Geography.

Masonville is located in south-central Daviess County at (37.683612, -87.036563). U.S. Route 231 passes through the center of the CDP. The William H. Natcher Parkway forms the eastern border of the CDP, but there is no exit for the community. Owensboro, the county seat, is to the northwest, and Hartford is to the southeast.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the Masonville CDP has a total area of, of which is land and, or 0.66%, is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,075 people, 381 households, and 310 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 120.1 people per square mile (46.4/km2). There were 411 housing units at an average density of 45.9/sq mi (17.7/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 99.16% White, 0.09% African American, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.19% of the population.  There were 381 households out of which 41.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.7% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.6% were non-families. 17.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.15.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 30.0% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.7 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $37,171, and the median income for a family was $45,795. Males had a median income of $35,089 versus $19,250 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $20,469. About 10.9% of families and 10.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.2% of those under age 18 and 10.5% of those age 65 or over.

Masonville is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Daviess County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 1,014 at the 2010 census. It is included in the Owensboro Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Personal.

Fearnley was born on 23 March 1981 in the New South Wales town of Cowra as the youngest of five children. He was born with sacral agenesis; he is missing certain parts of his lower spine and all of his sacrum. At the time of his birth, doctors did not believe he would live longer than a week. He grew up in the small New South Wales town of Carcoar. At school, he took part in all sports including athletics and rugby league. He won his first athletics medal in the high jump. He took up wheelchair racing at the age of 14 and took it to an elite level at the age of 17.  After leaving Blayney High School, he moved to Sydney to train and start a Bachelor of Human Movement degree. He lives in Newcastle and is a teacher. He is tall and weighs.  In 2010, Fearnley married Sheridan Rosconi at Glenrock Lagoon. Fearnley and Rosconi met while studying at Charles Sturt University in Bathurst, New South Wales. Their first son, Harry, was born in 2013 with a second child, a daughter Emilia born in 2017. In 2014, his autobiography "Pushing the Limits: Life, Marathons & Kokoda" was published.

Career.

In 1997, Fearnley was a member of the Western Region Academy of Sport and by the 2000 Sydney Paralympics was representing Australia. At these Games, Fearnley won two silver medals in the 800 m and 4×100 m relay events. He also represented his country in the demonstration sport of Men's 1500 m wheelchair, where he came 4th. He went to the 2002 IPC Athletics World Championships in Birmingham, England and finished 7th in both the 400 m and 800 m T54 events.  At the 2004 Olympic Games, he finished 5th in the demonstration sport of Men's 1500 m wheelchair. Following this he won two gold medals in the 5000 m T54 and marathon T54 events at the 2004 Athens Paralympics, for which he received a Medal of the Order of Australia. At the 2006 IPC Athletics World Championships in Assen, Netherlands, he won three gold medals and one bronze medal. Participating in his third Paralympics in Beijing, he won a gold medal in the marathon T54, two silver medals in the 800 m T54 and 5000 m T54 events and a bronze medal in the 1500 m T54 event.  On 30 September 2009, Fearnley conducted a training climb of Sydney's Centrepoint Tower's 1,504 fire stairs in 20 minutes, taking them two at a time. While far short of the 6m 52s record for the annual charity climb (Sydney Tower Run-up), the Tower's manager said this was quicker than the 25 minutes required by most able-bodied people. In 2009, he won his fourth New York City Marathon title, his third consecutive title in the Chicago Marathon and victories in Seoul, Paris, London and Sydney. In November 2009, Fearnley crawled the Kokoda Trail accompanied by family and friends in support of Movember and Beyond Blue. He completed the journey in 10 days. In 2009, he was awarded the Young Australian of the Year for New South Wales.  Fearnley is active in advocacy work, and has been an ambassador for the Don't DIS my ABILITY campaign for four years. He was also a 2010 International Day of People with Disability Ambassador. In 2010, Fearnley competed again in the New York marathon, which he came in third. In the same year his image was featured on the medal for the 2010 Blackmores Sydney Running Festival. He also won a gold medal at the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games in the 1500 m T54 event.  In early 2011 at the IPC Athletics World Championships in Christchurch, New Zealand, he won the marathon. Later in the year, Fearnley competed in the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race.  At the 2012 London Paralympics, he was aiming to be the first person to win three consecutive marathon T54 gold medals. However, he instead won a bronze medal in the Men's Marathon T54 and a silver medal in the Men's 5000 m T54.  Fearnley won a bronze medal in the 1500 m T54 at the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games; he had been fighting a virus in the days before the event. In November 2014, he won his fifth New York Marathon men's wheelchair event. After the competition, he stated "That was one of the toughest races of my life" due to the high winds that nearly forced the cancellation of the wheelchair event.  At the 2015 IPC Athletics World Championships in Doha, he finished fourth in the Men's 5000 m T54 and did not progress to the final of the Men's 1500 m T54. He left Doha immediately to compete in the New York Marathon where he finished fifth after crashing at the 12-mile mark. On Australia Day 2016, he won the Oz Day 10K Wheelchair Road Race for the tenth time joining Louise Sauvage as a ten-time winner of this prestigious wheelchair road race.  At his last Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro in 2016, Fearnley won the silver medal in the Men's Marathon T54 and the bronze medal in the Men's 5000 m T53/54. Fearnley indicated he will race in the wheelchair marathon at the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games and continue to race marathons on the international circuit. At the end of the marathon, Fearnley said: "One of my biggest strengths is that I deal with discomfort better than most."  At the 2017 World Para Athletics Championships in London, England, Fearnley finished sixth in both the Men's 1500 m and 5000 m T54 events.  At the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games, Fearnley won the gold medal in the Men's Marathon T54 and silver in the Men's 1500 T54. He was given the honour of the flag bearer at the closing ceremony.  Fearnley is coached by Andrew Dawes at the New South Wales Institute of Sport.

Boards.

Fearnley extensive experience in disability sport had led him to be appointed to several boards.

Kurt Harry Fearnley, (born 23 March 1981) is an Australian wheelchair racer, who has won gold medals at the Paralympic Games and 'crawled' the Kokoda Track. He has a congenital disorder called sacral agenesis which prevented fetal development of certain parts of his lower spine and all of his sacrum. In Paralympic events he is classified in the T54 classification. He focuses on long and middle-distance wheelchair races, and has also won medals in sprint relays. He participated in the 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2012 Games. Fearnley finished his Paralympic Games career with silver and bronze medals at the 2016 Rio Paralympics. He won a gold and silver medal at the 2018 Commonwealth Games and was the Australian flag bearer at the closing ceremony.


Plot summary.

"So long a letter", or in its original French publication, "Une si longue lettre," is written as a series of letters, known as an epistolary novel, from the main character Ramatoulaye Fall to her best friend Aissatou following the sudden death from heart attack of Ramatoulaye's husband Moudou Ba. The letter is written while Ramatoulaye is going through 'Iddah, a four month and ten day mourning process that widow of the Muslim Senegalese culture must follow. Ramatoulaye begins her first letters by recalling and describing the emotions that flooded her during the first few days after her husband's death and speaks in detail about how he lost his life. She transitions the tone and time by discussing the life she had with her husband, from the beginning of their relationship to his betrayal of a thirty year marriage by secretly marrying his daughter's school best friend to the life he had with his second wife. Throughout this short and compelling novel, Ramatoulaye details to Assiatou, who experienced a similar but different marital situation, how she emotionally dealt with and changed by his betrayal, his death, and being a single mother of many.

Cultural History.

Senegal was home to many indigenous peoples during precolonial times. Around the 9th century AD Islamization spread throughout Senegal due to the expansive trade routes throughout Western Africa. Today, roughly 90 percent of Senegalese society follows Muslim religion while the remaining 10 percent follows forms of Christianity or mixed religions. Although many people follow Muslim religion, Arabic culture is not practiced in Senegal nor is Arabic spoken as the language. Much of their legal codes are from translated passages of the Qu'ran. French colonialism came to Senegal in the 1800s and enforced a separation of church and state. However many still abide by the Qu'ran's laws which shape ideas of gender roles, family life, marriage, and the patrilineal male dominated society.

Analysis.

The letter covered many topics such as polygyny, Senegalese class hierarchy, and religion so, it was difficult to place the genre of the book. Some called it a novel while others referred to Bâ's work as a letter. Critics studied the novel's informal voice, some writing it off as a personal experience rather than the story of many Senegalese women at the time.  Author and associate professor "Uzoma Esonwanne" interpreted the book as a challenge to colonialism while also acknowledging colonial practices. The character "Ramatoulaye's" insistence on being heard and providing inside commentary on the downside of polygyny, made Esonwanne question the part gender plays in this new era of the world.  Author and Yale professor "Christopher L. Miller" found Ba's "So Long a Letter" more journal-like, in that it held her written letter(s) with no one answering back.

Reception.

The letter was used in the western hemisphere to study how strong bonds women formed influenced them. Ramatoulaye and Aissatou’s friendship helped them break away from social norms, gaining social and political respect without a male.  The letter was also used to understand women’s views on polygamy. Some women in Senegal saw fault in polygamy and fought against it. Aissatou leaves her husband for practicing polygamy and Ramatoulaye says no to marriage to another man.  The author was praised for her involvement in expanding African literature as well as feminism through personal accounts of her life.

Themes.

"So Long a Letter" deals with multiple themes, which includes the life of women in Senegal during the 1970s and 1980s, family and community life, Islam and polygamy, and death rituals.  The letters explore the tensions between Ramatoulaye's feminist values (developed largely as a consequence of her French colonial education) and her religion, which is often used a means of justifying the mistreatment of women like herself. However, Ramatoulaye attributes the mistreatment of women by men to the misinterpretation and misappropriation of Islamic scriptures, rather than suggesting that they are inherently sexist.

So Long a Letter () is a semi-autobiographical epistolary novel originally written in French by the Senegalese writer Mariama Bâ. Its theme is the condition of women in Western African society.


History.

Watson was platted in 1869. The village was named after a railroad official. A post office was established at Watson in 1869, and remained in operation until 1965.

Geography.

Watson is located at (40.478975, -95.623762).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 100 people, 40 households, and 28 families living in the village. The population density was. There were 47 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 100.0% White.  There were 40 households of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.0% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 2.96.  The median age in the village was 38.7 years. 21% of residents were under the age of 18; 10% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25% were from 25 to 44; 29% were from 45 to 64; and 15% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 54.0% male and 46.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 121 people, 40 households, and 32 families living in the village. The population density was 1,136.4 people per square mile (424.7/km2). There were 58 housing units at an average density of 544.7 per square mile (203.6/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99.17% White, and 0.83% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.48% of the population.  There were 40 households out of which 42.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.0% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.0% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.03 and the average family size was 3.38.  In the village, the population was spread out with 26.4% under the age of 18, 12.4% from 18 to 24, 22.3% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 120.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 128.2 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $27,750, and the median income for a family was $28,500. Males had a median income of $28,594 versus $23,000 for females. The per capita income for the village was $13,753. There were 9.4% of families and 7.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 15.2% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Notable person.

Current Missouri Supreme Court Judge Zel Fischer grew up in Watson.

Watson is a village in Nishnabotna Township, Atchison County, Missouri, United States. The population was 100 at the 2010 census. It is the westernmost settlement in the state of Missouri, about 120 miles northwest of Kansas City.


Geography.

Gladstone is located in west-central Henderson County at (40.864568, -90.958815). Illinois Route 164 passes through the village, leading north to Oquawka, the county seat, and south to U.S. Route 34. Burlington, Iowa, is southwest of Gladstone via IL-164 and US-34.  According to the 2010 census, Gladstone has a total area of, all land.

History.

Gladstone grew from a Meskwaki village that was led by Taimah in the 1820s. Gladstone was originally named "Sagetown", after Gideon Sage upon whose land the town was platted. Gladstone is named after the English statesman William Ewart Gladstone.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 284 people, 139 households, and 82 families residing in the village. The population density was 722.1 people per square mile (281.2/km2). There were 146 housing units at an average density of 371.2 per square mile (144.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99.30% White, 0.35% African American, and 0.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.35% of the population.  There were 139 households out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.3% were non-families. 36.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.04 and the average family size was 2.64.  In the village, the population was spread out with 20.8% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 27.5% from 45 to 64, and 18.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.0 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $30,694, and the median income for a family was $41,429. Males had a median income of $32,083 versus $20,972 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,245. About 11.5% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.8% of those under the age of eighteen and 23.1% of those sixty five or over.

Gladstone is a village in Henderson County, Illinois, United States. The population was 281 at the 2010 census, down from 284 in 2000. It is part of the Burlington, IA–IL Micropolitan Statistical Area.


History and culture.

Kawakawa starting developing as a town with the mining of coal, which was discovered there in 1861. A horse-drawn tramway was opened in 1868 to carry coal from the mines to the Taumarere wharf. In 1871 two steam locomotives were acquired and the tramway was upgraded to railway standard. In 1884 a railway line from Kawakawa to Opua was opened, and this replaced the line to Taumarere wharf.  By 1899 there were about 1,000 residents in the town, which was built mainly on the hillside. In 1899 a fire destroyed all but a few of the buildings. The town was rebuilt on the flat, alongside the railway tracks. The present railway station was built in 1911.  A railway line south to Whangarei was completed in 1911. Coal mining ceased at Kawakawa in the early 20th century.  The Bay of Islands County headquarters were in Kawakawa until the county was disestablished in 1989.  Kawakawa has three marae affiliated with hapū of Ngāpuhi. Mohinui Marae and its Hohourongo meeting house are affiliated with Ngāti Hine and Ngāti Kahu o Torongare. Kawiti Marae and Te Tawai Riri Maihi Kawiti meeting house, and Miria Marae and Te Rapunga meeting house are also connected to Ngāti Hine.

Demographics.

Kawakawa had a population of 1,464 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 249 people (20.5%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 138 people (10.4%) since the 2006 census. There were 426 households. There were 732 males and 732 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.0 males per female. Of the total population, 405 people (27.7%) were aged up to 15 years, 297 (20.3%) were 15 to 29, 606 (41.4%) were 30 to 64, and 156 (10.7%) were 65 or older. Figures may not add up to the total due to rounding.  Ethnicities were 41.6% European/Pākehā, 73.8% Māori, 8.2% Pacific peoples, 4.5% Asian, and 1.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.  The percentage of people born overseas was 9.4, compared with 27.1% nationally.  Although some people objected to giving their religion, 43.0% had no religion, 37.1% were Christian, and 13.9% had other religions.  Of those at least 15 years old, 123 (11.6%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 231 (21.8%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $22,800. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 465 (43.9%) people were employed full-time, 156 (14.7%) were part-time, and 102 (9.6%) were unemployed.

Features.

The town is known as "Train Town", because the Bay of Islands Vintage Railway runs down the middle of its main street on the former Opua Branch railway line. Eight km of the 17 km track reopened in 2008. At present trains cannot go over "Long Bridge" because rails have not been relaid since it was re-piled, and the track between this bridge at Taumarere and Opua is being used as part of the Twin Coast Cyclepath. When the rails have been relaid, the cyclepath will be moved next to the track.  The town is also famous for its Hundertwasser toilet block, designed by Austrian artist Friedensreich Hundertwasser, who was a resident of the town from 1975 until his death in 2000.  The Kawiti glowworm caves at nearby Waiomio are also an attraction.

Education.

Kawakawa Primary School is a full primary (years 1–8) school with a roll of students.  Bay of Islands College is a secondary (years 9–13) school with a roll of students. It takes students from around the Bay of Islands and middle Northland, with 85% of its students travelling daily by bus to attend.  Both schools are coeducational. Rolls are as of  Karetu School is located nearby, in Karetu.

Kawakawa is a small town in the Bay of Islands area of the Northland Region of New Zealand. Kawakawa developed as a service town when coal was found there in the 1860s, but coal mining ceased in the early 20th century. The economy is now based on farming. The town is named after the kawakawa shrub.


Background.

During the 1380s, the Mongol commander Naghachu had organized the many Mongol tribes of Manchuria into the Uriankhai. They frequently clashed with the Chinese along the northeastern frontier regions of Ming China.

Course.

In December 1386, the Ming Hongwu Emperor ordered General Feng Sheng to lead an army of 200,000 soldiers against the Mongols. In early 1387, Feng Sheng was commissioned as the Grand General, assigned Fu Youde and Lan Yu to assist him, and raised a large army. The Hongwu Emperor drew the plans with the ultimate objective to conquer Jinshan.  The Ming army comprised 200 thousand soldiers, including the 50,000 soldiers that garrisoned four fortresses. General Feng Sheng and General Fu Youde commanded the front army, while General Lan Yu commanded the rear army. Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, commanded the princely guard, but saw relatively limited action.  In January 1388, General Feng Sheng led the Ming army to Tongzhou (通州), where he sent General Lan Yu with a cavalry unit to attack a Mongol force at Qingzhou (慶州). Lan Yu defeated the Mongol force, capturing the Mongol governor, many Mongol people, and their horses. On 20 March 1387, General Feng Sheng led the Ming army northward through the Great Wall.  Fortresses were constructed at Daning (大寧), Fuyu (富峪), Huizhou (會州), and Kuanhe (寛河) near the Great Wall and completed at the end of the summer of 1387. In Daning, a regional military commission was established to command the four fortresses. Zhu Quan, the Prince of Ning, would later be stationed at Daning and take command of the four fortresses. Beiping, Shandong, Shanxi, and Henan provinces dispatched the peasantry to transport grain to the north. Millions of piculs of foodstuff were stored at the four fortresses, which served as advance bases.  General Feng Shen led his main army further eastward. He left about 50,000 troops at Daning. On 7 July 1387, Zhen Yong (陣<unk>; Marquis of Linjiang) and his division had become separated from the main army and was ambushed, resulting in the killing of Zhen.  In July 1387, the Ming army advanced further and crossed the Liao River. Within a few days after crossing the Liao River, they surrounded the Mongol stronghold of Jinshan. Within that month, the Ming army established their encampment west of Jinshan.  General Feng Sheng returned Nayira'u (Naghachu's former lieutenant, captured in 1376) to Naghachu with a letter that stated that he should surrender and accept the suzerainty of Ming China. Meanwhile, General Lan Yu and his army inflicted much destruction to portions of the Mongol horde in the northern vicinity of the Great Wall. All whilst rice, weapons, and other supplies were transported across the Great Wall into Manchuria for the Ming army.  Naghachu and his Mongol horde surrendered to the Ming army. Dreyer (1982) stated that this was on 14 July 1387, while Langlois (1998) stated that this was in October 1387. The lesser Mongol chieftains regarded Naghachu's surrender as a defection and continued resisting. While the Ming army was returning to the Great Wall, the rear guard was ambushed and suffered losses, including Chief Commissioner Pu Ying (濮英), who was the commander of the rear guard.

Aftermath.

The campaign concluded with the capture of Naghachu and his horde, their families, and their domesticated animals. Naghachu, his 6500 officers, and their families were sent to Nanjing. In the period after his surrender to the Ming, Naghachu was given a marquisate with a stipend of 2000 piculs of grain, an estate of public fields in Jiangxi, and a mansion in Nanjing. He ultimately died (probably due to his excessive alcohol consumption) near Wu-ch'ang on 31 August 1388 and was buried outside Nanjing.  Bolstered by this successful campaign, the Hongwu Emperor ordered General Lan Yu to lead 150,000 men on a military campaign against Toghus Temur, the Khan of the Mongols, culminating in the Ming victory over the Mongol horde at Buir Lake in 1388.

The Ming campaign against the Uriankhai of 1387 was an offensive military expedition campaign of Ming China's army led by General Feng Sheng against the Uriankhai horde of the Mongol chieftain Naghachu in Manchuria. Later that year, the military campaign concluded with the surrender of the Uriankhai.


Taxonomy.

In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the black-crowned tchagra in his "Ornithologie" based on a specimen collected in Senegal. He used the French name "La pie-griesche gris du Sénégal" and the Latin "Lanius Senegalensis cinereus". Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his "Systema Naturae" for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the black-crowned tchagra. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name "Lanius senegalus" and cited Brisson's work. The species is now placed in the genus "Tchagra" that was introduced by the French naturalist René Lesson in 1831. Nine subspecies are recognised.

Description.

The black-crowned tchagra is a colourful and unmistakable species, 19–22 cm in length. It has a black crown and eye stripes separated by a broad white supercilium. The underparts are pale grey and the upperparts pale brown. The folded wings are chestnut and the tail is black, tipped white. The bill is black.  Sexes are similar, but young birds have a brown cap and a pale yellow bill. There are 14 subspecies, varying in size and the colour of the back, underparts and eyestripe.  Black-crowned tchagra has a descending whistling song, "chee-chee chee cheroo cheroo", and can be readily tempted into sight by imitating this call, presumably because the bird is concerned that there is an intruder in its territory. The male also has a switchback display flight.

Behaviour.

Black-crowned tchagra lays two or three heavily marked white eggs in a cup nest in a tree or bush. Both sexes, but mainly the female, incubate for 12–15 days to hatching; the chicks fledge after another 15 days.  It is similar in habits to the shrikes, hunting insects and other small prey from a perch in a bush, although it sits less conspicuously than true shrikes.

The black-crowned tchagra ("Tchagra senegalus") is a bushshrike. This family of passerine birds is closely related to the true shrikes in the family Laniidae, and was once included in that group.


History.

In 1865, an Indian showed a piece of "mineral-bearing" rock to Owen Farell, M. G. Cough, and Alonzo Monroe. The men recognized that there might be more similar rocks. For ten dollars, they persuaded the Indian to show them where he had found the rock. The Indian directed them to a location about two and a half miles west of the township of Eureka, Nevada. On this site, the northwestern side of Prospect Mountain, the Buckeye and Champion mines were established. In the early 1870s, a mining town followed. The town took its name from the ruby silver discovered there and became known as Ruby Hill. A post office was built and services commenced on September 23, 1873, until its closure on November 30, 1901. The town was served by rail, and the route was named after Ruby Hill. The railroad transported the ore produced to the smelters in Eureka.  Ruby Hill was part of Eureka County. The county was created in 1873 from part of Lander County. It is situated in the middle of the state of Nevada, running north and south in a columnar area, extending "northward from Nye County to the Tuscaroara Mountains, to north of the Humboldt River." The county was formed to help the residents of the township of Eureka. Before the creation of Eureka County, the residents had to travel to Lander County for county government business. For the convenience of the residents of Eureka, the new county was formed, and was named after the town of Eureka. This in turn aided the residents of Ruby Hill.  Mining boomed in Ruby Hill around 1878, when the population grew to its maximum of 2,500 residents. The majority of the 900 residents were miners and their respective families. The town was a bustling center with many stores, schools, churches, a theater, a miner’s union, a brewery, and a printing shop. In the printing shop, the first copies of the "Mining Report" were produced. It was later renamed the "Mining News". By 1880, the population of Ruby Hill had declined, and by 1885, 700 remained. They continued to mine until the end of the 19th century. Miners were able to lease land and prospect for ore. Some of them did find an untouched vein of ore.  By the start of the 20th century, the population of the town was so small that only three businesses remained. In 1910 a powerful storm washed away the railroad and buildings, and many townspeople left. Of the buildings left standing, only one was built in the 19th century.  This small mining camp was active for many years and produced nearly $200,000. The initial location was the Cow and Calf Mine discovered in 1871. The Ruby Hill Mining District was organized in July 1872. By August, Ruby Hill reached its peak population of approximately 150. The town had two restaurants, two stores, a bar, and a boardinghouse. By fall, the smaller mines were depleted and only the four largest mines were producing. Legal problems forced the mines to close and emptied the once bustling camp.  In the early 1880s some mines reopened. That was short lived, and by 1885 only two residents remained. There was intermittent activity until 1928, when all mining activity ended. Because the camp was active for only a few years at a time, few permanent buildings were constructed. Most of the mines are high in the mountains, and access is extremely difficult.

Ruby Hill is a ghost town in Eureka County, in the central part of the U.S. state of Nevada, approximately west of the town of Eureka, Nevada. In 1910, the Ruby Hill Railroad was washed out, after which there were only three businesses in town.


Early life.

He was born in Fort Riley, Kansas but grew up in Columbia, South Carolina to a military family from Queens, New York. Growing up, he would spend his summers with his grandmother in Queens, which lead to his interest in East Coast hip hop artists such as Dipset and G-Unit. He is related to Mobile Malachi, a Belizean Kriol Reggae artist and musician. He is also a cousin of Papoose, who is of Liberian descent. Inspired by his uncle Dwight who was a rapper and graphic artist, Jenks first began making beats when he was in elementary school, using FL Studio on his uncle's computer.

Career.

Jenks went to school for graphic design for a year before dropping out. At 18, his uncle encouraged him to pursue his career in music and Jenks moved to Atlanta to study sound engineering at the SAE Institute. While in school, he met and began collaborating with DJ Burn One, who encouraged him to create his own instrumentals and not rely on samples. After graduating school, the studio where the two worked hired him as a full-time engineer. In 2015, Jenks began working for Epic Records as a sound engineer, leaving a year later to focus on his own career.  Jenks began producing for Young Nudy and Trippie Redd in 2016. He met Playboi Carti in February 2017, collaborating on the track "Woke Up Like This" and producing most tracks on his debut project. Their song "Magnolia" peaked at 29 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. This kickstarted Jenks' producing career, producing songs for 21 Savage, Trippie Redd, Rich the Kid, Lil Yachty, Famous Dex, Nav, Young Thug and Lil Uzi Vert. Jenks has also released a series of mixtapes called "The Life of Pi'erre" and has his own imprint, SossHouse, at Interscope Records. He produced Travis Scott's single "Watch" which features Kanye West and Lil Uzi Vert. He also produced Playboi Carti's album "Die Lit". He also helped produce for Kanye West's albums "Ye" and "Jesus Is King".  On May 8, 2019, Pi'erre Bourne & close collaborator Young Nudy dropped their collaborative mixtape titled "Sli'merre". The project, which consists of 12 songs, featured then-rising hip-hop stars DaBaby and Megan Thee Stallion, along with Nudy's cousin and multi-platinum rapper 21 Savage, as well as fellow multi-platinum recording artist Lil Uzi Vert. All songs on the mixtape were produced by Pi'erre, and hit number 1 on Apple Music's US All Genres chart, and debuted at number 167 on the "Billboard" 200, later peaking at number 63 in the following week. On March 25, 2020, Jenks debuted at No. 1 on "Billboard"s Hot 100 Producers chart, thanks to four production credits on the deluxe edition of Lil Uzi Vert's second album, "Eternal Atake". <br> On June 19, 2020, almost exactly a year after the "The Life of Pi'erre 4"s release, a deluxe edition was released.

Artistry.

Jenks is influenced by Wiz Khalifa, Young Jeezy, Gucci Mane, J Dilla, Pharrell Williams, Timbaland and Kanye West. Like West, Jenks wants to continue to work as a producer, while pursuing his own rap career. Alphonse Pierre of "Pitchfork" described Bourne's productions as "beats that pair airy video-game melodies with classic trap drums".

Jordan Timothy Jenks (born September 19, 1993), known professionally as Pi'erre Bourne, is a Belizean-American record producer, rapper, songwriter, and audio engineer. He is known for producing the singles "Magnolia" by Playboi Carti, and "Gummo" by 6ix9ine, with the two peaking at number 29 and 12 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 respectively. After the release of American rapper Playboi Carti's breakout track "Magnolia" from his eponymous debut commercial mixtape "Playboi Carti" (2017), Bourne's producer tag, "Yo Pierre, you wanna come out here?" (a line sampled from an episode of "The Jamie Foxx Show"), became a viral phenomenon and an internet meme leading the tag to become widely known and Bourne to break out as a producer.


Early life and career.

Cadbury, the eldest child of Charles Lloyd Cadbury and Jillian Stafford Ransome, is one of three Quakers elected at the 2015 general election, the others being Labour's Catherine West and the Conservatives' Tania Mathias. She was educated at The Mount School, York, Bournville College, and graduated from the University of Salford, BSc in 1981. Having worked from 1983–1989 for Covent Garden Community Association she was a Planning Advisor at Planning Aid for London for the next seven years, then had the same title but in directly applicable policy at the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames for five years, progressing to a freelance consultant 2006–2014.

Career.

At the 2015 general election, she defeated the sitting Conservative MP Mary Macleod. In her maiden speech to the House of Commons on 2 June 2015, she made much of her Quaker background and its relevance to social justice. Her speech also referenced her distant ancestor, the chocolate producer and Quaker George Cadbury. She is an honorary associate of the National Secular Society,  In October 2016, she was appointed by Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn as a Shadow Housing Minister. Commenting on the appointment she said "As a result of this Government's policies, owning a home is an unattainable dream for so many youngsters, and for countless people even having somewhere stable and affordable to call home is impossible". She supported Owen Smith in the failed attempt to replace Jeremy Corbyn in the 2016 Labour Party (UK) leadership election.  Cadbury was ousted as Shadow Housing Minister on 29 June 2017 for contravening a whipped vote on an amendment to the Queen's speech calling for the UK to remain in the European Single Market: whilst the Labour position was to abstain, she voted to support the motion.  Cadbury voted in the unsuccessful no ('Noes') lobby in a key House of Commons division of 25 June 2018 as to the National Policy Statement: Airports which laid out government support for a third runway, and was among 28 of the 46 London Labour MPs opposing the runway.

Ruth Margaret Cadbury (born 14 May 1959) is a British Labour Party politician who has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Brentford and Isleworth since gaining the seat from the Conservative Party at the 2015 general election. Cadbury has been a Brentford councillor for 25 years, and was deputy leader of the Hounslow London Borough Council from 2010–2012 where she was known for her work on a Living Wage for its staff as well as her opposition to any expansion to the nearby London Heathrow Airport.


History.

A post office called Foster has been in operation since 1883. The village was named for Charles Foster, governor of Ohio.

Geography.

Foster is located at (38.165674, -94.507017).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 117 people, 46 households, and 35 families living in the village. The population density was. There were 60 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 98.3% White, 0.9% African American, and 0.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.4% of the population.  There were 46 households of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 23.9% were non-families. 21.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 2.89.  The median age in the village was 44.5 years. 24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17.9% were from 25 to 44; 35.9% were from 45 to 64; and 12.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.7% male and 51.3% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 130 people, 52 households, and 34 families living in the village. The population density was 277.5 people per square mile (106.8/km2). There were 63 housing units at an average density of 134.5 per square mile (51.8/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.92% White, 2.31% Native American, and 0.77% from two or more races.  There were 52 households out of which 42.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.5% were married couples living together, 1.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.7% were non-families. 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.23.  In the village, the population was spread out with 31.5% under the age of 18, 5.4% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 120.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 128.2 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $28,750, and the median income for a family was $46,875. Males had a median income of $27,000 versus $17,188 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,631. There were 6.5% of families and 12.5% of the population living below the poverty line, including 5.2% of under eighteens and 27.3% of those over 64.

Foster is a village in Bates County, Missouri, and is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area within the United States. The population was 117 at the 2010 census.


Termites.

Groups of termite whose soldiers have been found to use autothysis to defend their colonies include: "Serritermes serrifer", "Dentispicotermes", "Genuotermes", and "Orthognathotermes". Several species of the soldierless Apicotermitinae, for example those of the "Grigiotermes" and "Ruptitermes" genera, have workers that can also use autothysis. This is thought to be one of the most effective forms of defense that termites possess as the ruptured workers block the tunnels running into the nest and it causes a one-to-one exchange between attackers and defenders, meaning attacks have a high energy cost to predators.  The soldiers of the neotropical termite family Serritermitidae have a defense strategy which involves front gland autothysis, with the body rupturing between the head and abdomen. When outside the nest they try to run away from attackers, and only use autothysis when in the nest to block tunnels up, preventing attackers entering.  Old workers of "Neocapritermes taracua" develop blue spots on their abdomens that are filled with copper-containing proteins. These react with a secretion from the labial gland upon autothysis to form a mixture which is toxic to other termites.

Ants.

Some ants belonging to the genus "Camponotus" and "Colobopsis" have adapted to using autothysis as an altruistic defensive trait to better fight against arthropods and to possibly deter vertebrate predators for the benefit of the colony as a whole. These ants use autothysis as a self-destructive defense to protect their territory, but they use it differently from termites, in that their primary uses for autothysis do not include blocking the tunnels of their territory from attackers, but more so for combat purposes during territorial battles.  Early ants used mechanical means of stinging to defend themselves, but the stings showed to be more useful against large vertebrate predators and not as successful against other arthropods. So selection for autothysis in ants evolved as a way to more effectively kill arthropod enemies. The products of autothysis in ants are sticky and corrosive substances, released by the ants' contraction of their gasters, leading to a burst at an intersegmental fold as well as the mandibular glands. The ants use this self-sacrifice to kill one or more enemies which entangle themselves in this sticky substance. The worker ant has been observed to wrap itself around an opponent, placing its dorsal gaster onto the opponent's head before expelling sticky corrosive material from its mouth and gaster, permanently sticking to the opponent while killing itself and the enemy, as well as any other enemies that become stuck to the products.  These ants mostly use autothysis against other arthropods, like invading ant colonies or against termite colonies, and are rather ineffective towards larger vertebrate predators such as lizards or birds. This self-sacrifice is most useful against arthropods because the sticky adhesives in the products work best against the bodies of other arthropods. The compounds used in autothysis, however, have also been explained to have some use in deterring vertebrate predators from eating the ants, because these products are inedible.

Autothysis (from the Greek roots "autos-" "self" and "thysia" "sacrifice") or suicidal altruism is the process where an animal destroys itself via an internal rupturing or explosion of an organ which ruptures the skin. The term was proposed by Ulrich Maschwitz and Eleonore Maschwitz in 1974 to describe the defensive mechanism of "Colobopsis saundersi", a species of ant. It is caused by a contraction of muscles around a large gland that leads to the breaking of the gland wall. Some termites (such as the soldiers of "Globitermes sulphureus") release a sticky secretion by rupturing a gland near the skin of their neck, producing a tar effect in defense against ants.


History.

The city was named for Henry Dearborn, Revolutionary War general and Secretary of War, and was incorporated in 1882.  From 1913 to 1933, Dearborn was one of the stops along the Kansas City, Clay County and St. Joseph Railway (KCCC&SJ), an interurban light rail line connecting Kansas City and St. Joseph. Portions of the right-of-way and roadbed are still visible from Dearborn north to St. Joseph.  In November 2012, one of two winning tickets for a then record-breaking $587.5 million Powerball jackpot was purchased at the Trex Mart gas station in Dearborn.

Geography.

Dearborn is located in northern Platte County and centered about one-half mile south of the Platte-Buchanan county line. The Dearborn Reservoir is just across the county line to the north. The community is on Routes Z and Y one mile east of U.S. Route 71. Bee Creek flows past the west side of the community.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Demographics.

The Platte County portion of Dearborn (the majority of the city) is part of the Kansas City, MO–KS Metropolitan Statistical Area, while the Buchanan County portion is part of the St. Joseph, MO–KS Metropolitan Statistical Area.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 496 people, 234 households, and 120 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 269 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.4% White, 0.4% African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.2% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.6% of the population.  There were 234 households of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.0% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.7% were non-families. 41.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.98.  The median age in the city was 38.7 years. 23.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.5% were from 25 to 44; 25.4% were from 45 to 64; and 19% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 529 people, 230 households, and 134 families living in the city. The population density was 615.9 people per square mile (237.5/km2). There were 258 housing units at an average density of 300.4 per square mile (115.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.22% White, 0.38% African American, 0.76% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 1.13% from other races, and 1.32% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.32% of the population.  There were 230 households out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were non-families. 36.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 3.02.  In the city the population was spread out with 26.1% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $34,861, and the median income for a family was $47,727. Males had a median income of $34,500 versus $24,808 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,537. About 4.3% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.5% of those under age 18 and 18.8% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

North Platte County R-I School District operates two schools in the community: North Platte Jr. High School and North Platte High School.  Dearborn has a public library, a branch of the Mid-Continent Public Library.

External links.

Dearborn is a city in Buchanan and Platte counties in the U.S. state of Missouri and is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area. The population was 496 at the 2010 census.


Plot.

Marie Colvin is an American journalist for "The Sunday Times", visiting the most dangerous countries and documenting their civil wars.  In 2001, while trekking with the Tamil Tigers, Colvin and her crew are ambushed by the Sri Lankan Army. Despite her attempt to surrender, an RPG fires in her direction, wounding her to the point that she loses her left eye. Afterwards, Colvin is forced to wear an eyepatch.  Diagnosed with PTSD, Colvin is still determined to look for new stories, and argues with her boss, Sean Ryan, about conflicts she wants to cover, including Iraq, where she meets war photographer Paul Conroy, and Libya. She lives in London when not traveling the world, and begins a relationship with Tony Shaw.  In February 2012, Conroy and Colvin decide to cover the conflict in the city of Homs, where they find 28,000 Syrian men, women, and children caught in the crossfire. After Conroy and Colvin send their story to Ryan, Colvin decides to appear on CNN to bring awareness to civilian casualties. As Marie, Paul, and another reporter, Rémi Ochlik, flee the building they had used as a media centre, the street is peppered with explosions. Paul, injured and shellshocked, wakes to find Colvin and Ochlik killed from the explosions and subsequent pile up of rubble. The movie ends with imagery of the devastated city of Homs, followed by an interview of the real Marie Colvin, with the quote: "You're never going to get to where you're going if you acknowledge fear."  The movie postscript reads: "Marie Colvin and journalist Remi Ochlik were killed in Homs, Syria, on February 22nd, 2012. Paul Conroy, despite being gravely injured, survives and continues to work as a photographer. Over 500,000 Syrian civilians have been killed since Colvin's death."

Production.

The film was produced in Jordan and London, and was shot by Robert Richardson. It features an original song by Annie Lennox, entitled "Requiem for A Private War".

Release.

In February 2018, Aviron Pictures acquired distribution rights to the film. The film had its world premiere at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2018, and had its European premiere at the Mayor's Gala in the BFI London Film Festival. It also screened at the Mill Valley Film Festival, Hamptons International Film Festival, and the Woodstock Film Festival. The film was released on November 2, 2018, in limited release, before expanding nationwide on November 16, 2018. "A Private War" was released in the UK and Ireland on 15 February 2019.

Reception.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 87%, based on 135 reviews, and the average score is 7.06/10. The website's critical consensus reads: ""A Private War" honors its real-life subject with a sober appraisal of the sacrifices required of journalists on the front lines—and career-best work by Rosamund Pike." On review aggregator Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 75 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  Peter Debruge of "Variety" called it "an incredibly sophisticated, psychologically immersive" film.

A Private War is a 2018 American biographical drama film directed by Matthew Heineman, and starring Rosamund Pike as journalist Marie Colvin. The film is based on the 2012 article "Marie Colvin’s Private War" in "Vanity Fair" by Marie Brenner. The film was written by Arash Amel and features Jamie Dornan, Tom Hollander and Stanley Tucci. The film premiered at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in the United States on November 2, 2018. It received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised Pike's performance. At the 76th Golden Globe Awards, the film earned nominations for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama (Pike) and Best Original Song ("Requiem for A Private War"), while director Matthew Heineman received a nomination for Outstanding Directorial Achievement of a First Time Feature Film Director from the Directors Guild of America.


History.

Polo was laid out in 1867. The city's name is a transfer from Polo, Illinois. A post office called Polo has been in operation since 1868.

Geography.

Polo is located at (39.552842, -94.039022).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 575 people, 229 households, and 136 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 256 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 95.1% White, 0.3% African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 4.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population.  There were 229 households of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.5% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.6% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 17% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.17.  The median age in the city was 38.9 years. 26.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.2% were from 25 to 44; 22.8% were from 45 to 64; and 19.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.3% male and 52.7% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 582 people, 239 households, and 150 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,006.4 people per square mile (387.4/km2). There were 262 housing units at an average density of 453.0 per square mile (174.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 99.48% White, 0.17% from other races, and 0.34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.37% of the population.  There were 239 households out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.4% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.2% were non-families. 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.09.  In the city the population was spread out with 25.8% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $34,250, and the median income for a family was $36,705. Males had a median income of $32,375 versus $21,111 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,868. About 5.2% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.5% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.

Polo is a city in Caldwell County, Missouri, and is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area with the United States. The population was 575 at the 2010 census.


Classification.

Trypophobia is not recognized by name as a mental disorder, and so is not a specific diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association's "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual", Fifth Edition (DSM-5). However, it may fall under the broad category of specific phobia if the fear is excessive, persistent, and associated with significant distress or impairment.  Whether trypophobia can be accurately described as a specific phobia might depend on whether the person mainly responds with fear or with disgust. Because phobias involve fear, a response to trypophobic imagery that is based mostly or solely on disgust renders its status as a specific phobia questionable. In one study, most of the participants with trypophobia met the DSM-5 criteria for specific phobia, even though they experienced disgust instead of fear when shown imagery of clusters of holes; however, they did not meet the distress or impairment criterion.

Signs and symptoms.

Trypophobia often presents with an autonomic nervous system response. Shapes that elicit a trypophobic reaction include clustered holes in innocuous contexts, such as fruit and bubbles, and in contexts associated with danger, such as holes made by insects and holes in wounds and diseased tissue such as those caused by mango flies in animals, especially dogs. Upon seeing these shapes, some people said they shuddered, felt their skin crawl, experienced panic attacks, sweated, palpitated, or felt nauseated or itchy. Other reported symptoms include goose bumps, body shakes, feeling uncomfortable, and visual discomfort such as eyestrain, distortions, or illusions.  Trypophobia may manifest as a reaction of fear, disgust, or both. Disgust is usually the stronger emotion in those with trypophobia.

Causes.

The understanding of trypophobia is limited. Several possible causes have been proposed. Geoff Cole and Arnold Wilkins believe the reaction is an "unconscious reflex reaction" based on a biological revulsion, rather than a learned cultural fear. Imagery of various venomous animals (for example, certain types of snakes, insects, and spiders) have visual characteristics similar to trypophobic imagery. Because of this, it is hypothesized that trypophobia has an evolutionary basis meant to alert humans of dangerous organisms. Can "et al.", however, believe the connection between trypophobia and evolution as a result of a threat from deadly creatures to be weak and that, if a connection does exist, it manifests later in life rather than in childhood.  Martínez-Aguayo "et al." described trypophobia as usually involving "an intense and disproportionate fear towards holes, repetitive patterns, protrusions, etc., and, in general, images that present high-contrast energy at low and midrange spatial frequencies." Cole and Wilkins also stated the imagery has high spatial frequency with a greater energy at midrange. Whether together or separate, it appears that low and midrange spatial frequencies are necessary for inducing trypophobic reactions. Based on the imagery's visual cues, An Trong Dinh Le, Cole and Wilkins developed a symptom questionnaire that they believe can be used to identify trypophobia.  Researchers have also speculated that trypophobic reactions could be perceived as cues to infectious disease, which could be alerts that give one a survival advantage. In a study by Kupfer and Le, trypophobic and non-trypophobic participants showed significant aversion to disease-relevant cluster images, but only trypophobic participants displayed significant aversion to disease-irrelevant cluster images. Martínez-Aguayo "et al." stated that, because the reactions could not be attributed to different sensitivity levels or neuroticism differences, Kupfer and Le believe it supports their hypothesis that trypophobia is "an overgeneralized aversion towards cluster stimuli that indicates a parasitic and infectious disease threat". Yamada and Sasaki also propose that trypophobic reactions are due to the imagery's visual similarities to skin diseases.  Whether trypophobia is associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) has also been studied. A significant minority of those with trypophobia meet the DSM-5 criteria for obsessive–compulsive disorder. Martínez-Aguayo "et al." stated that other findings refer to trypophobia having common comorbid psychiatric diagnosis, such as major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder, although Le "et al." felt that general anxiety does not cause trypophobia.

Treatment.

There are no known treatments for trypophobia, but exposure therapy, which has been used to treat phobias, is likely to be effective for treating trypophobia.

Epidemiology.

The extent to which trypophobia exists is unknown, but the available data suggests that having an aversion to trypophobic imagery is relatively common. 16% of a sample of 286 participants in a 2013 study reported discomfort or repulsion when presented with an image of a lotus seed pod and its authors found that non-trypophobic individuals also experienced more discomfort when viewing trypophobic imagery than when viewing neutral images. Trypophobia appears to be more prevalent in women.

Society and culture.

The term "trypophobia" is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005. The word is from the, ', meaning "hole" and, ', meaning "fear". Groups on social media sites such as Facebook and Instagram exist for self-identified trypophobics to share and discuss images that they say induce the reaction.  Because trypophobia is not well known to the general public, many people with the condition do not know the name for it and believe that they are alone in their trypophobic reactions and thoughts until they find an online community to share them with. This has led to an increase in trypophobic images on social media; in some cases, people seek to intentionally induce trypophobia in those who have it by showing them trypophobic images, with the most trypophobic-inducing images being holes and clusters (especially the lotus seedhead) photoshopped onto human skin. Cole and Wilkins also stated that the level of disgust with trypophobia increases if the holes are on human skin. Writing in "Popular Science", Jennifer Abbasi argues that emotional contagion within such social media groups may be responsible for some of the aversive reactions to such images.  In 2017, trypophobia received media attention when "American Horror Story" featured a trypophobic character and trypophobia-inducing advertisements promoting the storyline; some people were disturbed by the imagery, and criticized the show for "insensitivity towards sufferers of trypophobia". Although there was sentiment that the increased media attention could lead to people trying to induce trypophobia, there were also opinions that it might help people understand trypophobia and encourage more research on the matter. Some users responded to the September 2019 release of Apple's iPhone 11 Pro, which features three closely spaced camera lenses, with comments that it triggered their trypophobia.  Writer and editor Kathleen McAuliffe suggested that trypophobia is yet to be extensively studied because researchers have not given as much attention to topics of disgust as they have to other areas of research, and because of the revulsion viewing the images could incite in researchers.

Trypophobia is an aversion to the sight of irregular patterns or clusters of small holes or bumps. It is not officially recognized as a mental disorder, but may be diagnosed as a specific phobia if excessive fear and distress occur. People may express only disgust to trypophobic imagery.


Club career.

Shamrock Rovers.

Mooney joined Shamrock Rovers, his first senior club, in 2000, while he was a pupil in Coláiste Éanna, in Dublin. and scored in every round when Rovers' won the U17 All Ireland title against Kingdom Boys in 2002. He made his first team debut coming on as a sub against Longford Town on 6 April 2004. His first goal came on 24 June 2004 against the doomed Dublin City. In his fifteen months in the first team he scored nine goals in 40 total appearances.  Due to Rovers' financial position at the time players had to be sold on and Mooney moved to Longford. His last game in the Hoops was against Cork City on 22 July 2005.

Longford Town.

He made his Longford debut on 6 August 2005 in a 1–0 win over Bohemians. His scoring return of 19 goals in the 2007 League of Ireland Premier Division season ensured he was top scorer in the league. Mooney's goals also led Longford Town to the final of the FAI Cup. However, despite Mooney's heroics throughout the season Longford Town were relegated to the League of Ireland First Division, albeit with a six-point deduction, and lost the FAI Cup final to Cork City.  His excellent form throughout the season did not go un-noticed and he was nominated for the PFAI Player of the Year and won the FAI Player of the Year as well as the Player of the Month award for August 2007.

Cork City.

After Mooney's spectacular form throughout the 2007 League of Ireland season it was obvious that he would be playing somewhere else than First Division football in Flancare Park. He had been linked with a move to the Football League next season with Football League Championship sides Crystal Palace and Colchester United reportedly interested in signing the striker. Representatives from Premier League side Fulham were said to have been in attendance at the FAI Cup final, and Leeds United manager Dennis Wise had also watched Mooney in action.  However, Mooney promised to follow his manager Alan Mathews down south if he was to stay in Ireland. He had been offered a contract by English Premiership side Blackburn Rovers, but instead signed a longer three-year contract with perennial title challengers Cork City in January 2008 thus ending two and a half years in the midlands.  Mooney was a revelation in his only season with Cork City, racing to the top of the goalscoring charts again. He was widely regarded as one of the best players in the league. A particularly impressive showing against Derry City at The Brandywell saw Mooney score twice in a minute to bring the game (which Derry had dominated) level at 2–2, and come close to completing his hat-trick just moments later with a speculative 30-yard effort that came back off an upright (a spectacular goal from Denis Behan eventually gave Cork all three points). Before European football came to Turner's Cross midway through the season, Mooney had scored 18 goals in total, and broken his teammate Behan's record for a scoring run by netting 11 goals in six matches. He then scored on his European debut, in a 2–2 UEFA Cup draw with Finnish side FC Haka.

Reading.

However, Mooney would only last another month at Cork City. It was revealed on 12 August 2008 that the club was in debt to the region of €800,000. However, this was not the only reason. Mooney's season was similar to Roy O'Donovan's the season before. Already top of the goalscoring charts, Mooney had attracted renewed interest from England. One of the clubs was Reading. On 20 August, he signed for them for a fee believed to be in the region of €260,000. Mooney was given squad number 12.  Mooney made his Reading debut in the League Cup, coming on as a substitute against Luton Town. He then made an extra time appearance in a League Cup penalty shootout defeat against Stoke City.  Mooney scored his first Reading goals on his full debut for the club, scoring twice at home to Burton Albion in a first round League Cup tie on 11 August 2009.

Loan to Norwich City.

Mooney had a loan spell (cut short by injury) with League One side Stockport County midway through the 2008–09 season, but in March 2009, he moved on a month's loan to Championship strugglers Norwich City. He scored twice in his first three appearances for the Canaries, including the opener in a 2–0 win over Cardiff City and the only goal of the game against fellow relegation candidates Plymouth Argyle. As a result, Mooney's loan spell at Carrow Road was extended until the end of the season. Although he would eventually total three goals in nine league games for the club, his contribution would not be enough to prevent Norwich from being relegated.  Due to the different time-frame of the League of Ireland season, the end of the 2008–09 campaign brought Mooney his first break from playing and training since March 2008.

Charlton Athletic.

On 16 October 2009 it was announced that Mooney would be joining League One side Charlton Athletic on an emergency loan until 1 December. He made his first team debut the next day, coming on as a late substitute in Charlton's 2–1 victory against Huddersfield Town at The Valley. After two more appearances as a substitute, Mooney was handed his first league start for the club against MK Dons at The Valley on 14 November, and scored an equalising goal in the 13th minute to set the Addicks on their way to a 5–1 victory over their promotion rivals. He opened his side's account again in a 4–2 home win over Bristol Rovers on 24 November, prompting Charlton manager Phil Parkinson to extend Mooney's loan deal with the club for another four weeks, until 28 December.  Having played a part in three of his side's goals, Mooney sustained a knee injury in the club's 4–4 draw against arch-rivals Millwall on 19 December, which saw him out of action for the rest of 2009. He returned to Reading at the end of the year, only to re-join Charlton again on 14 January in a new loan deal set to run until 11 February. However, on 28 January, Mooney's loan was extended until the end of the season.  Mooney finished with six goals from a total of 31 appearances for the Addicks, with one goal coming on his last appearance for the club, a League One play-off semi-final defeat (Charlton had won 2–1 on the night, but lost the tie after a penalty shoot-out) against Swindon Town.

Loan to Colchester United.

On 5 August 2010 it was announced that Mooney would be joining League One side Colchester United on loan until 3 January 2011. He came on as a substitute in the U's first league game of the season, a 2–2 draw at Exeter City. Mooney then scored twice on his full debut for the club, with a pair of first half goals in a 3–0 League Cup win over Hereford United. He scored his first league goal for Colchester in a 1–1 draw at home to Carlisle United on 27 August.  Mooney scored twice on his first appearance in the FA Cup, a 4–3 first round win over Bradford City on 6 November.  Mooney initially had a loan deal which ran until 6 January, but decided to return to Colchester United for the remainder of 2010/2011 season. He finished as the club's top scorer with 14 goals in all competitions as they finished in 10th place in League One. With his Reading contract expiring in June 2011, Mooney became a free agent. However, in July 2011, it was reported, after some speculation, that Mooney would not be returning to the U's on a permanent basis.

Leyton Orient.

On 23 July 2011, Mooney signed his first permanent contract since 2008, a two-year deal with League One side Leyton Orient, where he linked up with former Norwich City teammate Jamie Cureton. He scored his first goal for the club in a League Cup game against Bristol Rovers, following it with a goal against Blackburn Rovers in the next round. Mooney then scored his first two league goals, away at Yeovil Town on 25 October, as the game ended 2–2.  Mooney would go on to tally 21 goals in his first two years at the club. On 21 June 2013, it was announced that Mooney had signed a new two-year contract with Leyton Orient, with manager Russell Slade hailing him as intrinsic to the way that Leyton Orient play. He started the 2013–14 season with aplomb, scoring eight goals in the first 10 games of the League One season.

Southend United.

On 3 July 2015 Mooney signed a two-year deal with League One side Southend United, moving on a free transfer. Mooney scored his first goal for Southend, a penalty, against Coventry City on 31 August 2015. He re-signed for Leyton Orient on 30 June 2017.

David Mooney (born 30 October 1984) is an Irish footballer who plays as a striker for Leinster Senior League side Lucan United.


Discovery and naming.

"Caipirasuchus" was first named by Fabiano V. Iori and Ismar S. Carvalho in 2011 and the type species is "C. paulistanus". The generic name is derived from Portuguese word Caipira which refers to the rural inhabitants of the Brazilian states, covering almost all of the Bauru Basin, and Greek "souchus" meaning "crocodile". The specific name is derived from "paulista", the designation for the residents of São Paulo State, where the holotype was found.  "C. paulistanus" is known only from the holotype specimen MPMA 67-0001/00, an almost complete and undeformed skull and mandible with teeth (only three teeth are missing) and partial postcranium from a single individual. It was found on the São Francisco Farm, in Homem de Mello, the rural area of Monte Alto County of northern São Paulo. It was collected from the Adamantina Formation of the Bauru Basin, which dates to the Turonian and Santonian stages of the Late Cretaceous.  A second species, "C. montealtensis", was named by Marco Brandalise de Andrade and Reinaldo J. Bertini in 2008 as a species of the closely related notosuchian genus "Sphagesaurus", on the basis of MPMA 15-001/90, a nearly complete skull and mandible preserved in occlusion. It was collected from the Bairro Cachoeira locality at the base of the Serra da Água Limpa, about 8 km northwest of Monte Alto, from the Adamantina Formation. In 2013, this specimen was reassigned to "Caipirasuchus" on the basis of a newly discovered specimen referrable to it. MPMA 68-0003/12 consists of a nearly complete cranium and mandible, and a posterior portion of the post-cranium. It was discovered in the municipality of Catanduva, northern São Paulo, from the Adamantina Formation. At least five synapomorphies unite the species, and a phylogenetic analysis found them to be sister taxa.

Description.

"C. paulistanus" has about ten autapomorphies or unique characteristics. The external naris (the nostril opening in the skull) is bordered only by the premaxillae bones. Each premaxilla has four teeth set into it. There is a gap called a diastema in the premaxillary tooth row, and a diastema in between the premaxillary and maxillary teeth. The dentary bone of the lower jaw has ten teeth on either side, with two diastemata separating them. The forward-most teeth are suited for capturing food, while the back teeth are adapted for food processing. The palatine bone in the roof of the mouth connects to the maxilla bone of the snout by a region of bone called the cuneiform process. "Caipirasuchus" also has large pterygoid and ectopterygoid bones and a well-developed hole in front of the eye sockets called the antorbital fenestra.

Caipirasuchus is an extinct genus of sphagesaurid notosuchians known from the Late Cretaceous of northern São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil. The type species, "C. paulistanus", was named in 2011. A second species, "C. montealtensis", was referred to "Caipirasuchus" in 2013 after having been named in 2008 as a species of "Sphagesaurus". A third species, "C. stenognathus", was described in 2014. A fourth species, "C. minerius", was described in 2018.


Composition.

The intestinal mucosal barrier is a heterogeneous entity composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated by the intestinal mucosa. The central component is the intestinal epithelial layer, which provides physical separation between the lumen and the body. The secretion of various molecules into the lumen reinforces the barrier function on the extra-epithelial side, while a variety of immune cells provide additional protection below the epithelial layer.

Physical elements.

Mucus layer(s).

Mucus forms a layer (or layers, in the case of the colon) that separates the bulk of the luminal contents from the intestinal epithelium. The mucus consists of a highly glycosylated hydrated gel formed by mucin molecules that are secreted by goblet cells. The mucus prevents large particles from contacting the epithelial cell layer while allowing small molecules to pass. The mucus also facilitates passage of the luminal contents along the length of the intestines, protects the epithelial cells from digestive enzymes, and prevents the direct contact of microorganisms with the epithelial layer.

The intestinal epithelium.

The intestinal epithelium is the foremost component of the intestinal mucosal barrier. It consists of the layer of epithelial cells lining the intestine. Crucial for forming an effective barrier is the precise control of the paracellular pathway (a route for translocation of molecules between cells). Sealing of the space between adjacent cells is mediated by junctional complexes formed by protein connections elaborated by each individual cell. In addition to its protective function, the intestinal epithelium controls the selective uptake of beneficial ions, nutrients, and other substances from the lumen into the body.

Microbiota.

The commensal microbial species that inhabit the gut are considered by some to be part of the intestinal mucosal barrier. The microbiota can influence barrier function both directly, by stimulating epithelial cell proliferation and secretion of IL-8, and indirectly by producing short-chain fatty acids, which are an important energy source for colonic epithelial cells.

Biochemical elements.

Bile and gastric acid.

The bile produced by the liver to aid in the digestion of lipids has bactericidal properties. The gastric acid produced by the stomach can also kill microorganisms. Both contribute to intestinal barrier function although they are not produced by the intestinal mucosa.

Defensins.

Specialised secretory epithelial cells called Paneth cells secrete abundant quantities human α-defensins into the intestinal lumen of healthy individuals.

Lysozyme.

Lysozyme is another defensive molecule secreted by Paneth cells into the lumen.

Regenerating islet-derived protein 3 gamma (Reg3γ).

Reg3γ is an antibacterial lectin secreted by Paneth cells that serves to prevent microorganisms from coming into contact with the epithelial layer.

Immunological elements.

Antimicrobial peptides.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are a diverse array of molecules that kill bacteria and fungi, are secreted by Paneth cells into the lumen.

Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA ).

Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) is produced by plasma cells in the lamina propria and transported into the lumen by intestinal epithelial cells. SIgA blocks epithelial-specific receptors on pathogens, thereby preventing their attachment to epithelial cells.

Cellular immunity.

A variety of immune cells reside in the lamina propria which underlies the intestinal epithelium. These include dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL), T regulatory cells (T Regs), TCD4+ lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and plasma cells. This population provides immune protection that is characterised by the rapid detection and killing of microorganisms that penetrate the intestinal epithelium.

Physiology.

Intestinal barrier integrity is malleable and multiple mechanisms have been shown to be capable of modulating intestinal permeability (a measure of intestinal barrier function). Modulating factors include cytokines, immune cells, and exogenous factors.

Measurement.

Intestinal permeability is a measurement of intestinal mucosal barrier function and is defined as "the facility with which intestinal epithelium allows molecules to pass through by non-mediated passive diffusion." Permeability in this respect is mostly related to the measurable passage of ions and small inert molecules. Standard methods for measurement include tissue electrical resistance for in vitro testing and passage of ingested inert molecules of specific molecular weights into the urine for in vivo testing. For example, in vivo testing using lactulose / mannitol consists of ingesting 5 g lactulose and 2 g mannitol followed by determination of urinary concentrations of lactulose and mannitol 5 hours after ingestion. The percentage lactulose excretion and the lactulose mannitol ratio in the urine are calculated and used as a measure of intestinal permeability.

Endogenous regulators.

Cytokines  Immune cells  Exogenous regulators

Clinical significance.

A disrupted intestinal mucosal barrier can allow passage of microbes, microbial products, and foreign antigens into the mucosa and the body proper. This can result in activation of the immune system and secretion of inflammatory mediators. Certain immune responses might, in turn, cause cellular damage that could result in further barrier dysfunction. Defects in intestinal mucosal barrier function with the accompanying translocation of microbes and their products have been linked with a variety of conditions, some of which are thought to additionally require a genetic predisposition. Both intestinal and extra-intestinal autoimmune disorders can result. Intestinal barrier dysfunction is thought to be precondition for and exacerbating factor of numerous autoimmune and inflammatory conditions, including food allergies, inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease and diabetes.

Food allergies.

Intestinal barrier dysfunction may be a critical factor for antigen sensitisations and the IgE/mast cell-mediated anaphylactic effector phase of food allergies. The development of food allergies depend on the antigen coming into contact with components of the mucosal immune system. This leads to antigen sensitisation and dietary antigen-specific CD4+ Th2 cell and IgE production. The hypothesis is that intestinal barrier dysfunction allows dietary antigens to cross the intestinal barrier, come into contact with the mucosal immune system, and trigger an antigen-specific immune response.  Reduced intestinal barrier function correlates with the severity of symptoms experienced by food allergy sufferers. Oral challenge with the implicated allergen results in an increased lactulose/mannitol ratio in the urine (a measure of intestinal permeability).

Inflammatory bowel disease.

An emerging model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathogenesis postulates three prerequisite factors: 1) degradation of intestinal barrier function, 2) translocation of luminal contents into the lamina propria and subsequent exposure to immune cells, and 3) an inappropriate immune response. Although intestinal barrier dysfunction is clearly implicated in the development of inflammatory bowel disease, it is unclear what initiates the self-perpetuating cycle that leads to disease exacerbation. Nevertheless, there is a growing body of evidence that implicates increased intestinal permeability as a primary etiologic factor of inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis.

Celiac disease.

Altered intestinal barrier function may play a role in the development of celiac disease. By allowing gliadin, the causative agent of celiac disease, to cross the intestinal barrier, inappropriate activation of the immune system can occur. Celiac disease sufferers have been shown to have elevated intestinal permeability and altered tight junctions. Moreover, these disruptions persist in patients who successfully maintain a gluten-free diet. Data also exist demonstrating that increased intestinal permeability is present prior to onset of celiac disease.

Type 1 diabetes.

A combination of genetics, dysregulated intestinal barrier function, and inappropriate immune responses has been hypothesised to play a role in type 1 diabetes. Elevated intestinal permeability has been reported observed in patients at disease onset. The resulting increase in exposure to antigens can trigger autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas.

Other conditions.

Defects in intestinal mucosal barrier function have also been implicated in irritable bowel syndrome, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and septic shock.

Stress.

Psychological and physical stress can induce a variety of alterations in intestinal function. These include changes in gut motility, intestinal permeability, ion flux, fluid balance and mucus secretion. Furthermore, acute and chronic stress in animal models has shown that stress can cause degradation of intestinal barrier function. Psychological stress can influence the clinical outcome of inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome. Long-term stress has been shown to be positively associated with an increased propensity for relapse of ulcerative colitis.

History.

Cummings adopted the term mucosal barrier in 2004 to describe the "complex structure that separates the internal milieu from the luminal environment." More recently, intestinal barrier has been used by gastroenterologists, immunologists and microbiologists to emphasise the component of the intestine that protects the body from microorganisms and their toxins.

The intestinal mucosal barrier, also referred to as intestinal barrier, refers to the property of the intestinal mucosa that ensures adequate containment of undesirable luminal contents within the intestine while preserving the ability to absorb nutrients. The separation it provides between the body and the gut prevents the uncontrolled translocation of luminal contents into the body proper. Its role in protecting the mucosal tissues and circulatory system from exposure to pro-inflammatory molecules, such as microorganisms, toxins, and antigens is vital for the maintenance of health and well-being. Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction has been implicated in numerous health conditions such as: food allergies, microbial infections, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes, and septic shock.


Background.

Since 2014, large parts of Idlib Governorate, including Idlib City, in Northwest Syria have been largely in the military control of the al-Qaeda-linked al-Nusra Front which would later go on to form Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) along with five other groups, who have been at war with other rebel fighters, including the Free Syrian Army, and with the Syrian opposition more generally. HTS does not recognise the authority of the official opposition leadership, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, or its recognised government, the Syrian Interim Government. However, HTS generally removed itself from the day to day governance of territories it held, leading to a form of dual power in which civil administration was carried out by co-operatively-run local councils. Throughout 2017, HTS had been engaged in particularly intense armed conflict with rival rebel groups - see Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017) and Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017).

History.

The General Syrian Conference, held in Idlib in September 2017, was a continuation of the Civil Administration Initiative in opposition-controlled areas, held at the end of August 2017 in Idlib.  The General Conference, concluded on 11 September 2017, formed a constituent assembly and named a new prime minister. The Syrian Interim Government rejected the outcome of the conference; its president, Jawad Abu Hatab, called it “a declaration of the “Idlibstan” project. The Syrian Democratic Forces in Qamishli and Afrin also rejected it. Conference participants agreed upon “Islamic law as the only source of legislation", "the need to preserve the identity of the Syrian Muslim people”, “the overthrow of the illegal regime with all its symbols and pillars and holding it accountable for its committed crimes, as well as liberating the Syrian territory from all the occupying forces, extending security and spreading justice in the liberated areas”.  The move was seen as part of an attempt by Tahrir al-Sham to impose its control on the region. Riad al-Asaad's attendance at the conference was controversial. Riad al-Asaad said that “Tahrir al-Sham has previously declared that it will be dissolve itself, which is an external and internal demand”, and that HTS “did not attend the conference and we did not communicate with them after it ended, either”. However, the Hawar Kilis Operations Room, part of the Syrian National Army, condemned Riad al-Asaad and accused him of conspiring with Al-Qaida.  In early November 2017, the General Conference formed the Syrian Salvation Government. There followed weeks of conflict between the new government and the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), with reports of HTS unilaterally disbanding several SIG-supported local councils across northwestern Syria.  On 12 December 2017, the Syrian Salvation Government issued a warning that called for the Syrian Interim Government to evacuate their offices from opposition-controlled areas in 72 hours. There were reports that some SIG-run local councils had already been closed, and replaced by SSG-loyal alternatives, but others said they would not vacate their offices.  On 6 January 2018, the Salvation Government declared control over the SIG-initiated Free Aleppo University, and closed several faculties in al-Dana and Sarmada, north of Idlib, where almost 4,000 students study. This resulted in protests by students and lecturers of the university against the group.  On 11 March 2018, Russian planes reportedly fired a missile on the SSG Ministry of Justice east of Idlib city.  On 29 January 2019, a female suicide bomber accused by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham of being linked to ISIL attacked the headquarters of the Salvation Government. After fighting guards outside the facility for several minutes, she blew herself up, wounding a number of people. Two days later ISIL denied they were responsible for the attack, using their media outlet Amaq News Agency.

Structure.

The domestic group has appointed Mohammed al-Sheikh as head of the Government with 11 more ministers for Interior, Justice, Endowment, Higher Education, Education, Health, Agriculture, Economy, Social Affairs and Displaced, Housing and Reconstruction and Local Administration and Services. Al-Sheikh, in a press conference held at the Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing has also announced the formation of four commissions: Inspection Authority, Prisoners and missing Affairs, Planning and Statistics Authority, and the Union of Trade Unions. The founder of the Free Syrian Army, Col. Riad al-Asaad, was appointed as deputy prime minister for military affairs.

The Syrian Salvation Government is a de facto alternative government of the Syrian Opposition, seated within Idlib Governorate. The General Conference, concluded on 11 September 2017, formed a constituent assembly and named a new prime minister. In early November 2017, the General Conference formed the Syrian Salvation Government. There followed weeks of conflict between the new oppositional government and the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), with reports of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS, former al-Qaeda/al-Nusra) unilaterally disbanding several SIG-supported local councils across northwestern Syria. The Salvation Government is seen as illegitimate by the opposition's main Syrian Interim Government.


History.

In the Royal Academy exhibition catalogue Hunt wrote that "the scene was painted at Oosdoom, on the margin of the salt-encrusted shallows of the Dead Sea. The mountains beyond are those of Edom." He painted most of the work on location in 1854, but completed the work in London in the following year, adding some touches in 1856 before its exhibition at the academy.  The painting was the only major work completed by Hunt during his first trip to the Holy Land, to which he had travelled after a crisis of religious faith. Hunt intended to experience the actual locations of the Biblical narratives as a means to confront the relationship between faith and truth. While in Jerusalem, Hunt had met Henry Wentworth Monk, a millenarian prophet who had distinctive theories about the meaning of the scapegoat and the proximity of the Last Judgement. Monk was particularly preoccupied with Christian Zionism.  Hunt chose a subject derived from the Torah as part of a project to convert Jews to Christianity. He believed that Judaic views of the scapegoat were consistent with the Christian conception of the Messiah as a suffering figure. He wrote to his friend Millais, "I am sanguine that [the Scapegoat] may be a means of leading any reflecting Jew to see a reference to the Messiah as he was, and not as they understand, a temporal King."  The Book of Leviticus describes a "scapegoat" which must be ritually expelled from the flocks of the Israelite tribes as part of a sacrificial ritual of cleansing. In line with traditional Christian theology, Hunt believed that the scapegoat was a prototype for the redemptive sacrifice of Jesus, and that the goat represented that aspect of the Messiah described in Isaiah as a "suffering servant" of God. Hunt had the picture framed with the quotations "Surely he hath borne our Griefs and carried our Sorrows; Yet we did esteem him stricken, smitten of GOD and afflicted." (Isaiah 53:4) and "And the Goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities unto a Land not inhabited." (Leviticus 16:22)

Critical reception.

The reaction to the painting was not as Hunt expected. In his autobiography "Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood", Hunt relates the first reaction to the painting by art dealer Ernest Gambart:  Dante Gabriel Rossetti, in a letter to William Allingham in 1856, called the painting "a grand thing, but not for the public". Ford Madox Brown wrote in his diary: "Hunt's "Scapegoat" requires to be seen to be believed in. Only then can it be understood how, by the might of genius, out of an old goat, and some saline encrustations, can be made one of the most tragic and impressive works in the annals of art.". Ernest Gambart, as related by Hunt, was less enthusiastic, and was later to remark: "I wanted a nice religious picture and he painted me a great goat." "The Art Journal" in 1860, at the time of the exhibition of Hunt's later work "The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple", was to characterise the painting as "having disappointed even his warmest admirers".  At the time of the exhibition of "The Scapegoat" itself, in 1856, "The Art Journal" questioned Hunt's eye for colour in the painting, casting doubt that the mountains of Edom, seen in the background, really were in actual appearance as painted – which Matthew Dennison, writing in "The Spectator" in 2008 described the Manchester version as "Day-Glo striations of lilac, crimson and egg-yolk yellow". Dennison suggests the possibility that Hunt was painting the scene from memory, when he was finishing the painting in London after he had returned from his trip to the Dead Sea, and mis-remembered it. Hunt's own description of the landscape that he painted is that "never was so extraordinary a scene of beautifully arranged horrible wilderness. It is black, full of asphalte scum and in the hand slimy, and smarting as a sting – No one can stand and say that it is not accursed of God." Art critic Peter Fuller, in 1989, described the landscape of the painting as "a terrible image [...] of the world as a god-forsaken wasteland, a heap of broken images where the sun beats".

The Scapegoat (1854–1856) is a painting by William Holman Hunt which depicts the "scapegoat" described in the Book of Leviticus. On the Day of Atonement, a goat would have its horns wrapped with a red cloth – representing the sins of the community – and be driven off.


History and boundaries.

It was first created for the 1921 general election, but abolished for the 1923 general election. It was recreated for the 1937 general election when the old Dublin North constituency was divided into Dublin North-West and Dublin North-East. The constituency was briefly abolished in 1977, under the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1974, with most of the constituency going to the new constituency of Dublin Finglas with a smaller but significant portion going to a new Dublin Cabra constituency. Dublin North-West was then re-created in 1981.  It is located in the north-western area of Dublin city. The constituency is overwhelmingly urban; it encompasses Ballymun, Finglas and parts of Glasnevin (Ballygall) in the electoral area of Dublin City Council, together with the Santry area of Fingal County Council and the area of Whitehall to the west of Swords Road. The constituency gained some extra territory at the 2007 general election; these were parts of the existing Dublin North-Central constituency, and the Dunsink and Scribblestown areas from the Dublin West constituency.  The Electoral (Amendment) (Dáil Constituencies) Act 2017 defines the constituency as:

Election results.

1952 by-election.

Following the death of Independent TD A. P. Byrne, a by-election was held on 12 November 1952. The seat was won by Independent candidate Thomas Byrne, brother of the deceased TD. The surplus votes of the elected candidate were distributed after being declared elected because there was a possibility another candidate could have reached the threshold of a third of a quota which would have meant their election deposit was returned to them.

1945 by-election.

Following the resignation of Fianna Fáil TD Seán T. O'Kelly on his election as President of Ireland, a by-election was held on 4 December 1945. The seat was won by Vivion de Valera, son of the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera.

Dublin North-West is a parliamentary constituency represented in Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Irish parliament or Oireachtas. The constituency elects 3 deputies (Teachtaí Dála, commonly known as TDs). The method of election is the single transferable vote form of proportional representation (PR-STV).