, and after talking with her, stabs her during a kiss. He then enters the feast, at which all remaining characters are present, wielding a dagger on which his sister's heart is skewered and tells everyone of the incestuous affair. Florio dies immediately from shock. Soranzo attacks Giovanni verbally, but Giovanni stabs and kills him. Vasques intervenes, wounding Giovanni before ordering the bandits to finish the job.  Following the massacre, the cardinal orders Putana to be burnt at the stake, Vasques to be banished, and the church to seize all the wealth and property belonging to the dead. Richardetto finally reveals his true identity and the play ends with the cardinal saying of Annabella "who could not say, 'Tis pity she's a whore?"

Reception.

The play's open treatment of the subject of incest made it one of the most controversial works in English literature. The play was entirely omitted from an 1831 collection of Ford's plays; its title has often been changed to something euphemistic such as "Giovanni and Annabella" or "Tis Pity" or "The Brother and Sister". Indeed, until well into the twentieth century, critics were usually harsh in their condemnations of the play; the subject matter offended them, as did Ford's failure to condemn his protagonist. Critic Mark Stavig wrote, "Instead of stressing the villainy, Ford portrays Giovanni as a talented, virtuous, and noble man who is overcome by a tumultuous, unavoidable passion that brings about his destruction".  Adolphus William Ward said: "Tis Pity She's a Whore" has been justly recognized as a tragedy of extraordinary power.  However, since the mid-twentieth century, scholars and critics have generally shown more appreciation of the complexities and ambiguities of the work, though the treatment of the main subject still remains "unsettling", in the words of Michael Billington, reviewing the 2014 production for "The Guardian", because Ford refuses "to either condone or condemn incest: he simply presents it as an unstoppable force."

Influence.

Peter Greenaway has said that the play provided him with the main template for his 1989 film "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover".  A song with almost the same name, "'Tis a Pity She Was a Whore", is featured on David Bowie's final studio album "Blackstar" (2016). "Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)", from the same album, loosely recounts the play's events from Annabella's decision to marry Soranzo to Giovanni's reception of her note written in blood.

'Tis Pity She's a Whore (original spelling: "'Tis Pitty Shee's a Who"["o"]"re") is a tragedy written by John Ford. It was likely first performed 1626 or between 1629 and 1633, by Queen Henrietta's Men at the Cockpit Theatre. The play was first published in 1633, in a quarto printed by Nicholas Okes for the bookseller Richard Collins. Ford dedicated the play to John Mordaunt, 1st Earl of Peterborough and Baron of Turvey.


Terminology.

The term acoustic camera has first appeared at the end of the 19th century: A physiologist, J.R. Ewald, was investigating the function of the inner ear and introduced an analogy with the Chladni plates (a domain nowadays called Cymatics), a device enabling to visually see the modes of vibration of a plate. He called this device an acoustic camera. The term has then been widely used during the 20th century to designate various types of acoustic devices, such as underwater localization systems or active systems used in medicine. It designates nowadays any transducer array used to localize sound sources (the medium is usually the air), especially when coupled with an optical camera.

Technology.

General principles.

An acoustic camera generally consists of a microphone array and optionally an optical camera. The microphones – analog or digital – are acquired simultaneously or with known relative time delays to be able to use the phase difference between the signals. As the sound propagates in the medium (air, water...) at a finite known speed, a sound source is perceived by the microphones at different time instants and at different sound intensities that depend on both the sound source location and the microphone location. One popular method to obtain an acoustic image from the measurement of the microphone is to use beamforming: By delaying each microphone signal relatively and adding them, the signal coming from a specific direction formula_1 is amplified while signals coming from other directions are canceled. The power of this resulting signal is then calculated and reported on a power map at a pixel corresponding to the direction formula_1. The process is iterated at each direction where the power needs to be computed.  While this method has many advantages – robustness, easy to understand, highly parallelizable because each direction can be computed independently, versatile (there exist many types of beamformers to include various types of hypothesis), relatively fast – it also has some drawbacks: the produced acoustic map has artifacts (also called side lobes or ghost sources) and it does not model correctly correlated sound sources. Various methods have been introduced to reduce the artifacts such as DAMAS or to take in account correlated sources such as CLEAN-SC, both at the price of a higher computational cost.  When the sound sources are near the acoustic camera, the relative intensity perceived by the different microphones as well as the waves not being any more seen as planar but spherical by the acoustic camera add new information compared to the case of sources being far from the camera. It enables to use more effective methods such as acoustic holography.

Reprojection.

Results of far-field beamforming can be reprojected onto planar or non-planar surfaces.

Two-dimensional.

Some acoustic cameras use two-dimensional acoustic mapping, which uses a unidirectional microphone array (e.g. a rectangle of microphones, all facing the same direction). Two-dimensional acoustic mapping works best when the surface to be examined is planar and the acoustic camera can be set up facing the surface perpendicularly. However, the surfaces of real-world objects are not often flat, and it is not always possible to optimally position the acoustic camera.  Additionally, the two-dimensional method of acoustic mapping introduces error into the calculations of the sound intensity at a point. Two-dimensional mapping approximates three-dimensional surfaces into a plane, allowing the distance between each microphone and the focus point to be calculated relatively easily. However, this approximation ignores the distance differences caused by surfaces having different depths at different points. In most applications of the acoustic camera, this error is small enough to be ignored; however, in confined spaces, the error becomes significant.

Three-dimensional.

Three-dimensional acoustic cameras fix the errors of two-dimensional cameras by taking into account surface depths, and therefore correctly measuring the distances between the microphone and each spatial point. These cameras produce a more accurate picture, but require a 3-D model of the object or space being analyzed. Additionally, if the acoustic camera picks up sound from a point in space that is not part of the model, the sound may be mapped to a random space in the model, or the sound may not show up at all. 3-D acoustic cameras can also be used to analyze confined spaces, such as room interiors; however, in order to do this, a microphone array that is omnidirectional (e.g. a sphere of microphones, each facing a different direction) is required. This is in addition to the first requirement of having a 3-D model.

Applications.

There are many applications of the acoustic camera, with most focusing on noise reduction. The camera is frequently applied to improve the noise emission of vehicles (such as cars, airplanes) and trains, structures—such as wind turbines.  Acoustic cameras are not only used to measure the exterior emission of products but also to improve the comfort inside cabins of cars, train or airplanes. Spherical acoustic camera are preferred in this type of application because the three-dimensional placement of the microphone allows to localize sound sources in all directions.  Troubleshooting of faults that occur in machines and mechanical parts can be accomplished with an acoustic camera. To find where the problem lies, the sound mapping of a properly functional machine can be compared to one of a dysfunctional machine.  A similar setup of the acoustic camera can be used to study the noise inside passenger carts during train operation. Alternatively, the camera can be set up outside, in an area near the train tracks, to observe the train as it goes by. This can give another perspective of the noise that might be heard inside the train. Additionally, an outside setup can be used to examine the squealing of train wheels caused by a curve in the tracks.

Challenges.

Computational power.

The signal processing required by the acoustic camera is very intensive and needs powerful hardware and plenty of memory storage. Because of this, signal processing is frequently done after the recording of data, which can hinder or prevent the use of the camera in analyzing sounds that only occur occasionally or at varying locations. Cameras that do perform signal processing in real time tend to be large and expensive. Hardware and signal processing improvements can help to overcome these difficulties. Signal processing optimizations often focus on reduction of computational complexity, storage requirements, and memory bandwidth (rate of data consumption).

An acoustic camera is an imaging device used to locate sound sources and to characterize them. It consists of a group of microphones, also called a microphone array, from which signals are simultaneously collected and processed to form a representation of the location of the sound sources.


The Main Centre.

The centre is the control centre for the radar network. Here signals from every station are received and, if necessary, a message can be sent to the presidential 'nuclear briefcase' for authorisation to use nuclear weapons. There is a communications centre which has a number of backup channels to communicate with each radar station. If a ballistic missile attack is discovered the duty commander reports this to the central command post of the General Staff. At the same time the duty engineer reports it to the commander of the Aerospace Defence Forces, for redundancy.  Information comes from the radar network, early warning satellites and the space surveillance network SKKP. The centre also discovers and monitors space objects through the use of radar which are fed into the SKKP network.

Warning network.

The Russian missile warning system originates in the Soviet Union and is often known by its Soviet initials SPRN (СПРН), from 'Missile attack warning system'. It started on 15 February 1971 as two Dnestr-M radars at Olenegorsk and Skrunda with a command post in Solnechnogorsk. It expanded by the addition of Dnestr-M radars in Mishelevka and Balkhash in 1973, a Dnepr radar in Sevastopol in 1975 and another in Mukachevo in 1977. The Daugava radar, a Daryal receiver, started operations in 1975 at Olenegorsk. In 1978 an upgraded warning system called Крокус (Krokus) was introduced.  In 1982 the Oko early warning satellite system became operational. It was joined in 1984 by the first Daryal radar in Pechora and in 1985 by the Daryal in Gabala. The 1972 Anti-ballistic missile treaty requires that early warning radar stations are located on the periphery of national territory and face outwards. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 this resulted in many of the stations ending up in newly independent states. The radar station at Skrunda, now in Latvia, closed in 1998. Other stations now overseas were Sevastopol and Mukachevo (both in Ukraine), Balkhash (Kazakhstan) and Gabala (Azerbaijan).  The Volga radar at Baranavichy in Belarus came online in 2003 and the two Ukrainian radars closed in 2009. In the mid-2000s Russia started the roll out of the next generation of early warning radar, the Voronezh. The first station in Lekhtusi near St Petersburg went on combat duty in 2012. Other stations in Kaliningrad and Armavir were made operational in the following years. The Russian military has expressed a desire to replace or replicate all overseas radars with domestic stations as overseas ones cannot be relied upon in times of tension and war. New stations were commissioned in locations such as Barnaul, Orsk, Orenburg and Yeniseysk.

Organisational structure.

In 1998 SPRN became part of the missile and space defence organisation "ракетно-космической обороны" (RKO) together with SKKP and the anti-missile troops. In 2001 these services became part of the newly founded Space Troops, and were incorporated as the 3rd Independent Missile and Space Defense Army.  The Main Centre for Missile Attack Warning was formed on 1 December 2009 and since December 2011 it had been part of the Space Command of the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces, together with facilities such as the 821st Main Space Intelligence Centre and 153rd Titov Main Space Testing Centre.

The 820th Main Centre for Missile Attack Warning () is the Russian early warning network against ballistic missile attack. It has headquarters in the village of Timonovo near Solnechnogorsk outside Moscow and is part of the Russian Space Forces. The centre consists of a network of early warning radar stations which transmit their data to the control centre near Solnechnogorsk. Other information comes from the early warning Oko and EKS satellites as well as the Don-2N missile defence radar. Information from the centre could be used for a launch on warning nuclear missile attack or to engage the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system.


Production.

Background.

In mid-2016, WWE reintroduced the brand extension, splitting its main roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands, represented by the shows of the same name. Clash of Champions was established that year to replace Night of Champions, a pay-per-view in which the concept was that all WWE titles were defended; Clash of Champions was established on the same concept. The 2016 event was Raw-exclusive while the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive; all titles exclusive to the respective brands during those years were defended at these respective events. A Clash of Champions event did not occur in 2018, but following WrestleMania 34 that year, all WWE pay-per-views ceased being brand exclusive. In 2019, Clash of Champions was brought back and all WWE titles across Raw and SmackDown, as well as 205 Live, at the time were defended – Raw's Universal Championship, SmackDown's WWE Championship, the Raw Women's Championship, the SmackDown Women's Championship, Raw's United States Championship, SmackDown's Intercontinental Championship, the Raw Tag Team Championship, the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, 205 Live's Cruiserweight Championship, the Women's Tag Team Championship, and the 24/7 Championship.

Storylines.

The show comprised eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, "Monday Night Raw", "SmackDown Live", and the cruiserweight-exclusive "205 Live".  Feeling that she deserved an opportunity for the SmackDown Women's Championship for her win over Trish Stratus at SummerSlam, Charlotte Flair issued a challenge to reigning champion Bayley during "A Moment of Bliss" on the August 20 episode of "SmackDown". Bayley accepted the challenge for Clash of Champions.  On the August 12 episode of "Raw", Universal Champion Seth Rollins faced United States Champion and O.C. member AJ Styles in a non-title champion versus champion match, which resulted in a brawl with fellow O.C. members Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson with Braun Strowman coming to Rollins' aid. The following week, Rollins and Strowman defeated Gallows and Anderson to win the Raw Tag Team Championship. Rollins was then scheduled to defend both the Universal and Raw Tag Team championships at Clash of Champions. On the August 26 episode of "Raw", Robert Roode and Dolph Ziggler won a Tag Team Turmoil to earn a Raw Tag Team Championship match at the event, while later that same night, Strowman challenged Rollins for the Universal Championship, which Rollins accepted.  During the WWE Championship match at SummerSlam, Randy Orton attempted to target Kofi Kingston's family, who were at ringside. Kingston brawled with Orton outside the ring, resulting in both men being counted out; thus Kingston retained the title, but he continued to attack Orton. On the following episode of "SmackDown", The New Day (Kingston and SmackDown Tag Team Champions Big E and Xavier Woods) faced the team of Orton and The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder) in which the latter won, after which, Orton performed an RKO on all three members of New Day. On the following "Raw", Big E and Woods faced The Revival in a non-title match that New Day won by disqualification due to interference from Orton. Kingston came to their aid only for Orton to attack Kingston, while The Revival and Orton temporarily injured Woods' leg. The following week on "SmackDown", Orton threatened to go after Kingston's family and a WWE Championship rematch was scheduled between the two for Clash of Champions, while Big E and Woods were scheduled to defend the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Revival at the event.  On the August 20 episode of "205 Live", Team Oney Lorcan won the Captain's Challenge against Team Drew Gulak with Humberto Carrillo and Lorcan being the last remaining members of their team. The following week, 205 Live General Manager Drake Maverick scheduled Carrillo and Lorcan to compete in a number one contender's match to face Gulak for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship on the Clash of Champions Kickoff pre-show, which Carrillo won. On the September 3 episode, Lince Dorado defeated Carrillo, thus making it a triple threat match for the title.  On the August 20 episode of "SmackDown", Sami Zayn was a guest on "Miz TV." Zayn stated that after months of losing matches, he realized that he would be better suited to helping people on SmackDown and introduced his first client, Intercontinental Champion Shinsuke Nakamura. The Miz questioned why Nakamura would associate himself with Zayn, who said that Nakamura was unable to express himself because of the language barrier and that he would communicate for Nakamura. Miz then received a beatdown from Nakamura and Zayn. The following week, Miz challenged Nakamura for the Intercontinental Championship at Clash of Champions and Miz received yet another beatdown. Later, the title match was made official.  At SummerSlam, Becky Lynch defeated Natalya in a submission match to retain the Raw Women's Championship. On the following "Raw", Lynch said she respected Natalya and put out a warning to the rest of the women's division. Natalya later came out with her arm in a sling and said they would face each other again. She was then interrupted by the returning Sasha Banks, who was last seen at WrestleMania 35. Banks hugged Natalya but then attacked her, turning heel. Lynch came to Natalya's aid but was attacked by Banks with a chair. Banks later challenged Lynch for the title at Clash of Champions and Lynch accepted.  As Roman Reigns was getting ready to announce his SummerSlam opponent on the July 30 episode of "SmackDown", an unidentified person pushed lighting equipment on top of Reigns backstage. The attacker was originally alleged to be Samoa Joe due to their previous rivalry, but he was proven innocent during a hit and run on Reigns in which Joe was a witness. Buddy Murphy then became a suspect/witness as he was spotted in the background in the footage of the original attack, prompting Reigns to force Murphy to reveal that the attacker was Erick Rowan. On the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show, Rowan attacked Murphy for the accusation. Rowan and his tag team partner Daniel Bryan then forced Murphy to reveal that he was lying and they conducted their own investigation to find out that Reigns' attacker was a man that looked like Rowan. However, Reigns found additional footage that showed Rowan pushing over the equipment. This caused Bryan and Rowan to split due to Rowan lying, and a match between Reigns and Rowan was scheduled for Clash of Champions, which later became a No Disqualification match.  On the August 5 episode of "Raw", Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross defeated defending champions The IIconics (Peyton Royce and Billie Kay), The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane), and Mandy Rose and Sonya Deville in a fatal four-way tag team elimination match to win the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship. On the September 3 episode of "SmackDown", Rose and Deville challenged Bliss and Cross for the titles at Clash of Champions. Bliss said that they did not deserve an opportunity, however, Cross accepted a non-title match for that night, which Rose and Deville won. A title match was then scheduled between the two teams for Clash of Champions.  On the September 9 episode of "Raw", Cedric Alexander faced O.C member AJ Styles for the United States Championship only for the match to end via disqualification due to interference from fellow O.C. members, Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. Later that night, Alexander pinned Styles in a 10-man tag team match that featured Alexander, Seth Rollins, Braun Strowman, and The Viking Raiders (Ivar and Erik) against The O.C. (Styles, Gallows, and Anderson), Robert Roode, and Dolph Ziggler. Styles was then scheduled to defend the title in a rematch against Alexander on the Clash of Champions Kickoff pre-show.

Canceled match.

In August 2019, the King of the Ring tournament was revived – the first time since the 2015 tournament – with the finals originally scheduled for Clash of Champions. However, the finals were rescheduled for the September 16 episode of "Raw", where Baron Corbin defeated Chad Gable to become the King of the Ring, thus changing his ring name to King Corbin.

Event.

Pre-show.

Two matches were contested on the Clash of Champions Kickoff pre-show. In the first match, Drew Gulak defended the Cruiserweight Championship against Humberto Carrillo and Lince Dorado in a triple threat match. In the end, Carrillo performed an Aztec press on Dorado; however, Gulak threw Carrillo into the ring post and pinned Dorado to retain the title.  In the second pre-show match, The O.C's AJ Styles defended the United States Championship against Cedric Alexander. In the end, Styles performed a Phenomenal Forearm and a Styles Clash on Alexander to retain the title. Following the match, fellow O.C's members, Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson, attacked Alexander.

Preliminary matches.

The actual pay-per-view began with Universal Champion Seth Rollins and Braun Strowman defending the Raw Tag Team Championship against Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode. In the end, Strowman tackled Roode, who collided with Rollins. Roode performed a Glorious DDT on Rollins to win the title.  Next, Bayley defended the SmackDown Women's Championship against Charlotte Flair. At the start of the match, Flair performed a Big Boot on Bayley for a nearfall. Bayley threw Flair into an exposed turnbuckle and pinned her to retain the title.  After that, The New Day (represented by Big E and Xavier Woods) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder). The climax saw The Revival perform a Shatter Machine on Woods and forced him to submit to an Inverted Figure Four Leglock to win the title.  In the fourth match, Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross defended the Women's Tag Team Championship against Fire and Desire (Mandy Rose and Sonya Deville). During the match, an impromptu 24/7 Championship defense occurred when reigning champion R-Truth ran out to the ring, being chased by several wrestlers. Bliss pinned Truth with a roll up for a nearfall. Truth then rushed out of the ring. After resuming the tag team title match, Cross performed a Swinging Neckbreaker on Rose to retain the title.  Next, Shinsuke Nakamura (accompanied by Sami Zayn) defended the Intercontinental Championship against The Miz. In the end, as Miz performed a Skull Crushing Finale on Nakamura, Zayn distracted the referee. Miz then chased Zayn before Nakamura caught him and performed a Kinshasa to retain the title.  After that, Becky Lynch defended the Raw Women's Championship against Sasha Banks. During the match, while the referee was distracted, Banks struck Lynch with a chair and then performed a Low Knee Smash for a nearfall. After Lynch obtained the chair, she accidentally incapacitated the referee with it before going after Banks, where a brawl ensued outside of the ring. Due to Lynch's actions, she was disqualified; thus Banks won the match, but Lynch retained the title since titles do not change hands via disqualification unless stipulated.  Next, Kofi Kingston defended the WWE Championship against Randy Orton. During the match, Orton performed a snap powerslam on Kingston for a nearfall. Orton performed an RKO on Kingston, who placed his leg on the rope at a two count. In the end, as Orton went for the Punt Kick, Kingston countered with a Trouble in Paradise to retain the title.  In the penultimate match, Roman Reigns faced Erick Rowan in a no disqualification match. Reigns performed a Superman Punch on Rowan for a nearfall. Rowan performed a powerbomb through an announce table on Reigns. Rowan performed an Iron Claw Slam through a table on Reigns. On the stage, Reigns executed a second Superman Punch. In the end, a returning Luke Harper appeared and performed a big boot and a discus clothesline on Reigns. Rowan then performed a second Iron Claw Slam on Reigns to win.

Main event.

In the main event, Seth Rollins defended the Universal Championship against Braun Strowman. Strowman performed a Diving Stomp on Rollins for a nearfall. Rollins performed three Stomps on Strowman, which all resulted in nearfalls. Rollins performed a Pedigree and a fourth Stomp to retain the title. After the match, "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt appeared and attacked Rollins with a Sister Abigail and the Mandible Claw.

Aftermath.

Raw.

Prior to Clash of Champions, it was rumored that Bray Wyatt would challenge for the Universal Championship at Hell in a Cell. On the "Raw" following Clash of Champions, due to The Fiend's attack, Universal Champion Seth Rollins announced that he would be defending the title against Wyatt's Fiend persona at the event in a Hell in a Cell match. The following week, Rollins was interrupted by Braun Strowman, who said that it was Rollins' fault they lost the Raw Tag Team Championship. He also challenged Rollins to a non-title rematch later that night that was interrupted by The Fiend, who attacked Strowman.  Also on the following "Raw", Sasha Banks challenged Becky Lynch to a rematch for the Raw Women's Championship at Hell in a Cell, and Lynch accepted as a Hell in a Cell match.  New Raw Tag Team Champions Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode and new SmackDown Tag Team Champions The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder) celebrated their respective championships victories, only for Braun Strowman to interrupt the celebration and attack both teams.  The O.C. (United States Champion AJ Styles, Luke Gallows, and Karl Anderson) defeated Cedric Alexander and The Viking Raiders (Erik and Ivar) in a six-man tag team match. Following the match, The O.C. attacked Alexander and The Viking Raiders. Styles and Alexander then had a rematch for the U.S. title on the September 30 episode where Styles again retained.

SmackDown.

On the following "SmackDown", The New Day (WWE Champion Kofi Kingston, Big E, and Xavier Woods) defeated the team of Randy Orton and the new SmackDown Tag Team Champions The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder) in a six-man tag team match. Following the match, Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) returned to challenge Kingston for the WWE Championship on the debut episode of "SmackDown" on FOX on October 4, which Kingston accepted.  Michael Cole conducted a sit-down interview with Erick Rowan, where Rowan declared that he had been overlooked, underappreciated, and disrespected and attacked Roman Reigns to scare him and to show that Reigns was not the dominant figure he was presumed to be. He also stated that he was not Daniel Bryan's equal, but better than him. Bryan then stated that regardless if he was a face or a heel, he had never lied and thought of Rowan as his friend and his equal. Bryan was interrupted by Rowan and attacked from behind by Luke Harper. Reigns came out to Bryan's aid, only for Rowan and Harper to dominate Bryan and Reigns. This led to a tag team match pitting Bryan and Reigns against Rowan and Harper being scheduled for Hell in a Cell. Just prior to Hell in a Cell, Rowan and Reigns had a rematch on "SmackDown's 20th Anniversary" on October 4 in a lumberjack match that Reigns won.  Sami Zayn and Intercontinental Champion Shinsuke Nakamura demanded respect from the crowd for Nakamura defeating The Miz and then attacked Ali, who had defeated Nakamura in a match a few weeks prior.  Sasha Banks faced Charlotte Flair, only for the match to end in a disqualification win for Flair when SmackDown Women's Champion Bayley attacked Flair while she applied the Figure Eight Leglock on Banks. Flair received a beatdown from Banks and Bayley, who was then saved by Carmella. A rematch between Bayley and Flair for the title was scheduled for Hell in a Cell.

205 Live.

On October 2, 2019, the WWE Cruiserweight Championship became shared with the NXT brand and renamed to NXT Cruiserweight Championship.

Clash of Champions was a professional wrestling pay-per-view and WWE Network event produced by WWE for their Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands. It took place on September 15, 2019, at Spectrum Center in Charlotte, North Carolina. It was the third event under the Clash of Champions chronology. As per the theme of the event, all of WWE's titles across the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands were defended.


Club career.

Barcelona.

Born in Douala, Kaptoum joined FC Barcelona's youth ranks in 2008, aged 12, after a stint in Samuel Eto'o's foundation. He was subsequently loaned to neighbouring UE Sant Andreu, and in June 2014 was promoted to the reserves in Segunda División.  Kaptoum played his first match as a professional on 23 August 2014, starting in a 0–2 away loss against CA Osasuna. He scored his first goal on 19 October, netting the second in a 4–1 home win against AD Alcorcón. On 28 October 2015, Kaptoum made his debut for Barcelona's first team, starting in a goalless draw away to CF Villanovense in the season's Copa del Rey.  Kaptoum's first appearance in the UEFA Champions League came on 9 December 2015, in a 1–1 draw away to Leverkusen. In another 1–1 draw game against Valencia CF on 10 February 2016, he scored his debut goal for the first team 2 minutes after coming in as a substitute in the second leg of Copa del Rey semifinals. His goal also served to extend FC Barcelona's unbeaten run to 29 games, breaking the previous record of 28 games set under Pep Guardiola in the 2010–11 season.  Kaptoum sustained a knee injury which kept him out of action for five months. He returned to fitness in December 2017. On 29 January 2018, he agreed to terminate his contract with Barcelona.

Betis.

On 31 January 2018, two days after leaving Barcelona, Kaptoum signed with Real Betis and was initially assigned to the B-team. He made his first team debut on 4 October, replacing Sergio León in a 3–0 home defeat of F91 Dudelange, for the season's UEFA Europa League.  Kaptoum made his La Liga debut on 3 February 2019, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 home win against Atlético Madrid. On 10 January 2020, Kaptoum joined Almería on loan for the remainder of the season.

Wilfrid Jaures Kaptoum (born 7 July 1996) is a Cameroonian professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for UD Almería on loan from Real Betis.


Early life.

Paget was born in 1689, the son of Hon. Henry Paget, later Earl of Uxbridge, and his wife Mary Catesby, daughter of Thomas Catesby of Whiston, Northamptonshire. He was admitted at Clare College, Cambridge on 20 April 1705 and matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford on 19 April 1707 aged 18. His father was much concerned in 1710 to obtain Paget's release when he was taken prisoner by French forces during the War of the Spanish Succession, as he tried to make his way in southern Germany to Italy.

Political career.

At the 1715 general election, Paget was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Staffordshire. In 1719 he was appointed Gentleman of the Bedchamber to George, Prince of Wales. He was returned without contest again as MP for Staffordshire in 1722. At the 1727 general election he chose to stand for Middlesex as a Whig, but was defeated. He never stood for parliament again but was promoted to Lord of the bedchamber to King George II in 1727. In 1736, he resigned his post at court on grounds of ill-health.

Literary works.

Paget composed pieces in verse and prose - according to Horace Walpole ‘in the intervals of bad weather in hunting seasons’. His verse has been described as exhibiting a "tough cynicism". Walpole said his works included much good sense but not much poetry. They included: His writings were collected in "Miscellanies in Prose and Verse"(1741).

Death and legacy.

Paget died at West Drayton on 4 February 1742 (N.S.), and was buried on 19 February in Westminster Abbey. He had married Lady Elizabeth Egerton, daughter of John Egerton, 3rd Earl of Bridgwater on 6 May 1718, in Gray's Inn Chapel. They had two sons:

Thomas Catesby Paget or Pagett (1689 – 4 February 1742) styled Hon. Thomas Catesby Paget from 1712 to 1714, and subsequently with the courtesy title Lord Paget, was an English writer and politician, who sat in the House of Commons from 1715 to 1727 and served in the household of King George II.


Geography.

Liberty is located at (40.326302, -79.856101). It is bounded by Port Vue and McKeesport to the north, Versailles and the Youghiogheny River to the east, Lincoln to the south, and Glassport to the west.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of, of which is land and, or 4.00%, is water.

Education.

Liberty Borough is served by the South Allegheny School District.

Taxes.

School tax millage rate- The South Allegheny SD (shared with three other municipalities) in 2017 was 17.24. This ranked 41st highest/most expensive out of Allegheny County's 45 school districts, between McKeesport SD (40th highest) and Chartiers Valley SD (42nd highest).

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,670 people, 1,125 households, and 768 families residing in the borough. The population density was 1,856.7 people per square mile (715.9/km2). There were 1,162 housing units at an average density of 808.1/sq mi (311.6/km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 97.98% White, 1.46% African American, 0.11% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, and 0.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.37% of the population.  There were 1,125 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.89.  In the borough the population was spread out, with 20.1% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 21.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 88.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.3 males.  The median income for a household in the borough was $35,264, and the median income for a family was $42,857. Males had a median income of $35,685 versus $22,304 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $19,491. About 5.6% of families and 7.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.

Liberty is a borough in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,551 at the 2010 census. The mayor of Liberty is currently Jane Weigand.


Early life.

Herbert was the second son of Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke and his wife Margaret Sawyer, daughter of Sir Robert Sawyer who died in 1692. In 1706, he succeeded to his mother's estates and inherited Highclere from his maternal grandfather, who entailed his estates on the unborn younger sons of his daughter. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford on 5 July 1709, aged 16. Before 1723, he married Mary Smith, daughter of John Smith, Speaker of the House of Commons.

Career.

Herbert was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Wilton at the 1722 general election on his father's interest. He was appointed Groom of the Bedchamber to George I in 1723. He was returned again for Wilton at the 1727 general election following the death of George I, and was appointed Commissioner of revenue for Ireland in 1727. At the 1734 general election he was returned again for Wilton. He was transferred to become Lord of Trade in 1737. He retained the post until 1751 but it was later said by Pelham ‘he has been of the Board of Trade upwards of 20 years, tho’ in it I believe not as many times’. He was returned as MP for Wilton at the general elections of 1741 and 1747. In 1750 he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire for six years. He was appointed surveyor general of crown lands by Pelham in 1751. He was returned again for Wilton in the general elections of 1754 and 1761. He is not known to have made a speech in Parliament. For most of his career, he held minor government posts, and voted for successive Administrations in all recorded divisions. Rockingham classified him in November 1766 as prepared to serve any Administration.

Death and legacy.

Herbert died on 25 April 1769. His brothers Hon. Nicholas, Thomas and William Herbert were also MPs. He left Highclere to his nephew Henry Herbert, son of his brother William.

Robert Sawyer Herbert (28 January 1693 – 1769) of Highclere, Hampshire, was a British politician who sat in the House of Commons for 46 years from 1722 to 1768.


Character overview.

"Prisoner #97R492. Convicted November 7, 1997 - Murder in the first degree, assault. Sentence: Life imprisonment, eligible for parole in 25 years."  A sadistic racist, Robson is imprisoned for murdering a black man who he saw walking home with his girlfriend. In Oz, Robson acts as Vernon Schillinger's main lieutenant and is one of the most savage members of the Aryan Brotherhood. He is highly regarded by Schillinger until a dentist tells Robson that he had implanted the gums of an African-American into Robson's mouth. Once word gets around, Schillinger casts Robson out of the Brotherhood even though Robson cuts the skin grafts out of his mouth. Without the protection of the Brotherhood, Robson does whatever is necessary to survive, becoming Wolfgang Cutler's sex slave so that Cutler would protect him. Unknowingly, Robson contracts HIV from Cutler. Along with Shirley Bellinger and Moses Deyell, Robson is never housed in Emerald City, and is the only one of the three to survive the series.  During his time in the series, Robson is the main enforcer of the Aryans and takes a sadistic pleasure in committing horrific acts of violence and sexual abuse against weaker inmates. Robson is however seen as the weakest and most cowardly member of the Aryans when he is up against stronger inmates. His time as Cutler's slave changes him, however, and at the climax of the series he begins to feel some remorse for his actions.

Season 2.

In 1997, Robson is forced to bunk with his current cellmate, Peter Vinyard as well as Tobias Beecher and Bob Rebadow, since Emerald City had transferred all of its inmates over to his cellblock after the riot. The whole prison is now under lockdown until things settle down, but until then, the cellblock is overcrowded. Robson tries to force Beecher to perform fellatio on him, but Beecher turns the tables on him by biting off the tip of his penis.

Season 3.

Robson reappears, this time as a full-fledged member of the Aryan Brotherhood inside of Oz. He serves little purpose in season 3 other than following Schillinger's schemes and encouraging him to do whatever he needs to do to maintain the power of the Brotherhood. He also participates in Oz's boxing tournament, as the Aryans' representative. He faced Cyril O'Reily, but unbeknownst to him, Cyril's older brother Ryan had spiked Robson's drinking water with chloral hydrate (stolen and smuggled from the prison hospital) to make sure Cyril wouldn't lose. Robson, incapacitated by the drug, loses the fight.

Season 4.

For the first half of the season, Robson is mainly seen as a supporter of Schillinger and the rest of his Aryan brothers, aiding in whatever plot he could. In the latter half, however, he slowly evolves into a more significant character. When Schillinger begins to spend more time with Christian leader Jeremiah Cloutier, Robson temporarily runs the Aryan Brotherhood's business, gradually becoming disillusioned with his former mentor. He is thrown into The Hole after getting in a fight over a joke that the Muslims overheard. Robson blames Muslim leader Kareem Said, and forms an alliance with black inmate Leroy Tidd, who also hated Said for killing his friend, Simon Adebisi. The two plot to kill Said. Tidd pretends to convert to Islam to get close to Said. However, when Tidd's conversion becomes genuine, he pulls out of the plan. Robson then bullies a younger inmate named Carl Jenkins into killing Said by promising to initiate him into the Brotherhood, as well as threatening to sell him as a sex slave (i.e. a "prag") to the black inmates if he fails. Jenkins kills Tidd instead when Tidd protects Said, and is thrown into solitary confinement. Cloutier, on Said's behalf, approaches Jenkins and convinces him to give up Robson as the man who ordered the murder. Jenkins does so, but later commits suicide for fear of the Aryans' retaliation. Since prison authorities have no testimony against Robson; he is released from solitary and cleared of the charge. He then enrages Said by taunting him about the deaths of Tidd and Jenkins. Said beats Robson unconscious, further escalating the war between the Aryans and the Muslims. By this time, Schillinger has resumed running the Brotherhood, much to Robson's relief. The war worsens when the Muslims protect Beecher, Schillinger's longtime enemy, when he comes up for parole. When Robson and Schillinger taunt Beecher for losing his parole, Said shanks both of them. They both end up in the hospital with severe stab wounds and deepened rancor toward Beecher and Said.

Season 5.

Both Robson and Schillinger return to Oz after recovering from their wounds, ready to take revenge. The war is put on hold, however, when Schillinger participates in interaction sessions with Said, Beecher, and Sister Peter Marie to help prevent more violence. When Schillinger finds out that Chucky Pancamo, leader of the Sicilians, had his son Hank killed, he goes after them, and Robson himself shanks Pancamo, putting him in the hospital. Later, Peter Schibetta attempts to stab Schillinger. Schibetta is beaten and gang-raped by Robson, Schillinger, and another Aryan who simultaneously taunt Schibetta with racial slurs and references to his rape by Adebisi.  Soon afterward, two new white inmates, Franklin Winthrop and Adam Guenzel, arrive in Oz to serve time for raping a college girl. They are young, scared and weak, and the Aryans used this weakness to their advantage. In Unit B, the Aryans save Winthrop from an overweight black inmate named Clarence Seroy who tries to rape him — only to keep him as their sexual slave. After parading Winthrop in drag, Robson tells Beecher he would rape Guenzel (a family friend). Beecher then enlists the Italians to protect Guenzel. In the gym, Robson tries to rape Guenzel, but Frank Urbano defends him and puts Robson in the hospital. Schillinger manipulates Guenzel into turning against Beecher, who then retracts his protection. Robson then kills a young Muslim named Ahmad Lalar with the help of another Aryan inmate.  When Robson visits the infirmary, prison dentist Dr. Tariq Faraj tells him that he has gum disease and needs new gums grafted from a cadaver. Robson hurls racial slurs at the Pakistani dentist, but agrees to the surgery. After the surgery, however, Faraj takes revenge by telling Robson that his new gums are from a black man. Panicked, Robson asks Schillinger for advice, and Schillinger confers with the outside leader of the Aryan nations. The two leaders conclude that, if in fact Robson received these gums, then he is to be cast out of the gang, as he is no longer considered "pure". Faraj secretly pays black inmate Arnold "Poet" Jackson to spread the word about Robson's gums, which actually are those of a black man. In the cafeteria, Poet and Ryan O'Reilly, who hate Robson, announce to the entire prison population that Robson has "dirty ghetto gums." Furious, Robson demands to know whose gums were put in his mouth and attacks Faraj, who, after hitting him in the mouth with a phone, lets him know his gums were purposefully donated by a black man. Robson is thrown into the hole and as the outside Aryan Nation leaders learn of this, Schillinger reluctantly kicks Robson out of the Brotherhood. Desperate to get back in, he buys heroin to use as an anaesthetic in an attempt to personally remove his new gums with a razorblade. The heroin turns out to be woefully inadequate as a painkiller, with Robson being almost immediately overcome with severe pain and bringing guards to his cell with his loud screams. After being thrown in solitary, Robson is next seen with the gums fully attached.

Season 6.

In the final season of "Oz", Pancamo recovers from the shank wound Robson gave him and is released from the infirmary. With no allies to back him up, Robson now faces a grave threat from the Italians. He asks for protection from the Aryans, who refuse, except for Wolfgang Cutler, who agrees to protect Robson in return for Robson becoming his sex slave. After talking with Sister Pete, Robson reveals that he was raped by his father when he was six years old, and asks if it is acceptable to do "anything" to survive. Afterwards, Robson accepts Cutler's offer, who immediately sodomizes him with a spoon. Cutler then forces him to dress in drag and perform bizarre sexual favors. In return, Cutler defends Robson (now his cellmate) from Pancamo. The Italians then offer Robson a deal: they would call a truce if he kills Cutler. Robson tells Sister Pete that Cutler is suicidal and then persuades Cutler to try auto-erotic asphyxiation. The next morning Cutler's body is found in his cell, hanging by a noose tied to the bunkbed. The authorities rule Cutler's death as a suicide.  Robson is allowed to re-enter the Brotherhood and now is free from both Cutler and the Italians, but his rape still haunts him. During a visit with his wife, he violently manhandles her to the point where she called him a "cocksucker." Angered, Robson assaults her and ends up, once again, in The Hole. Remorseful, he goes to psychotherapy sessions and a rape support group. At the support group meeting, he learns from the other inmates, who all finish their stories of being violated with the phrase "I had no choice." He briefly recovers his equilibrium, but soon learns that he is HIV-positive. Department of Corrections standards mean that he is transferred to Unit F, the AIDS ward. Before he goes, he thanks the support group for helping him through the trauma and says that he initially blamed Cutler for his infection, but since he had unprotected sex before, he comes to claim the responsibility as his.  In the extended version of the finale "Exeunt Omnes", Robson is shown once again allowing himself to be raped by black inmate Clarence Seroy (Robson knowing that Seroy will become infected). He then tells Schillinger that he will be transferred to the AIDS ward. As Seroy walks by them, he tells Schillinger that he raped Robson. Schillinger, disgusted that Robson would let a black man rape him, throws Robson out of the Brotherhood for good, with Robson stating that he doesn't care and that not all of the inmates living in the AIDS ward are gay. Robson then tells Seroy to get tested because he might be HIV-positive. Angered, Seroy punches Robson before he is taken away by the COs. Robson then taunts a terrified Schillinger with his blood. He is later transferred out of Oz when the prison becomes contaminated by anthrax; meanwhile, Seroy learns he has been infected with HIV after raping Robson.

James Robson is a fictional character in the television series "Oz", portrayed by R.E. Rodgers. Originally, Robson was supposed to be on for one episode ("The Tip") and then never to be seen again. However, series creator Tom Fontana was impressed by Rodgers, so Robson became a regular from the third season to the final episode.


Club career.

In winter 2016, at the age of 19, Sousa joined Al Arabi club in the Stars League for half a season 2015–2016. The following season he was loaned to Al-Markhiya in the Second Division. Sousa left the team before 5 rounds than end, then moved to Denmark.

Vejle Boldklub.

On 9 February 2017, Vejle Boldklub announced that Sousa had traveled with the team at training camp in Turkey prior to spring in the 2016–2017 season. The club also wrote that Sousa on the 12 day training camp would sign its agreement with the traditional club.  He established himself from the start of the spring season as a starter in the club, but scored first his first VB goal on May 7, when he delivered a direct free kick to VB at 1–1 home against AB.  In the following 2017–2018 season, he scored 9 goals in league and scored up to 8 VB scores in 28 matches. Thus he was a crucial player in Vejle Boldklub's return to Danish Superliga.  He started the 2018–2019 season in Superliga to score Vejle Boldklub's first goal this season when he put VB ahead of 1–0 in what ended up being a 3–1 victory over Hobro IK. He also followed up in the subsequent two matches against Brøndby IF and AGF, respectively. Prior to the third match in the season against AGF, Sousa extended its contract with VB until summer 2021.  On 16 July 2019 it was confirmed, that Sousa had extended his contract with Vejle and would be loaned out to Belgian club Sint-Truidense.

Allan Gonçalves Sousa (born 27 January 1997), is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Sint-Truiden on loan from Danish club Vejle Boldklub.


Description.

Well-developed leaves with 5-9 lobes; abaxial surfaces of leaves pubescent, but not densely so; infructescence rarely longer than 2 cm, with bracts and bracteoles less than 1 cm long, and notable spinulose-ciliate Inflorescences: staminate inflorescences erect, 15–25 cm, flower anthers without glands; pistillate inflorescences spikes, conelike, ovoid; bracteole ovate-orbiculate, 7–10 mm, pilose, margins densely ciliate-hairy. Infructescences pendulous, green, conelike, ovoid to oblong, (1-)1.5-3(-4) cm; bracteoles without yellow glands.

Dispersal.

Seeds germinate in early spring, but plants may continue to emerge if conditions are favorable. Seeds can be dispersed by number of agents including humans, animals, machines, and flood waters.

Distribution and habitat.

"Humulus japonicus" originates in temperate regions of Asia and the Tropics of Vietnam, but has become an invasive species in North America since it was imported in the 1800s. The plant has been immensely successful in North America, where it has an enormous range. It can be found throughout eastern Canada and the eastern half of the United States. In the United States "Humulus japonicus" has a lateral range from North Dakota to Maine and a vertical range from Minnesota to Georgia. Japanese hops grow well given plentiful sunlight, moisture, and nutrient rich soil, and are most commonly found along stream banks and floodplains. Japanese hops do not grow as well in shaded areas and drier soils. In milder climates, it can survive the winter.

Ecological threat.

The Japanese hop can adapt well to new environments. Its range and distribution in North America prove that it can thrive in a wide range of environments, from the southern regions of the U.S. to the far reaches of northern of Canada. It can grow and cover any area quickly. Thousands of hop plants can grow in one acre, and they can blanket a majority of the local vegetation. The vines grow rapidly during the summer, climbing up and over everything in their path, and can form dense mats several feet deep, blocking light to plants underneath.

Humulus japonicus, known as wild hop or Japanese hop, synonym "H. scandens", is an ornamental plant in the family Cannabaceae. Originally found in temperate parts of Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia) and the tropical environment of Vietnam, it was imported to North America in the 1800s for use in an Asian tonic and as an ornamental plant. Since its arrival in North America, it has spread widely. It can be found throughout the Northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada. It is considered an invasive species in North America. The composition and chemistry of its oils differ from those of its relative the common hop, "Humulus lupulus." As a result, the Japanese hop is not used in the production of beer.


List of first generation home video game consoles

Repetition and similarities.

Naming.

Possibly due to it being a new technology, unknown by most of the public, manufacturers placed emphasis on what the console was, and what it could do, with little to tell them apart. The most common elements were usually:  This led to many consoles being nearly identical in name, possibly leading to market confusion.

Identical consoles.

A lot of the consoles were either copies of others, had very similar form factors with different inputs, or were just distributed under different names in different regions. An example being the Binatone line, being also released simultaneously under the names "Mentor" and "Tokyo". Name changes are most commonly exemplified by the Sears Tele-Games line, which consisted of existing Coleco, APF and Atari Consoles, only difference being the Sears branding; Other examples include;

Clone consoles.

Although most consoles are near identical game play wise, due to the use of the same integrated circuits, some consoles were more blatant on their copying, and tried to mimic specific consoles. An example of what is possibly the first clone video game console is the Spanish Overkal created by Inter Electrónica S. A. in 1974, that cloned the Magnavox Odyssey released two years earlier in the US, and in Europe by ITT as the Odyssee one year earlier, with similar shape, controllers, color scheme, and even all the accessories included, such as the poker chips, paper money, play board, and even the overlays;

Light Gun Functionality.

Some consoles had light gun style games included in the system alongside the other sports games modes. While supported, some consoles included the accessory in the box, while others needed to be purchased separately. The first Light Gun, the shotgun that worked with the Odyssey and came with the game Shooting Gallery was an optional game. Some were later included with the console in a bundle.  Some guns, like the one on the Coleco Telstar Marksman, came with a removable stock and barrel parts to attach to the gun depending on play style.  Light Guns of this era have realistic proportions, shape and color, due to the fact that during the 70's and 80's there were no laws against the depiction of realistic weapons in children's toys. While some manufacturers later chose to use bright colors and more sci-fi designs, the prohibition of such designs in the US only came in 1992.

Market saturation.

Video game crash of 1977.

While the video game crash of 1983 lasted three years without innovation and further stagnation, the video game crash of 1977 was a more instantaneous event, because what caused it was the existence of cartridge based consoles like the Fairchild Channel F the year before, and the popular Atari 2600, among many others that were available on the market.  Being able to purchase new, better and different games for the same console at a reduced price, instead of several identical consoles that occupied more space and a connection on the TV, lead to the fall of dedicated consoles, in favor of better technologies. The transition was abrupt, so manufacturers scrambled to replace or sell aging tech.  Atari considered creating a second cartridge console to implement their surplus of processors from their dedicated line of consoles, which took the form of the Atari Game Brain to be released in 1978, but the plan ultimately fell through, as it would create confusion with their more successful console, and so it was canceled.  While these consoles mostly disappeared from America in 1978, in other regions of the world, most notably Europe and Japan, these consoles were thriving, as second generation consoles didn't have a strong presence. This led to a family of clone consoles that had their CPUs in individual cartridges.

Permanence in the market.

More than 200 different companies were involved in the first generation, and while more than half only released one console, it's still a large number of companies compared to the 20 that partook on the second generation.  There were only manufacturers to create consoles past the first generation. The rest never entered the video game console market again. When only counting those who took part in the Second Generation, meaning companies that released a new platform after first generation, there's only 12.  Nintendo is the only company that participated in the first generation that still presently manufactures video game consoles.

List of systems.

The following is a list in alphabetical order of the manufacturers, followed by the name of the console, release year, integrated chip if it had one, and whether it came with a light gun or the option to buy one separately. This list is in no way complete, as there are hundreds of consoles, some with color, name, or hardware variations.  For comparison, there are'home platforms starting with the second generation, and'handheld consoles, totaling.

Released systems.

There are first-generation home video game consoles in this list but more than 900 are known to exist. ∑ items.

Canceled Systems.

A lot of systems were released, but some were cancelled during development or never made it to market, with some prototypes existing.  There are known first-generation home video game consoles that were never released.

The first generation of video game consoles lasted approximately 12 years. The first console of the generation was the 1972 Magnavox Odyssey, and the final one was the 1978 Elwro Television Game 10 (TVG-10), later sold by PPZ Ameprod from 1981 until 1984. The last new console release of the generation was most likely the Compu-Vision 440 by radio manufacturer Bentley in 1983, although other systems were also released in that year. The first console generation overlaps with the second and third generations, which comprise more advanced consoles than the first generation and lasted from 1976–1992 and 1983–2003.


Background.

In the 2017 general election, the Liberal Democrats gained four seats compared to the previous election despite a falling share of the vote, maintaining the party as the fourth largest in the House of Commons. Some prominent Liberal Democrat MPs who lost their seats in the 2015 election regained their seats, including Cable, Ed Davey and Jo Swinson. Former party leader Nick Clegg lost his seat.  Tim Farron, the party's leader, was re-elected in his Westmorland and Lonsdale constituency with a significantly reduced majority. He announced he would step down as party leader on 14 June 2017, a week after the election, citing difficulty in reconciling his faith and his leadership. He remained as party leader until the 20 July, when he was succeeded by Vince Cable following an uncontested leadership election.

Election rules.

The timetable for the leadership election was determined by the party's Federal Executive, under Article 17.4 of the Liberal Democrat constitution.  Liberal Democrat leadership elections use the alternative vote (instant runoff) system, with all Liberal Democrat party members being entitled to vote under a "one member, one vote" system.  Candidates had to be current Liberal Democrat MPs. Article 17.5 of the Liberal Democrat constitution requires that any candidate wishing to stand must be a Member of Parliament and must have the support of:

Timetable.

The election timetable was as follows:

Campaign.

Despite being the bookmakers' favourite, Jo Swinson announced on 18 June that she would not stand for the leadership. She explained that she had decided to contest the deputy leadership before hearing of Farron's resignation and that she had decided that the deputy leadership was the right role for her at the time. On 20 June, Swinson was elected unopposed as deputy leader. This left Ed Davey, Norman Lamb and Vince Cable as the most likely contenders. Cable declared his candidacy on 20 June.  There was some speculation that Swinson had chosen to support Cable to lead for two or three years before taking over the leadership herself, given his age compared to other potential leadership candidates. "The Daily Telegraph" claimed that Swinson and Cable had agreed a deal to this effect. While both Swinson and Cable denied this, Cable did tell the Telegraph that "it is a simple fact of life if I decided in three years' time to let someone else take over she is ideally placed to do it".  Lamb had stood in the last leadership election, and has been praised for his work on mental health. He was expected to be more centrist and less stridently oppositional to Brexit, and his abstention on the vote for the Article 50 notification triggering Brexit was seen as a potential weakness within the strongly pro-EU party. He declined to stand, and explained his decision in an article in "The Guardian", calling for the party to better engage with those who voted for Brexit.  Davey originally planned to support Swinson. He has been associated with the "" wing of the party. On 27 June, Davey announced he would not be standing for the leadership, citing "the need to be there for my young children and not continually away from home".  After Davey's announcement, "The Guardian" observed: "Nominations do not close until next month, but Cable is the only candidate to have declared and there is no other Lib Dem MP seen as having the potential to beat him in a contest". By 3 July 2017, ten of the eleven other Liberal Democrat MPs had declared they would not be standing; this left Christine Jardine, who was only elected to Parliament in June 2017, as the only remaining potential challenger who had not declared their intent. By 14 July, Vince Cable claimed that every other MP had pledged to support him.

Opinion polling.

Before close of nominations.

The following survey was conducted before the close of nominations and therefore includes candidates who did not put themselves forward.

Result.

At 16:00 on 20 July 2017, Vince Cable was the only nominated candidate and was declared leader of the Liberal Democrats.

The 2017 Liberal Democrats leadership election was held following the resignation of Tim Farron as leader on 14 June 2017, after just under two years as leader of the Liberal Democrats. At the close of applications on 20 July 2017, Vince Cable was the only nominated candidate and was therefore declared the new leader of the party.


History.

The name Hurstville is derived from the English 'hurst', meaning 'a wooded eminence', and 'ville', meaning 'town'.

Aboriginal culture.

Although it is unknown when they first settled in the Hurstville area, the first inhabitants were Indigenous Australians. At the time of the arrival of the First Fleet, the Indigenous Australians residing in the area were of the Eora tribe, whose numbers spanned along the Georges River, from Botany Bay to present-day Liverpool.

European settlement.

The first sustained contact between members of the First Fleet and the Eora tribe, occurred on 20 January 1788 within the boundaries of the present City of Hurstville at Lugarno and Oatley, at Lime Kiln Bay on the Georges River, as recorded by Lieutenant Philip Gidley King in his diary. While Governor Philip explored the south side of the Georges River around Como, King with a party of one other officer and three marines in a six-oared rowboat aimed for the highest point they could see on the north side, probably at Lugarno, and landed at a place they named Lance Point. Although first contact with the Indigenous Australians led to a small altercation where a spear was thrown and a shot fired, later in the day when the party rowed up Lime Kiln Bay towards present day Mortdale they were greeted in a friendly manner by both men and women, and what could only be described as Australia's first picnic took place as food and drink were shared between the two peoples. After a long summer afternoon of mutual contact and conviviality the British sailors rowed back to their ship moored at Botany Bay (see Haworth R.J. 2012, Journal of Australian Colonial History, vol. 14 pp. 1–28, for a reconstruction of King's boat journey and likely route).  The land of the Hurstville region was granted by the government of the new colony of New South Wales to two men: Captain John Townson and his brother Robert Townson in 1808. Captain John Townson was granted 1950 acres (7.9 km2) of land which is now occupied by the suburb of Hurstville and part of Bexley. Robert Townson was granted the land which is now occupied by Penshurst, Mortdale and parts of Peakhurst. In the same year, in the area now known as Riverwood land grants were made to Jane Trotter, Mary Shepley, Charles Doudall, and James Ryan. Later in 1816 another land grant in the same area was given to Mary Redman.  In 1809, Captain John Townson was granted an additional 250 acres (1 km2) in the area now occupied by Kingsgrove and Beverly Hills. The Townson brothers were not happy with the land that they were given because it was not suitable for the farming of sheep for wool and it is likely that the brothers never occupied their land. In 1812, a wealthy merchant named Simeon Lord bought the land of Captain John Townson and named it "Lord's Forest". When Lord died, the land became the property of John Rose Holden and James Holt of the Bank of NSW.

Sproule family.

"Gladwyn" is an historic, Italianate house at 96 Queens Road. It was built in 1893 by John Sproule, a local builder and alderman of Hurstville Council, who had acquired the land two years previously. It changed hands many times and was known as "Gladwyn" by 1906. Hurstville Council eventually acquired the house in 1986. It has been restored and adapted for commercial use, as well as serving as the base for the Hurstville Archival Research and Local Studies Centre. It is heritage-listed at state and local level.  In 1895, Ann Sproule bought land on the opposite side of Queens Road from the Winn brothers of Newcastle, New South Wales. John Sproule then built "Yarra-Mundi" in 1897, and lived there until 1904. The house then changed hands a number of times over the years. In 1981 it was acquired by the Danebank Church of England School for Girls. The school later sold the house in 2003 and it was subsequently adapted for commercial use. It is heritage-listed.

Development.

A dam with a roadway on top was constructed on the Cooks River at Tempe in 1839. In 1843, the road that was to become known as Forest Road was extended from the dam to a hand-winched punt in Lugarno. On the other side of the river, the road continued all the way to Wollongong; however, it was only suitable for travellers on horseback. The new road opened up the Hurstville region and created a settlement at Bottle Forest, now known as Heathcote.  In 1850, the Lord Forest estate was purchased by Michael Gannon (1800–61), who subdivided it into small farms along what is now Croydon Road and three larger farms that were purchased by Dent, Peake, and Ibbotson. The area became known as Gannon's Forest. The land originally granted to Robert Townson was purchased by John Connell in 1830 and, following his death in 1849, the estate was inherited by his grandsons, Elias Pearson Laycock and John Connell Laycock.  The Gannon's Forest post office opened in 1881. The local school was named "Hurstville" by School Inspector MacIntyre when it was established in 1876. When the railway station opened on 15 October 1884, it took the name Hurstville, from the school. Hurstville municipality was incorporated in 1887 and, in 1988, Hurstville was declared a city. The Centenary Bakery on Forest Road is a historic building that has been preserved and once housed a museum. The St George Regional Museum is now located in another historic building in MacMahon Street.  The Hurstville train crash on 3 August 1920 resulted in five people killed and fifty injured. It involved the collision of two steam trains, one arriving from Central Railway Station, which plunged into the back of the other, which was stationary at Hurstville railway station, bound for Sutherland.  Hurstville's residential developments are a mixture of low-density housing, medium-density flats, and high-density apartment buildings.

Economy.

Hurstville is the central business district of the St George area. It is a large, multiethnic suburb with a multitude of commercial buildings and high-rise residential buildings dominating the skyline.  The commercial area is centred on the main street, Forest Road, on the northern side of Hurstville Railway station. Forest Road is the main shopping street which features branches of many retail shops as well as numerous banks and other financial institutions. The commercial developments also extend to surrounding streets concentrated from Queens Road to The Avenue and on the southern side of Hurstville Railway station, around Ormonde Parade. The commercial developments extend further along Forest Road, west towards Penshurst and east towards Bexley.

Retail and shopping.

Hurstville has two major shopping centres, Westfield Hurstville and Hurstville Central. There are also a few smaller shopping centres such as Hurstville Times Plaza, East Quarter, Metro Centre, Hurstville City Centre and Union Arcade.

Restaurants and cafes.

Hurstville has a wide variety of restaurants and cafes and is known as a major dining destination in the St George area of Sydney. There are a large number of Chinese (including Cantonese), Japanese and Korean restaurants and eateries.

Other.

The administrative offices of the City of Hurstville are located in the Hurstville Civic Centre in MacMahon Street. This street also features a number of historic buildings such as the Friendly Pharmacy, old Fire Station, Ritz Hotel and Hurstville Museum & Gallery (formerly known as the St George Regional Museum), which houses the cake decorating collection formerly held at the Australian Cakes and Sugar Art Museum. Hurstville City Library is located nearby on Queens Road.

Culture.

The St Clair Recording Studio operated for about a year from December 1965 to December 1966 and recorded the Bee Gees among other musicians. AC/DC played at the Hurstville Civic Centre (Marana Hall/Rivoli Hall) on eight occasions between 1974-1977.  A karaoke place opened in 2011 near the Meridian Hotel, the first ever one in Hurstville.  The Hurstville Museum & Gallery focuses on local history, art, and culture. According to the Museum's website, it "is home to high quality exhibitions, a diverse range of public programs and a collection of approximately 5,000 objects and artworks from the local area."

Transport.

Hurstville railway station is a major station on the Illawarra line of the Sydney Trains network. All Suburban and all Intercity trains stop at Hurstville. Hurstville is 20 minutes from Sydney Central railway station on the express service. Hurstville is a major bus interchange with bus services departing from Forest Road and Ormonde Parade. Hurstville is also serviced by St George Community Transport, a HACC funded transport service for the Frail Aged, people with disability and their carers.

Churches.

St George's Hurstville Anglican Church, St Michael's Roman Catholic Church, Hurstville Presbyterian Church, Hurstville Church of Christ, Hurstville Uniting Church, Hurstville Seventh-day Adventist Church, Hurstville Assemblies of God, Salvation Army, Church of the Living God.

Population.

Demographics.

The first European settlers in the area were mostly of British and Irish ancestry. From the late 1960s, Hurstville, like many surrounding areas, became home to migrants from all around the world. The first wave of migrants included Greeks and Italians who began moving south from Sydney's inner-city suburbs. They were followed by more European migrants, including many from the former Yugoslavia.  From the 1990s, the Chinese community within Hurstville has grown considerably. Much of this was related to significant migration from Hong Kong during the 1990s and migration from Mainland China during the 2000s. Many local businesses are operated by people of Chinese background, the interests of which are advanced by the St. George Asian Business Association. Hurstville is a hub for Asian groceries, food and services.  According to the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population, there were 29,822 residents in Hurstville. 27.8% of people were born in Australia. The most common countries of birth were China 36.9%, Nepal 7.1%, Hong Kong 4.0%, Indonesia 1.8% and India 1.5%. 18.1% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 32.3%, Cantonese 17.9%, Nepali 7.2%, Arabic 2.8% and Greek 2.5%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion 42.7%, Catholic 11.8%, Hinduism 8.2% and Buddhism 8.1%. The most common ancestries in Hurstville were Chinese 49.4%, English 6.6%, Nepalese 6.6%, Australian 5.1% and Greek 2.9% and 1.3% Filipinos.

Hurstville is a suburb in southern Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is 16 kilometres south of the Sydney CBD and is part of the St George area. Hurstville is the administrative centre of the local government area of the Georges River Council.


Discovery.

K2-18b was identified as part of the Kepler space telescope program, one of over 1,200 exoplanets discovered during the "Second Light" K2 mission. The discovery of K2-18b was made in 2015, orbiting a red dwarf star (now known as K2-18) with a stellar spectral type of M2.8 about from Earth. The planet was detected through variations in the star's light curve caused by the transit of the planet in front of the star as seen from Earth. The planet was designated "K2-18b" as it was the eighteenth planet discovered during the K2 mission. The predicted relatively low contrast between the planet and its host star would make it easier to observe K2-18b's atmosphere in the future.  In 2017, data from the Spitzer Space Telescope confirmed that K2-18b orbits in the habitable zone around K2-18 with a 33-day period, short enough to allow for observations of multiple K2-18b orbital cycles and improving the statistical significance of the signal. This led to widespread interest in continued observations of K2-18b.  Later studies on K2-18b using the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) and the Calar Alto high-Resolution search for M dwarfs with Exoearths with Near-infrared and optical Echelle Spectrographs (CARMENES) instruments also identified a likely second exoplanet, K2-18c, with an estimated mass of in a tighter, 9-day orbit, but this additional planet has not yet been confirmed, and may instead be due to stellar activity.

Location.

K2-18 is in the constellation of Leo, but outside its lion asterism. When first discovered, K2-18's distance from Earth was estimated to be. However, more precise data from the "Gaia" star mapping project has shown K2-18 to be at a distance of. This improved distance measurement helped to refine the properties of the exoplanetary system.

Physical characteristics.

K2-18b orbits K2-18 at about, which lies within the calculated habitable zone for the red dwarf,. The exoplanet has an orbital period of about 33 days, which suggests it is tidally locked, with the same face to its host star. The planet's equilibrium temperature is estimated to be around, due to its stellar irradiance of approximately 94% of Earth's. K2-18b is estimated to have a radius of and a mass of, based on analysis using HARPS and CARMENES instruments as well as followup observations from Spitzer. It was initially considered a mini-Neptune on its 2015 discovery, but improved data on K2-18b has classified it as a super-Earth. A later study from 2019 classified the planet as a sub-Neptune. A comparison of K2-18b's size, orbit, and other features to other detected exoplanets suggests that the planet could support an atmosphere that contains additional gases besides hydrogen and helium.

Discovery of water.

Further studies using the Hubble Space Telescope were performed, corroborating the results of the "Kepler" and "Spitzer" observations and allowing additional measurements of the planet's atmosphere. Two separate analyses by researchers at Université de Montréal and University College London (UCL) of the Hubble data were published in 2019. Both examined spectra of starlight passing through the planet's atmosphere during transits, finding that K2-18b has a hydrogen–helium atmosphere with a high concentration of water vapor, which could range from between 0.01% to 12.5%, up to between 20% and 50%, depending on what other gaseous species are present in the atmosphere. At the upper concentration levels, the water vapor would be sufficiently high to form clouds. The UCL-led study was published on 11 September 2019 in the journal "Nature Astronomy"; the study led from the Université de Montréal was posted one day earlier on the preprint server arXiv.org and later published in "The Astrophysical Journal Letters". The UCL-led analysis detected water with a statistical significance of 3.6 standard deviations, equivalent to a confidence level of 99.97%.  This was the first super-Earth exoplanet within a star's habitable zone whose atmosphere was detected, and the first discovery of water in a habitable-zone exoplanet. Water had previously been detected in the atmospheres of non-habitable-zone exoplanets such as HD 209458 b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.  Astronomers emphasised that the discovery of water in the atmosphere of K2-18b does not mean the planet can support life or is even habitable, as it probably lacks any solid surface or an atmosphere that can support life. Nevertheless, finding water in a habitable zone exoplanet helps understand how planets are formed. A study led by astronomers from the University of Cambridge considered the interior structure of the planet and found a range of possible solutions, from a rocky core with a thick hydrogen envelope to a planet primarily made up of water with a thinner atmosphere. A subset of these solutions could allow for liquid water on the surface of the planet, albeit at temperatures and pressures higher than STP. K2-18b is now expected to be observed with the James Webb Space Telescope, due to launch in 2021, and the ARIEL space telescope, due to launch in 2028. Both will carry instruments designed to determine the composition of exoplanet atmospheres.

K2-18b, also known as EPIC 201912552 b, is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf K2-18, located away from Earth. The planet, initially discovered with the Kepler space telescope, is about eight times the mass of Earth, and is thus classified as a super Earth. It has a 33-day orbit within the star's habitable zone.


Early life.

The second son of Sir Robert Walpole, he was educated at Eton (1718) and King’s College, Cambridge (1725) and studied law at Lincoln's Inn (1723), where he was called to the bar in 1727. He undertook a Grand Tour in Italy in 1730.

Political career.

Walpole first entered Parliament as Member for Lostwithiel in a by-election on 29 April 1730, following the death of Sir Edward Knatchbull earlier that month. He was appointed junior Secretary to the Treasury the same year.  On 2 May 1734, in the next general election, he succeeded his uncle Horatio Walpole as Member of Parliament for Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, retaining the seat for nearly 34 years until the 1768 election, when his first cousin the Hon. Richard Walpole (son of Lord Walpole of Wolterton) replaced him.  On 7 September 1737 the Duke of Devonshire was named Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole his Chief Secretary, though he also continued as Secretary to the Treasury. Walpole was sworn of the Privy Council of Ireland on 8 October that year and stood for Ballyshannon in the Irish House of Commons, a seat he held until 1760.  On 9 May 1739 Edward Walpole's elder brother Robert, Lord Walpole resigned his post of Clerk of the Pells in order to become an Auditor of the Exchequer, and Edward was appointed to succeed him, holding the office until his death. On 27 August 1753 Walpole was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath, the order re-founded by his father in 1725.

Family.

Walpole lived for a time at Frogmore House in Windsor, Berkshire which he bought in 1748 and sold in 1766. He then bought a house in Windsor, which he gave to his daughter Laura Keppel in 1778, and spent his last years in Isleworth, where he died in 1784.  He had never married, but had a son (who predeceased him) and three daughters by his partner Dorothy Clement:

Sir Edward Walpole KB PC (Ire) (1706 – 12 January 1784) was a British politician, and a younger son of Sir Robert Walpole, Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742.


History.

Historically in the County of Dunbarton, its original name is "Clachan dhu", or 'dark village'. Ben Lomond, the most southerly Munro, dominates the view north over the loch, and the Luss Hills rise to the west of the village.  Saint Kessog brought Christianity to Luss at some uncertain date in the 'Dark Ages'. A number of early medieval and medieval monuments survive in the present churchyard, including simple cross-slabs which may date to as early as the 7th century AD, and a hogback grave-cover of the 11th century. A well-preserved late medieval effigy of a bishop is preserved within the modern church. The present Church of Scotland place of worship was built in 1875 by Sir James Colquhoun, in memory of his father who had drowned in the loch in December 1873. The church is noted for its online services as well as for holding over one hundred weddings per year, mostly for couples from outwith the parish. Luss is the ancestral home of Clan Colquhoun and the McInturners of Luss, a sept of Clan Lamont.

Places of interest.

Nowadays Luss is a conservation village, with a bypass carrying the busy A82 trunk road. In its position just off the main road to the West Highlands, it is visited by many tourists, and has a large car and coach park and a number of tourist-oriented shops. Many of Luss' cottages have been described as picturesque. The village has a kiltmaker and a bagpipe works. In recent years, Luss became famous as a result of being the main outdoor location for the Scottish Television drama series "Take the High Road". Although the programme is no longer made, some in Luss remain proud of the connection: its fictional name, 'Glendarroch', is used for some buildings.  About a mile south of the village, in a cove at Aldochlay, is a small figure on a stone plinth. A contemporary legend evolved that it is a memorial to a child drowned in the loch, but it was in fact erected in 1890 by a local stonemason, who found the statue in a London scrapyard. 'Wee Peter', as he is locally known, was moved to the site after a brief spell near the railway, and has remained there ever since.

Facilities.

The village hosts a water taxi service to Balloch, at the south of the loch, allowing visitors to transfer onwards to Glasgow by train or visit its shopping centre, Lomond Shores. Luss Pier is a popular starting point for boat trips on the loch.  The Loch Lomond Golf Club, which was for a number of years the site of the Barclays Scottish Open, is within the village's borders.

Luss ("Lus", 'herb' in Gaelic) is a village in Argyll & Bute, Scotland, on the west bank of Loch Lomond. The village is within the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.