Background.

KSI's fight with fellow British YouTuber Joe Weller on 3 February 2018 at the Copper Box Arena in London was a success, drawing 1.6million live viewers, 21million views within a day, and over 25million over the next several days, becoming the biggest white-collar boxing fight. After KSI won the fight and was awarded the YouTube Boxing Championship Belt, he called out the Paul brothers. He initially challenged Logan Paul's younger brother Jake to fight. Jake Paul was initially the one to fight KSI. However, Jake backed down, letting his older brother Logan step in to fight KSI whilst KSI's younger brother Deji Olatunji (also known as ComedyShortsGamer) stepped in to fight Jake. Deji did not want to be fighting on the undercard of the fight, therefore it was agreed that the fight would be advertised with Deji and Jake's names being listed in the manner of a co-main event. The two parties signed contracts agreeing to have two fights, one to be held on 25 August 2018 at the Manchester Arena in the United Kingdom, and another to be held in February 2019 in the United States. Originally, Logan and Jake Paul wanted any fight to be held in a neutral venue, preferably Dubai, United Arab Emirates, but Logan had decided to go with the two-fight plan.  In an interview with TMZ on 23 July 2018, KSI admitted his aspirations of turning professional after the fight saying "I wanna squeeze out every bit of relevancy from him (Logan Paul) and then move onto my bigger goal which is to go pro". Professional boxing promoter Eddie Hearn, in an interview, was questioned about signing KSI on a professional contract and responded "Yeah, I probably would. But he’s not gonna fight for £15,000, he’s just fought for £3 million!"

Press conferences.

Two press conferences were held to promote the fight. The first was held on 16 June outside the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles which was hosted by two-time Heavyweight champion Shannon Briggs.  The second press conference was held on 18 July at York Hall in Bethnal Green, East London, this time hosted by YouTube personality True Geordie who commentated on the KSI vs. Joe Weller fight. During the London press conference, KSI and Deji mocked both Logan and Jake, Logan's girlfriend Chloe Bennet and their father Greg Paul to the point that both Paul brothers walked out of the press conference prematurely.  Following the press conference, fans of KSI and Deji attacked Logan and Jake's cars which were rented by their friend and Las Vegas nightclub promoter Arman Izadi. Izadi threatened Deji with a lawsuit against him, claiming that Deji incited the fans to attack the Pauls and challenged Izadi to a bare-knuckle fight. Deji denied these claims and said, "the attack resulted from other factors, including the fact that Greg Paul actually assaulted a fan first.” Associates of Izadi would subsequently vandalise the gym that Deji trained in. Izadi would admit to being responsible, which prompted Deji to have officials for the event ban Izadi from attending.  After the press conference, the Pauls requested for True Geordie to not commentate on the fight, claiming that he was "biased" towards the KSI camp for allowing him to insult the Pauls without intervening. After speaking over the phone, the situation was resolved and it was confirmed True Geordie would be commentating on the fight.

Weigh-in.

The weigh-in was held on 24 August 2018 and was co-hosted by the same host as the London press conference True Geordie as well as Michael Buffer. KSI weighed in at 187 lb (85 kg), 2 kg heavier than his previous fight with Joe Weller. Meanwhile, Logan came in at 189 lb (86 kg). KSI took part in the weigh-in wearing a Chloe Bennet mask in an attempt to taunt Logan. For the co-main event, Deji weighed in at 79 kg with Paul weighing 82.5 kg.

Card.

On the fight's undercard, JMX was expected to fight TGFbro's Romell Henry, but Henry later pulled out due to injury and was replaced by HalalHam. It was later revealed that JMX would instead be fighting YouTuber and athlete Coach Richard; HalalHam faced off against Jrizzy Jeremy.  AnEsonGib fought TGFbro's Jay Swingler on the event's undercard.

Fight details.

Ticket information.

The fight was held at the Manchester Arena in Manchester, England. Tickets for the fight went on sale on 22 June after an announcement by KSI on his YouTube channel. General admission tickets started at a price of £30 with the highest level package pricing at £495. They had elected to go with Eventim UK for distribution of sales. Tickets made available priced from £30, £40, £50, £60, £80, £100, £150 and VIP £495. Although the event was jointly promoted by Upload Events, Maverick Media and OP Talent, Upload Events were the lead promoter of the fight.

Broadcasting.

The fight was streamed on pay-per-view on YouTube, via a YouTube channel dedicated to the fight. The pay-per-view was set to cost £6 in the United Kingdom but was raised to £7.50, and $10 in the United States. The pay-per-view prices received negative responses from a number of fans, as KSI's past fight with Joe Weller was streamed on YouTube for free. YouTube personalities True Geordie, Joe Weller and Laurence McKenna commentated on the fight. Iconic ring announcer Michael Buffer announced the fighters.

Piracy concerns.

Due to the high profile of the event in the social and online world, and the use of pay-per-view instead of the usual free YouTube streaming, pirate streams of the fight became a concern for promoters. In a video by Jake Paul, he stated that "anyone who is planning on illegally streaming or torrenting the fight won't be able to as employees from Google and YouTube will be taking down and disabling streams all through the night." However, this did not discourage fans from advertising illegal streams in protest against the use of pay-per-view. KSI tried to address the use of pay-per-view via Twitter stating, "The cost of the event itself is on another level to last time (the KSI vs Joe Weller fight). Plus the press conferences, weigh-in and making other content for the new channel, all adds up." After the fight, it emerged that over 1.2 million people watched the fight over pirated Twitch streams, meaning over $12 million in potential pay-per-view revenue was not realized.

Purses.

The purse for the fight is split 50/50. Although official details for it haven't been revealed, there have been estimates of their potential earnings. According to one estimate, the total revenue is believed to be £150million, including lucrative sponsorship deals that the pair signed, with KSI and Logan Paul each receiving up to £75million. Another estimate gives the potential earnings of KSI and Logan Paul at £30million to £40million each, from ticket sales, online views, sponsorship deals, and merchandise sales.  However, both KSI and Logan Paul have dismissed these estimates. KSI stated that his earnings are "a high amount, but it's nowhere near £40m" or £20million. YouTube took a 30% share of the pay-per-view revenue, with the remaining 70% split evenly between KSI and Logan Paul, each receiving a 35% share. Logan's share was in turn split with his brother Jake, and Logan estimates that a further 30% of his earnings went towards expenses including administration, production, venues, coaches, travel, accommodation, managers, lawyers, and agents.

Belt.

With the result being a draw, KSI retained the YouTube championship belt. The belt is of red colour with gold motifs. Its design features an eagle with its wings fully spread atop a golden globe with a crown at its centre. The belt was presented to KSI at his previous fight by professional boxer Dereck Chisora.

Officials and rules.

The main event was contested over 6 rounds 3 minutes each. Both athletes agreed to box in 12oz gloves, which is a size often used for amateur boxing fights between the middleweight and heavyweight divisions.

Betting odds.

Odds are as of 24 August 2018.

Recap and aftermath.

After Jake Paul beat Deji by technical knockout, he called out American singer-songwriter Chris Brown, saying "I know you were supposed to fight Soulja Boy. But I think it is time you got in the ring with someone your own size.”, after the Jake-Deji fight Bugzy Malone performed songs from his new album "B. Inspired". The fight was also attended by multiple celebrities such as Jake Wood, Wes Nelson and professional UFC fighter, Jimi Manuwa.  The fight inspired PewDiePie to begin a feud and rivalry with Indian record company T-Series over the title of most-subscribed YouTube channel. This online competition became known as PewDiePie vs T-Series.

Scorecard.

Source:

Reception.

Pre-match.

The fight and the lead-up to it caught the attention of mainstream media as well as professional boxing promoter Eddie Hearn, and boxers such as Floyd Mayweather, Tyson Fury, Amir Khan and Ricky Hatton. Former UFC middleweight champion Michael Bisping, who trained KSI prior to the match, called the fight "an insulting mockery" to professional boxing and martial arts, stating in the 76th episode of his "Believe You Me" podcast, "I find it almost insulting to everybody that has dedicated their life to being a fighter. Come up the hard way, been a lifelong boxer or martial artist and then these two come in... they’re almost making a mockery of the sport of boxing and martial arts." Bisping has since removed the episode in question from his YouTube channel.

Viewership and revenue.

The pre-fight promotional videos uploaded to the official KSI vs Logan channel on YouTube have received nearly 60million online views, including nearly 30million views for the official fight trailers. In the month leading up to the fight, the channel's pre-fight promotional videos drew 28million views, generating earnings up to $112,000. In addition, the promotional diss track music videos from KSI, Logan Paul, Jake Paul and Deji have received about 60million views.  The fight sold-out 21,000 tickets for Manchester Arena, in comparison to the 8,000 tickets sold at the Copper Box Arena for the previous KSI vs. Joe Weller fight. The fight generated an estimated live gate revenue of over £2.7million () from ticket sales.  The fight was watched by over 2.25million viewers live, including over 1.05million watching pay-per-view and 1.2 million watching illegal streams on Twitch. The event eventually received about 17million online views on the official YouTube channel (pay-per-view and free-view) as of 18 September 2018, in addition to over 5million viewers who watched illegal streams on Twitch as of 28 August 2018.  The KSI vs Logan Paul boxing match, along with the undercard fights including Deji vs. Jake Paul, was uploaded to YouTube on 31 August 2018, which can now be watched for free. The official KSI vs Logan channel on YouTube has received more than 75million views as of 17 September 2018.

Pay-per-view numbers.

The fight generated a total of 1.3million pay-per-view buys worldwide, on YouTube and the KSI vs Logan Paul official website combined, including over 800,000live purchases. This makes it the largest non-professional boxing match of all time. At £7.50 or $10 a view, the pay-per-view revenue is approximately an estimated £million or.

KSI vs. Logan Paul was a white-collar amateur boxing match between the British YouTuber, Olajide "JJ" Olatunji (known online as KSI), and American YouTuber, Logan Paul. The undercard consisted of a number of YouTubers, including a bout between the headliners respective younger brothers, Deji Olatunji and Jake Paul. The bout took place on 25 August 2018 at 8:30 PM BST in the Manchester Arena, Manchester, England, and was streamed on YouTube's pay-per-view platform, and resulted in a majority draw, with two judges scoring it 57–57 and the other 58–57 in favour of KSI.


Development.

In 2019", 2K Battlegrounds" predecessor "WWE 2K20" received "generally unfavorable" reviews on all platforms according to review aggregator Metacritic. Reviewers criticized the physics, graphics, targeting, change in controls and the large number of glitches.  In 2020, the game was rendered almost unplayable due to a "Y2k20" bug. Due to the number of bugs, player complaints lead to the hashtag #FixWWE2K20 trending on social media.  In April 2020, former WWE video games writer Justin Leeper reported that a simulation game successor to "WWE 2K20" had been cancelled. The decision was made due to "2K20's" poor sales in addition to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry. However, Leeper also stated that 2K would release a different type of WWE game in 2020, which is not related to the series, while a future entry would be released in 2021 for the eighth console generation and PC.  On April 27, 2020, 2K announced "WWE 2K Battlegrounds" as a spin-off to the series, while also announcing that Patrick Gilmore, who worked on previous games, including Disney’s Aladdin on Sega Genesis, franchises like Killer Instinct, Medal of Honor, and most recently, Amazon’s New World, would be the new Executive Producer. The trailer featured John Cena, The Rock, Becky Lynch and Charlotte Flair and was met with a negative reception. On May 4, 2020, an ESRB Rating confirmed that "2K Battlegrounds" would be released on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch (the first WWE game to be released on Switch since "2K18") and would be the first WWE game to release on Google Stadia, but 2K have yet to confirm this.

Roster.

The game will feature both male and female Superstars and Legends. It is unknown how many wrestlers will appear in the final game:

WWE 2K Battlegrounds is an upcoming professional wrestling video game developed by Saber Interactive and published by 2K Sports. It is expected to be released in fall 2020. It is the seventh under the "WWE 2K" banner. "WWE 2K Battlegrounds" will replace "WWE 2K21" for 2020, following its cancellation, due to the negative reception surrounding "WWE 2K20" after its release in October 2019.


Composition.

For Kraftwerk, "Tour de France" was a departure from the technological tone of the two previous albums, "The Man-Machine" and "Computer World". Instead, the song is a joie de vivre celebration of cycling, marking the group's increasing interest in the sport. Of the current line-up, Hütter and Fritz Hilpert have been known to take part in cycling events. The track was originally recorded with the intention of being included on the subsequently abandoned "Techno Pop" album. The single was originally released on seven and twelve inch vinyl, and as a cassette-single. It has the most complicated set of variants of any Kraftwerk song, having been variously edited and remixed to the point that there is no completely definitive version.

Releases.

Original release.

In Germany it was released in both German and French language versions, one on each side of the vinyl disc, but in other countries the versions of the song that were issued were sung only in French. Typically, the seven inch sides were edited down versions of the longer tracks released on twelve inch singles. In the UK however the seven inch B side was an instrumental edit of the A side track; an additional instrumental track of percussion and samples, "Tour de France, Étape 2", was included on the UK twelve inch and cassette releases.

Remix release.

On 22 June 1984 the song was re-released in two new versions: a substantially different and largely instrumental arrangement, remixed by François Kevorkian in New York; and a Kraftwerk-remixed alternative version of the original arrangement, featuring longer percussive sections than the 1983 version in the latter half of the track. Sleeves for later UK pressings of this version included the message "As featured in the film "Breakdance"" on the front. The remix reached number 24 on the UK Singles Chart and number 4 on the US Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart.

Digital remaster.

In October 1999, the recordings were digitally remastered and released, this time as a CD and a twelve-inch single, with a slightly modified version of the original cover design: the faces of former members Karl Bartos and Wolfgang Flür, who had left the band by 1999, were replaced by faces presumably representing current members Fritz Hilpert and Henning Schmitz.  The 1999 vinyl twelve-inch had the 1984 Kraftwerk remix as the A side (now sub-titled "Kling Klang Analog Mix") and the Kevorkian version as the B side (re-titled "Remix François K"). The CD also included the 1983 seven-inch single edited mix of the song (re-titled "Radio Version") and a QuickTime format file of the video, featuring an edited version of the 1984 Kraftwerk remix with German lyrics ("Multi-Media-Track") over an amended video. The video itself was re-edited to remove sequences showing the 1983 incarnation of the band and now comprised only archive footage of Tour de France cyclists, such as the Italian champion Fausto Coppi and the French champion Jacques Anquetil.

2003 version.

A completely new recording was made for the 2003 album "Tour de France Soundtracks", based on the original 1983 arrangement. The album was remastered and re-released in 2009.

Music videos.

For the 1983 release a video clip with footage was released. The 1984 Kevorkian-Video had also its video. On that rare videomaterial the band members are seen in Düsseldorf on their bicycles. The 1999 release had the same video like the 1983 Version.

Track listing.

UK 12-inch vinyl, 1983 Catalog number: 12 EMI 5413  UK 7-inch vinyl, 1983 Catalog number: EMI 5413  UK cassette, 1983 Catalog number: TC-EMI 5413  US 12-inch vinyl, 1984 Catalog number: 20146  UK 12-inch vinyl, 1984 Catalog number: 12 EMI 5413 UK 7-inch vinyl, 1984 Catalog number: EMI 5413  German 12-inch vinyl, 1983 Catalog number: 1CK 052 1652046  German 7-inch vinyl, 1983 Catalog number: 1C 006 1652047  German 12-inch vinyl, 1984 (1) Catalog number: 1CK 052 1652046 German 12-inch vinyl, 1984 (2) Catalog number: 1CK 062 2003776  German 7-inch vinyl, 1984 Catalog number: 1C 006 200376-7  EU 12-inch vinyl, 1999 Catalog number: 7243 8 87421 6 0

"Tour de France" is a song by German electronic band Kraftwerk. It was first issued in early August 1983, peaking at number 22 in the United Kingdom singles chart since August 6th. It is notable for the use of sampled voices and mechanical sounds associated with cycling that were used to supplement a simple electro-percussion pattern – an approach Kraftwerk had used on earlier tracks such as "Metal on Metal" (from "Trans-Europe Express") and "Numbers" (from "Computer World"). The music is credited to Ralf Hütter, Florian Schneider and Karl Bartos; the lyrics are credited to Hütter and Maxime Schmitt, a French label associate of the band. The melody appears to quote a fragment of the opening section of Paul Hindemith's “Sonata for Flute and Piano” (“Heiter Bewegt”).


List of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language

History.

Nearly every historic Chinese dynasty and state has had some form of Chinese as an official language. The spoken language of bureaucrats and officials, also known as Mandarin has usually been based on the local speech of capital city. Historical governments associated with Korea, Japan, and Vietnam have also used Classical Chinese as an official written language, but for inter-personal communication used their respective native languages. Other states and countries that have used written or spoken Chinese in an official capacity include, Manchukuo, Ryukyu Kingdom and Lanfang Republic.

Chinese varieties as official languages.

Cantonese.

As special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau list the ambiguous "Chinese" as their official language, although in practice, the regionally spoken Cantonese dialect is used by the government as the official variant of Chinese rather than Mandarin as on the mainland.  Cantonese is also highly influential in the southern Chinese province of Guangdong, where the language originated. Despite Mandarin's status as the official language of China, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT) has allowed local television and other media in Guangdong Province to be broadcast in Cantonese since 1988 in order to countermeasure against Hong Kong influence. Meanwhile, usage of the country’s other dialects in media is rigorously restricted by the SARFT, with permission from national or local authorities being required for a dialect to be the primary programming language at radio and television stations. Despite its unique standing relative to other Chinese dialects, Cantonese has also recently been targeted by the SARFT in attempts to curb its usage on local television in Guangdong. This created mass demonstrations in 2010 that resulted in the eventual rejection of the plans.

Mandarin.

While the Mandarin dialect group consists of closely related varieties of Chinese spoken natively across most of northern and southwestern China, a form based on the Beijing dialect has been established as the national standard and is official in the People's Republic of China, Singapore and Taiwan. However, in the latter two jurisdictions as well as in Hong Kong and Macau, local languages have influenced the spoken vernacular form of Mandarin.

Status of other Chinese variants.

In China, the public usage of varieties other than Standard Mandarin ("Putonghua") is officially discouraged by the government and nearly all education and media is conducted in the standard variant, with a notable exception being Cantonese in Guangdong media and public transportation. As a result, younger populations are increasingly losing knowledge of their local dialects. However, in recent years, there has been limited activity in reintroducing local dialects at schools through cultural programs and broadcasting restrictions on dialects have been somewhat slightly uplifted.  Although Mandarin is official variant of Chinese in Taiwan, Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka are widely spoken and used in media. Additionally, they are also taught at the primary school level and are used in public transportation announcements. There is also a thriving literary scene for both Taiwanese and Hakka alongside Mandarin. In 2002 the Taiwan Solidarity Union proposed making Taiwanese an co-official language, but this was criticized by both Blue and Green politicians as promoting Hoklo chauvinism at the expense of Hakka and the Aboriginal language. In December 2017, Hakka was recognized as a national minority language, allowing it to be used for official purposes in townships where speakers form at least half of the population.  In Singapore, the public usage of varieties other than Standard Mandarin is discouraged as in China. The Singaporean government has actively promoted the Speak Mandarin Campaign (SMC) since the 1980s and forbids non-cable broadcasting and Chinese language medium of instruction in non-Mandarin varieties. However, since the mid-1990s, there has been a relaxation in allowing non-Mandarin broadcasting via cable networks and a massive following of Hong Kong television dramas and pop culture, which are in Cantonese.

The following is a list of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language. While those countries or territories that designate Chinese as an official language use the term "Chinese", as Chinese is a group of related language varieties, of which many are not mutually intelligible, in the context of the spoken language such designations are usually understood as designations of specific varieties of Chinese, namely Cantonese and Standard Mandarin. In the context of the written language, written modern standard Chinese is usually understood to be the official standard, though different territories use different standard scripts, namely Traditional Chinese characters and Simplified Chinese characters.


Brady Township, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of, of which, of it is land and of it (0.47%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,035 people, 376 households, and 291 families residing in the township. The population density was 32.9 people per square mile (12.7/km2). There were 440 housing units at an average density of 14.0/sq mi (5.4/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 98.74% White, 0.10% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.10% from other races, and 0.97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.68% of the population.  There were 376 households, out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.4% were married couples living together, 4.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.6% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.17.  In the township the population was spread out, with 28.3% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 26.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 99.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.  The median income for a household in the township was $28,750, and the median income for a family was $33,438. Males had a median income of $29,231 versus $26,250 for females. The per capita income for the township was $13,292. About 14.8% of families and 17.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.7% of those under age 18 and 16.2% of those age 65 or over.

Brady Township is a township in Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,172 at the 2010 census. The township includes the villages of Fousetown and Airydale. Brady Township was named for Hugh Brady, a Brigadier General in United States Army who was born in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. Township had been separated from Henderson in 1846.


Life.

George Lunt was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on December 31, 1803. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1824, with special distinction in Greek, studied law, and began practice in Newburyport in 1827.  In earlier life Mr. Lunt was an active member of the Whig party, and in its interests was distinguished as a public speaker. On the dissolution of that party he became a Democrat. He was elected successively representative for Newburyport and senator from Essex County in the legislature, was an active member of the convention that nominated General Zachary Taylor for the presidency, and was appointed United States District Attorney for Massachusetts under Taylor's administration. He eventually resumed the private practice of his profession, devoting his leisure to literary pursuits. When the Whigs dissolved, he joined the Democrats.  Prior to and during the Civil War he was editor of the "Boston Courier" in conjunction with George S. Hillard. He opposed policies which would estrange the South and defended slavery. When he returned to the practice of his profession, he appeared frequently in the state courts, and was counsel before congressional committees in reference to French claims, preparing a bill and efficiently pressing it for the action of congress. Mr. Lunt's later years were marked by labors in behalf of harbors of refuge, notably at Scituate, Massachusetts, on the south shore of Boston bay. By persevering effort he succeeded in securing very considerable appropriations from congress to this end. He was a man of firm convictions in both political and religious matters, and fearless and manly in their expression. As a writer his style was marked by strength, dignity, and grace.  Lunt died in Boston on May 17, 1885.

George Lunt (December 31, 1803 – May 17, 1885) was an American editor, lawyer, author, and politician. George's ancestor, Henry Lunt, was one of the original settlers of Newbury (1635). His grandfather's exploits with John Paul Jones were chronicled by James Fenimore Cooper.


Signs and symptoms.

McCune–Albright syndrome is suspected when two or more of the following features are present:  Patients may have one or many of these features, which may occur in any combination. As such, the clinical presentation of patients with McCune Albright syndrome varies greatly depending on the disease features.  Various endocrine diseases may present in McCune–Albright syndrome due to increased hormone production.

Genetics.

Genetically, there is a spontaneous postzygotic mutation of the gene GNAS, on the long (q) arm of chromosome 20 at position 13.3, which is involved in G-protein signaling. This mutation, which occurs only in the mosaic state, leads to constitutive receptor signaling and inappropriate production of excess cAMP.  The mutation that causes McCune–Albright syndrome arises very early during embryogenesis. Because all cases of the syndrome are sporadic, it is believed that the mutation would be lethal if it affected all cells in the embryo. Mutant cells can only survive when they are intermixed with normal cells.  There are no known risk factors for acquiring McCune–Albright syndrome, and no exposures during pregnancy that are known to either cause or prevent the mutation from occurring. The disease cannot be inherited and occurs equally among all ethnic groups.

Diagnosis.

McCune–Albright syndrome has different levels of severity. For example, one child with McCune–Albright syndrome may be entirely healthy, with no outward evidence of bone or endocrine problems, enter puberty at close to the normal age, and have no unusual skin pigmentation. Diagnosis may be made only after decades. In other cases, children are diagnosed in early infancy, show obvious bone disease, and obvious increased endocrine secretions from several glands.

Skeletal abnormalities.

Patients with fibrous dysplasia may have bone fractures, pain, and deformities. Patients may also develop low blood phosphate levels due to overproduction of the protein fibroblast growth factor 23.  CT scan of the skull is the most useful test for craniofacial fibrous dysplasia. Regular hearing and vision screening is recommended. X-rays are usually sufficient to reveal fibrous dysplasia of the appendicular skeleton, but CT and/or MRI scans can reveal microfractures. Regular screening for scoliosis should also be undertaken.

Endocrine abnormalities.

Precocious puberty is more common in females, but may occur in males as well. Drugs such as letrozole and anastrozole can be used to prevent short stature in both males and females. In males, drugs such as spironolactone and flutamide can be used to treat the behavioral issues associated with androgen excess.  Males with McCune–Albright syndrome may present with benign testicular tumors, though testicular cancer appears to be rare. Annual ultrasounds of testicular masses should be performed to screen for cancer.  Hyperthyroidism is found in about 38% of patients. Medications such as thioamides are useful in treating these symptoms. However, as thyroid symptoms in this disorder almost never resolve spontaneously, surgery or radiation are more definitive treatments. Annual thyroid ultrasounds should be performed to screen for thyroid cancer. Hyperparathyroidism secondary to Vitamin D deficiency is common, and may worsen fibrous dysplasia. Levels of calcium and parathyroid hormone should be periodically assessed.

Treatment.

Treatment is dictated by both the tissues affected and the extent to which they are affected.

Skeletal abnormalities.

Surgical management of skeletal abnormalities has evolved over the years. Surgical intervention may be necessary for some skeletal abnormalities. Bisphosphonates are helpful in relieving bone pain, but it is no longer believed that they prevent progression of the disease. Denosumab has been found successful in reducing bone pain and decreasing tumor growth. Muscle strengthening exercises are important for preventing bone fractures; cycling and swimming are recommended in order to reduce the risk of fracture during exercise.

Endocrine abnormalities.

In one study, 18% of McCune–Albright patients had hypophosphatemia due to kidney involvement. High doses of oral phosphate and calcitriol should be given for treatment.  Pituitary hormone abnormalities may occur. Growth hormone excess may worsen craniofacial dysplasia; treatment with somatostatin analogues or pegvisomant may be effective. Surgery may be an option, but may be complicated by the cranial abnormalities associated with the disorder. Excessive prolactin secretion may also occur; this is treated with dopamine agonists such as cabergoline.  Cushing syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal complication that can occur in the first year of life. Adrenalectomy is the treatment of choice. Metyrapone may also be used for treatment.

Epidemiology.

McCune–Albright syndrome is estimated to occur at a frequency between 1 person in 100,000 to 1 person in 1,000,000 individuals worldwide.

McCune–Albright syndrome is a complex genetic disorder affecting the bone, skin and endocrine systems. It is a mosaic disease arising from somatic activating mutations in "GNAS", which encodes the alpha-subunit of the Gs G protein-coupled receptor. These mutations lead to constitutive receptor activation.


Creation.

The Mint Act of 1835, established by the United States Congress on 3 March, established "one branch at the city of New Orleans for the coinage of gold and silver; one branch at the town of Charlotte...for the coinage of gold only; and one branch at or near Dahlonega, in Lumpkin County, in the state of Georgia, also for the coinage of gold only."  Ignatius Alphonso Few, appointed commissioner, bought ten acres south of Dahlonega for $1,050 (equal to $ today) in August 1835, and hired the architect Benjamin Towns, the lowest bidder at $33,450 (equal to $ today), to construct the mint within eighteen months. Mint machinery was installed in 1837, which included "cutting presses, a fly wheel, a drawing frame, a crank shaft, a coining press, and eighteen annealing pans." The coining press could make "fifty to sixty gold coins per minute."  Superintendent Dr. Joseph Singleton, opened the mint in February 1838. About a thousand ounces of gold were deposited in the first week, and the first coins consisting of eighty five-dollar gold pieces, were minted on 17 April.

Production.

The mint produced coins every year from 1838 through 1861. Denominations produced included $1.00; $2.50 (quarter eagles); $3.00 (1854 only); and $5.00 (half eagles).

The Civil War.

When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, the Dahlonega Mint was seized by the Confederates. It is believed that after the Confederates took over the mint in 1861, that some gold dollars and half eagles were minted under the authority of the Confederate States Government. The exact number of 1861-D gold dollars produced is unknown, while approximately 1,597 1861-D half eagles were struck. Because of their relatively low mintage, all Dahlonega-minted gold coins are rare. It is generally accepted that gold coins estimated to exceed $6 million were minted here.

Post Civil War.

After the end of the Civil War, The United States Government decided against reopening the mint. The building was unused until the founding of North Georgia College in 1873. The mint building was used as the main academic and administrative building for the college until a fire destroyed the original building in December 1878. A new building for the college was erected on the foundations of the old mint building. This building is now named Price Memorial Hall after William P. Price, the founder of the college, and is still used by the college today.  Gold leaf from this area also covers the exterior of the domed roof over the rotunda of the Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta. Local media often refer to the state legislature's activities as what's going on "under the gold dome". After the capitol building was gold leafed citizens of Dahlonega began a campaign to gold leaf Price Memorial Hall after the same fashion as the capitol.  For other United States Mint facilities, see "Historical United States mints".

Superintendents.

Six men acted as Superintendent of the Dahlonega Mint.

The Dahlonega Mint was a former branch of the United States Mint built during the Georgia Gold Rush to help the miners get their gold assayed and minted, without having to travel to the Philadelphia Mint. It was located at (34°31.8′N 83°59.2′W ) in Dahlonega, Lumpkin County, Georgia. Coins produced at the Dahlonega Mint bear the "D" mint mark. That mint mark is used today by the Denver Mint, which opened many years after the Dahlonega Mint closed. All coins from the Dahlonega Mint are gold, in the $1, $2.50, $3, and $5 denominations, and bear dates in the range 1838–1861.


History.

In July AD 754, the track which carried the dead Saint Boniface rested in the village over night. To the honour of the saint, the Bonifatiuskapelle (chapel of Boniface) was built.  Kriftel was first mentioned documentary in 790.  The Thirty Years' War damaged Kriftel including the chapel, which was not rebuilt until 1755. It took so long because a big fire destroyed almost the entire village (34 houses out of 38) in 1661.  From 1945 up until the oil crisis in 1973, Kriftel experienced a population explosion due to massive immigration from urban sprawl and workers of the Hoechst-AG, who were offered cheap land to build their housing units.  In 1959, the chapel had to be relocated due to community growth.  During the mid-1970s, Kriftel fought for independence because Hofheim, the capital of the Main-Taunus district, wanted it to belong to it.  Airaines has been Kriftel's French sister city since 1981. The "Platz von Airaines" (Place of Airaines) at the train station was named after this partnership.

Today.

Kriftel has two churches, the catholic "St. Vitus" and the protestant "Auferstehungskirche". There are three schools, an elementary school (Lindenschule [Linden School]), a comprehensive school (Weingartenschule [Vineyard School]) and a vocational training school (Konrad-Adenauer-Schule). Kriftel lies at the federal motorway A 66 and the regional train line S 2 (From Niedernhausen over Frankfurt to Dietzenbach).  Kriftel is known for its good leisure facilities. In addition to multiple playgrounds, Kriftel has a large play park (Freizeitpark). This sports an outdoor swimming pool, sports fields including for football and volleyball, a miniature/crazy golf course, a quarter pipe for skating and extensive playgrounds. The village is also hosts various club activities. The most important clubs are the SV 07 Kriftel (soccer) and the Turn- und Sportverein Kriftel (sports in general especially volleyball and trick cycling). There are also large community festivals. The most prominent are the Lindenblütenfest (Feast of the blossom of the linden) in summer and the Krifteler Kerb (Kriftel's Kermesse) in autumn.

Town partnerships.

Kriftel is twinned to the following town:

Kriftel is a municipality in the Main-Taunus district, in Hesse, Germany. It is situated 16 km west of Frankfurt (centre).


Etymology.

"Rood" is an archaic word for "pole", from Old English "rōd" "pole", specifically "cross", from Proto-Germanic "*rodo", cognate to Old Saxon "rōda", Old High German "ruoda" "rod"; the relation of "rood" to "rod", from Old English "rodd" "pole", is unclear; the latter was perhaps influenced by Old Norse "rudda" "club".  In Normandy, where the rood was also used (before being replaced by metric units around 1800), it was known as a "vergée", from the French word "verge" (stick, rod), which was borrowed in English (see virge).

Measurement of area.

Rood is an English unit of area equal to one quarter of an acre or. A rectangle that is one furlong (i.e., 10 chains, or 40 rods) in length and one rod in width is one rood in area, as is any space comprising 40 perches (a perch being one square rod). The "vergée" was also a quarter of a Normandy "acre", and was equal to 40 square "perches" (1 Normandy "acre" = 160 square "perches").  The rood was an important measure in surveying on account of its easy conversion to acres. When referring to areas, rod is often found in old documents and has exactly the same meaning as rood.

Linear measure.

A rood is also an obsolete British unit of linear measure between. It is related to the German and the Danish. The original OED of 1914 said this sense was "now only in local use, and varying from 6 to 8 yards" (or 18 to 24 ft, "Rood", II.7).

A rood (; abbreviation: ro) is a historic English and international inch-pound measure of area, as well as an archaic English measure of length.


By country.

Historically Christian countries.

In a number of states with a majority-Christian or formerly majority-Christian population blasphemy laws may criminalize abusive or scurrilous speech about Christianity, and often times, other religions and their adherents, as such offenses "have the tendency to lead to a breach of peace".

Australia.

Emerging as a British colony in the 1780s, Australia received English common law, including the Blasphemy Act 1697. The first colonial laws were the Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act 1827 for New South Wales (repealed in 1898), and legislation that governor Arthur Phillip enacted in Van Diemen's Land in the same year that regulated printing and publishing and prohibited 'blasphemous and seditious libels' as part of a law to maintain public order.

Austria.

In Austria, a section

Brazil.

Art. 208 of the penal code states that "publicly vilifying an act

Canada.

Blasphemous libel was a crime in Canada under section 296 of the Criminal Code R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46. Subsection (1) read: Subsection (3) read: Over the summer of 2016, a petition to Parliament asking that the blasphemous libel law be repealed was circulated by several Canadian humanist groups. The petition was presented to the Government in December 2016. It responded in January 2017, stating that "blasphemous libel, along

Denmark.

In Denmark, Paragraph 140 of the penal code was about blasphemy. Since 1866, this law has only led to two convictions, in 1938 and in 1946. A further charge was brought to court in 1971, but led to acquittal. In 2017 a man was charged with blasphemy for posting a video of himself burning the Quran on social media under the slogan "Yes to freedom - no to Islam". In

Finland.

In Finland, section 10 of chapter 17 of the Criminal Code relate to blasphemy. The section is titled "Breach of the sanctity of religion", but the law text explicitly mentions "publicly blaspheming against God". Unsuccessful attempts were made to rescind the section in 1914, 1917, 1965, 1970, and 1998.  The writer Hannu Salama was convicted of blasphemy for his 1964 novel "Juhannustanssit". In 1969 Harro Koskinen was

France.

The definition of "blasphemy" was introduced into French law in the 13th century (after great debate among the French Moralists), based on the definition given by St. Thomas Aquinas: a sin of language, "a failure to declare one's faith", thus representing an attack on the purity of religion. This justified punishment by law, which became extreme during the reign of Louis IX. Later canonized by the Catholic church as Saint Louis, he became obsessed in his fight against heretics, Jews and Muslims, and set the punishment for blasphemy to mutilation of the tongue and lips.

Germany.

In Germany, religious defamation is covered by Article 166 of the Strafgesetzbuch, the German criminal law. If a deed is capable of disturbing the public peace, defamation is actionable. The article reads as follows:  In

Greece.

Articles 198, 199, and 201 of the Greek Penal Code create offences which involve blasphemy. Article 198 "Malicious Blasphemy" provides:  Article 199 "Blasphemy Concerning Religions" restates most of Article 198, and criminalizes blasphemy against the Greek Orthodox Church.  Article 201 criminalizes acts committed “blasphemously and improperly toward a grave".  Greece has not used its laws about blasphemy to protect any religion other than the Greek Orthodox Church, which is the state church of Greece. In December 2003, Greece prosecuted for blasphemy Gerhard Haderer, an Austrian, along with his Greek publisher and four booksellers. Haderer is the author of an illustrated, humorous book entitled "The Life of Jesus". The prosecutor contended that the book's depiction of

Iceland.

The Icelandic blasphemy law was repealed on 2 July 2015, after a strong push by the Icelandic Pirate Party and a number of associations including Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association (Siðmennt), the bishop of Iceland, the Icelandic priesthood, the Association of Publishers, PEN

Ireland.

In Ireland, blasphemy against any form of religion was prohibited by the 2009 Defamation Act until its repeal on 17 January 2020. Blasphemy against Christianity was prohibited by the constitution and carried a maximum fine of €25,000; however, the offence of blasphemous libel, last prosecuted in 1855 in connection to an alleged Bible-burning, was ruled in 1999 to be incompatible with the Constitution's guarantee of religious equality. A controversial law was passed on 9 July 2009 and went into effect on 1

Italy.

In Italy, under article 724 of the Penal Code, blasphemy in public is considered an "administrative offense" and punished with a fine ranging from €51 to €309. First introduced in 1930 under Mussolini, blasphemy was decriminalized as per art.57, d.lgs. n.507 of 30 December 1999. Following a ruling of

Malta.

Instead of a law against blasphemy, Malta had laws against the vilification of religion, and against immorality. Enacted in 1933, Article 163 of Malta's Criminal Code prohibited "vilification of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Religion", which is Malta's state religion. Vilification of Malta's religion made the vilifier liable to imprisonment for a term from one to six months. By Article 164, vilification of any cult "tolerated by

Nigeria.

Nigeria prohibits blasphemy by section 204 of its Criminal Code and

Netherlands.

With the introduction of the Dutch Criminal Code of 1881, in force since 1886, the Netherlands obtained its first law against blasphemy. The Minister of Justice argued that, although God would be perfectly capable of protecting his own rights, the Dutch legislator had to 'protect the rights of society'.  In 1932, a bill was proposed to tighten the 1886 law. Parliament was divided between confessional and non-confessional parties, but also between different confessional parties on the question whether the purpose of

New Zealand.

In New Zealand, Section 123 of the Crimes Act 1961 allowed for imprisonment of up to one year for anyone who published any "blasphemous libel". Cases were only prosecuted at the discretion of the New Zealand Attorney-General, who usually cited overriding free speech objections so as not to pursue such a case. The only prosecution for blasphemous libel in New Zealand was the case of John Glover, publisher of the newspaper "The Maoriland Worker", in 1922. Glover was acquitted.  The British comedy film "Monty Python's Life of Brian" (1979) about a fictional Jewish man living at the

Norway.

In 2009, the Norwegian Parliament voted to remove the dormant law against blasphemy (§ 142 in the penal code). It was, however, removed from the penal code of 2005, which did not come into force until October 2015. Therefore, blasphemy was illegal until 2015 under the old Penal Code of 1902.  The famous writer and social activist Arnulf Øverland was the last to be tried by this law, in 1933, after giving a speech named "Kristendommen – den tiende landeplage" ("Christianity

Philippines.

"Crimes against religious worship" are stated under section four of the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines. Under article 132 and 133, respectively, "interruption of religious worship" and "offending the religious feelings" are punishable by law. "Interruption of religious worship" is defined as "preventing or disturbing the

Poland.

While Poland's penal code makes no reference to any sort of blasphemy law, it states that "Whoever offends religious feelings of other people by publicly insulting an object of religious cult or a place for public holding of religious ceremonies, is subject to a fine, restriction of liberty or loss of liberty for up to 2 years". The article has been used by pro-Church politicians and activists on numerous occasions, whenever they felt their religious feelings had been offended in any way. Opponents of the article maintain that due to its

Romania.

Romania does not have any blasphemy laws in force. According to Romanian law, "cults, religious associations and religious groups... must not infringe upon... fundamental human rights and liberties",

Russia.

After the Pussy Riot incident, Russian lawmakers started considering a bill proposing prison sentences for desecration. The State Duma investigated "the situation of sacrilegious acts against Church property and propose amendments to the Russian Penal Code" in their 2012 Autumn Session. The Union of Orthodox Citizens and MP of United Russia supported the proposal, the latter stating: "We really should make

South Africa.

Blasphemy is a common law offence in South Africa, defined as "unlawfully, intentionally and publicly acting contemptuously towards God." Several legal writers have suggested that the illegality of blasphemy has become unconstitutional as a result of the adoption in 1994 of the Bill of Rights, which includes the right to freedom of expression. It has also been suggested that it is unconstitutional because the criminal prohibition only applies to blasphemy against Christianity, and therefore discriminates on the basis of religion.  Blasphemy prosecutions have been rare since the start of the twentieth century, to the point that writers in the early part of the century suggested that the crime had been abrogated through disuse. However, in 1934 a newspaper editor was convicted of blasphemy for publishing

Spain.

In 1988 the spanish Courts removed the blasphemy law of their legal system.  However, the article 525 of the penal law in Spain considers "vilification" of religious "feelings", "dogmas", "beliefs" or "rituals". This extension to "dogmas" and "beliefs" is considered by some as very close to a blasphemy law in practice.  For instance, in 2012 it was used to prosecute a famous artist, Javier

Sweden.

Swedish laws do not prohibit blasphemy. In Sweden the 20th century saw the public adoption of the principle that religion was a personal matter. King Erik XIV had introduced a law in 1563 that specifically protected religion. That was followed by similar Acts until 1949, when they were replaced by an Act on "Peace

Switzerland.

In Switzerland, Article 261 of the penal code titled "Attack

United Kingdom.

The United Kingdom is made up of four distinct parts and several legal jurisdictions. In criminal justice matters, these jurisdictions are England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Blasphemy laws dating back to the medieval times were abolished in England and Wales in 2008. Equivalent laws remain in Scotland and Northern Ireland but have not been used for many years.  English blasphemy laws were historically defended with the following reasoning: the "[blasphemy] law is needed to uphold the national law, which is based on Christianity. Thus, targeting Christianity is targeting the very foundation of England."  The

United States.

A prosecution for blasphemy in the United States would be a violation of the U.S. Constitution, and no blasphemy laws exist at the federal level. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution (adopted in 1791) provides: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press...."  Before winning their independence from the British Empire in the late 18th century, some of the British colonies in North America such as the Province of Massachusetts Bay had blasphemy laws. The 1791 First Amendment effectively put an end to them in the new American republic.  Because of the First Amendment's protection of free speech and religious exercise from federal interference, and the Supreme Court's extension of those protections against state regulation, the United States and its constituent state governments may not prosecute blasphemous speech or religious insults and may not allow

Muslim-majority countries.

In a number of countries where Islam is the state religion, Islamic sharia law is the principal legislation, or affects the laws of the country. Blasphemy in Islam is impious utterance or action concerning God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam. The Islamic holy book, the Qur'an, admonishes blasphemy, but does not specify the punishment. The hadiths, which are another source of sharia, suggest various punishments for blasphemy.

Afghanistan.

An Islamic state, Afghanistan prohibits blasphemy as an offense under

Algeria.

Although ninety-nine percent of Algeria's population is Sunni Muslim, and the Constitution declares that Islam is the state

Bangladesh.

Bangladesh forbids blasphemy by a provision in its penal code that prohibits "hurting religious sentiments", and by other laws and policies that attack freedom of speech. In April 2013, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina rejected calls for new laws from radical

Egypt.

Article 98(f) of the Egyptian Penal Code, as amended by Law 147/2006 states the penalty for blasphemy and similar crimes:  Confinement for a period of not less than six months and not exceeding five years, or a fine

Indonesia.

Article 156(a) of Indonesia's Criminal Code forbids anyone from deliberately, in public, expressing feelings of hostility, hatred, or contempt against religions

Iran.

An Islamic theocracy, Iran derives its law against blasphemy from Sharia. The law

Jordan.

Article 273 of Jordan's Penal Code criminalizes "scorning or reviling any of the Prophets" with imprisonment

Kuwait.

Article 6 of Kuwait's cybercrime laws mention a punishment of up to 12 months in prison and a 20,000 KWD

Malaysia.

Malaysia prevents insult to religion and to the religious by education, by restrictions upon the broadcasting and publishing media, and by

Mauritania.

The crime of apostasy is defined in section IV (entitled Act of Indecency toward Islam) of the Mauritanian Penal Code, established under the order of

Pakistan.

More people are on death row or serving life sentences for blasphemy in Pakistan than in any other country in the world.  The anti-blasphemy laws in Pakistan are quite complicated. Offenders may be vigorously prosecuted. Chapter XV of Pakistan Penal Code deals with "offences relating to religion":  There is a death penalty for blasphemy in Pakistan (only under section 295 c). Those prosecuted are usually minorities such as Ahmadiyya and Christians but it seems that they are also increasingly other Muslims. Persons accused of blasphemy as well as police, lawyers, and judges have been subject to harassment, threats, attacks, and murders when blasphemy is the issue.  In November 2008 Pakistan's government appointed Shahbaz Bhatti as Federal Minister for Minorities and gave

Palestine.

The State of Palestine has several provisions in civil and military law against blasphemy. An infamous 2010 case, in which these were employed to attempt a prosecution, was that of Waleed Al-Husseini, a young man from the West Bank town of Qalqilya who had left Islam to become an atheist, and openly challenged and ridiculed religion online. He was arrested without charges and jailed in October

Qatar.

The penalty for committing blasphemy in Qatar is a jail sentence of up to 7 years. Additionally, the law stipulates a 1-year prison sentence or QR1,000

Saudi Arabia.

Islam is Saudi Arabia's state religion. The country's monarchy follows Sunni Islam. The country's laws are an

Sudan.

Sunni Islam is the state religion of Sudan. Before South Sudan received independence, about seventy percent of the country's population was Muslim. The next largest group—about twenty-five percent of the population—was animist. Section 125 of the Sudanese Criminal Act prohibits "insulting religion, inciting hatred and showing contempt for religious beliefs". The section includes as penalties: imprisonment, a fine, and a maximum of forty lashes. In November 2007, the section gave rise to the Sudanese teddy bear blasphemy case. In December

Turkey.

Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code ("Provoking people to be rancorous and hostile") criminalizes blasphemy and religious insult, as well as hate speech. The article, which is in the fifth section of the Turkish Penal Code ("Offenses Against Public Peace") is as follows:  On 1 June 2012, pianist Fazıl Say came under investigation by the Istanbul Prosecutor's Office over statements

United Arab Emirates.

The United Arab Emirates discourage blasphemy by controlling what is

Yemen.

Accusations of blasphemy in Yemen are often aimed at religious minorities, intellectuals and artists, reporters, human rights defenders, and opponents of the ruling party. Vigilantism or abuse by the authorities can kill an accused or force them into exile. The accused in Yemen is subject to Islamic law (Sharia). Sharia, according to some interpretations, prescribes death as the proper punishment for blasphemy.

Atheist states.

China.

China, officially an atheist state, banned a book titled ""Xing Fengsu"" ("Sexual Customs"), which had allegedly insulted Islam, and placed its authors under arrest in 1989, after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Hui Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book. The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs, Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by

Jewish state.

Israel.

In Israel, blasphemy laws were enacted by the pre-State British Mandate in an attempt to suppress the 1929 Palestine riots.  Blasphemy is covered by Articles 170 and 173 of the penal code as enacted by the British Mandate:  The law is rarely enforced due to concerns of infringing civil liberties. However, one right-wing activist was sentenced to two years in prison after scattering leaflets in Hebron in 1997, which pictured Muhammed as a pig desecrating the Quran.

Hindu and Buddhist-majority countries.

India.

In 1860, laws were created in British India that made it a "crime to disturb a religious assembly, trespass on burial grounds, insult religious beliefs or intentionally destroy or defile a place or an object of worship, punishable by up to 10 years in jail."  Section 295A of the Indian Penal Code has been used as a blasphemy law to prevent insulting Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.  The British-era section 295A of the penal code is extant and has not been repealed; it contains an anti-blasphemy law. Section 295A was introduced in 1927 to prevent hate speech that insults or attempts to insult the religion or the religious beliefs of any class

Myanmar.

Section 295A and 298 of the Myanmar Penal Code are used to prosecute people for blasphemy. The Myanmar Penal Code shares a common origin with the penal codes of Pakistan and India and other British colonies in the Penal Code of 1860. The offences are:  Chapter XV  OF OFFENCES RELATING TO RELIGION  Section 295 and 295A carry a maximum penalty of two years' imprisonment, a fine, or both, and sections 296, 297 and 298 a maximum of one year's imprisonment, a fine, or both. Section 295A was added to the Penal code by a legislative amendment in 1927 and was intended to protect religious minorities. It was

Nepal.

Section 9.156 of a new criminal code act passed by parliament on 8 August 2017 serves as a blasphemy law. It criminalised for

Thailand.

Despite Thailand's constitution declaring freedom of religion and the lack of an official religion, Theravada Buddhism still plays a very important role in Thai society, both legally and culturally. The constitution declares that the King of Thailand must be Buddhist and a defender of Buddhism. The 1962 Sangha Act outlaws insults or defamation of Buddhism and Buddhist clergy. These include damaging statues of Buddha, stealing, buying or taking them out of Thailand, taking photos of them, sitting with your feet facing them, touching them on the head, and wearing tattoos depicting the Buddha.Travelers coming into Thailand from a foreign country are sternly warned not to do the aforementioned acts when entering the country. The 1956 penal code sections 206 and 208 also outlaws insulting or disrupting places and services of any religion recognized by the Thai government. Violations range from 1 to 7 years imprisonment to a 2,000 to 14,000 baht fine.

Defamation of religion and the United Nations.

Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 1976 obliges signatory countries to guarantee everyone the right to hold opinions without restriction and to guarantee the right to freedom of expression, to impart information and ideas of all kinds, either orally, in writing or in print, in art, or through any other media. Paragraph 3 of article 19 allows for certain restrictions to freedom expression that are both necessary and provided by law to safeguard the reputations of others, for the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals and article 20 obliges countries to prohibit "propaganda for war or advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence."  In July 2011, the UN Human Rights Committee released a 52-paragraph statement, General Comment 34 on the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, concerning freedoms of opinion and expression. Paragraph 48 states:  The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation have petitioned the "United Nations to create global laws criminalising insults to religion".  Three United Nations Special Rapporteurs—the Special Rapporteurs on freedom of religion or belief, on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance—released a joint statement during the Durban Review Conference in Geneva in 2009. They stated that:

Campaigns for repeal.

France (apart from Alsace-Moselle) repealed its blasphemy law in 1881, Sweden in 1970. A series of countries, especially in Europe, began repealing their blasphemy laws in the early 21st century. A systematic global campaign to abolish all blasphemy laws around the world was launched under the slogan "End Blasphemy Laws" by the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), the European Humanist Federation (EHF) and numerous coalition partners on 30 January 2015, in direct response to the "Charlie Hebdo" shooting on 7 January 2015.

European initiatives.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, which has been deliberating on the issue of blasphemy law, the resolution that blasphemy should not be a criminal offence, adopted on 29 June 2007 in the Recommendation 1805 (2007) on blasphemy, religious insults and hate speech against persons on grounds of their religion. This Recommendation set a number of guidelines for member states of the Council of Europe in view of Articles 10 (freedom of expression) and 9 (freedom of

Repealings by jurisdiction.

The common law offences of blasphemy and blasphemous libel were abolished in England and Wales in 2008 with the passage of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act. Other countries to abolish or repeal blasphemy laws include France in 1881 (except for the Alsace-Moselle region, part of Germany at the time), Sweden in 1970, Norway with Acts in

A blasphemy law is a law prohibiting blasphemy, where blasphemy is the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of reverence to a deity, or sacred things, or toward something considered sacred or inviolable. According to Pew Research Center, about a quarter of the world's countries and territories (26%) had anti-blasphemy laws or policies as of 2014.


History.

The letter 'G' was introduced in the Old Latin period as a variant of 'C' to distinguish voiced from voiceless. The recorded originator of 'G' is freedman Spurius Carvilius Ruga, the first Roman to open a fee-paying school, who taught around 230 BCE. At this time, 'K' had fallen out of favor, and 'C', which had formerly represented both and before open vowels, had come to express in all environments.  Ruga's positioning of 'G' shows that alphabetic order related to the letters' values as Greek numerals was a concern even in the 3rd century BC. According to some records, the original seventh letter, 'Z', had been purged from the Latin alphabet somewhat earlier in the 3rd century BC by the Roman censor Appius Claudius, who found it distasteful and foreign. Sampson (1985) suggests that: "Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a'space' was created by the dropping of an old letter." The 3rd-century-BC addition of the letter G to the Roman alphabet is credited to Spurius Carvilius Ruga.  George Hempl proposed in 1899 that there never was such a "space" in the alphabet and that in fact 'G' was a direct descendant of zeta. Zeta took shapes like <unk> in some of the Old Italic scripts; the development of the monumental form 'G' from this shape would be exactly parallel to the development of 'C' from gamma. He suggests that the pronunciation > was due to contamination from the also similar-looking 'K'.  Eventually, both velar consonants and developed palatalized allophones before front vowels; consequently in today's Romance languages, and have different sound values depending on context (known as hard and soft C and hard and soft G). Because of French influence, English language orthography shares this feature.

Typographic variants.

The modern lowercase 'g' has two typographic variants: the single-storey (sometimes "opentail") 'g' and the double-storey (sometimes "looptail") 'g'. The single-storey form derives from the majuscule (uppercase) form by raising the serif that distinguishes it from 'c' to the top of the loop, thus closing the loop, and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The double-storey form (g) had developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a closed bowl or loop. The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper closed bowl. The double-storey version became popular when printing switched to "Roman type" because the tail was effectively shorter, making it possible to put more lines on a page. In the double-storey version, a small top stroke in the upper-right, often terminating in an orb shape, is called an "ear".  Generally, the two forms are complementary, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to provide contrast. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, opentail has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while was distinguished from and represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900. In 1948, the Council of the International Phonetic Association recognized and as typographic equivalents, and this decision was reaffirmed in 1993. While the 1949 "Principles of the International Phonetic Association" recommended the use of for a velar plosive and for an advanced one for languages where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian, this practice never caught on. The 1999 "Handbook of the International Phonetic Association", the successor to the "Principles", abandoned the recommendation and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.  Wong et al. (2018) found that native English speakers have little conscious awareness of the looptail 'g' (). They write: "Despite being questioned repeatedly, and despite being informed directly that G has two lowercase print forms, nearly half of the participants failed to reveal any knowledge of the looptail 'g', and only 1 of the 38 participants was able to write looptail 'g' correctly."

Use in writing systems.

English.

In English, the letter appears either alone or in some digraphs. Alone, it represents  In words of Romance origin, is mainly soft before (including the digraphs and ),, or, and hard otherwise. Soft is also used in many words that came into English through medieval or modern Romance languages from languages without soft (like Ancient Latin and Greek) (e.g. "fragile" or "logic"). There are many English words of non-Romance origin where is hard though followed by or (e.g. "get", "gift"), and a few in which is soft though followed by such as "gaol" or "margarine".  The double consonant has the value (hard ) as in "nugget", with very few exceptions: in "suggest" and in "exaggerate" and "veggies".  The digraph has the value (soft ), as in "badger". Non-digraph can also occur, in compounds like "floodgate" and "headgear".  The digraph may represent Non-digraph also occurs, with possible values  The digraph (in many cases a replacement for the obsolete letter yogh, which took various values including,, and ) may represent Non-digraph also occurs, in compounds like "foghorn", "pigheaded"  The digraph may represent Non-digraph also occurs, as in "signature", "agnostic"  The trigraph has the value as in "gingham" or "dinghy". Non-trigraph also occurs, in compounds like "stronghold" and "dunghill".  G is the tenth least frequently used letter in the English language (after Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.02% in words.

Other languages.

Most Romance languages and some Nordic languages also have two main pronunciations for, hard and soft. While the soft value of varies in different Romance languages ( in French and Portuguese, in Catalan, in Italian and Romanian, and in most dialects of Spanish), in all except Romanian and Italian, soft has the same pronunciation as the.  In Italian and Romanian, is used to represent before front vowels where would otherwise represent a soft value. In Italian and French, is used to represent the palatal nasal, a sound somewhat similar to the in English "canyon". In Italian, the trigraph, when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun "gli", represents the palatal lateral approximant.  Other languages typically use to represent regardless of position.  Amongst European languages, Czech, Dutch, Finnish, and Slovak are an exception as they do not have in their native words. In Dutch, represents a voiced velar fricative instead, a sound that does not occur in modern English, but there is a dialectal variation: many Netherlandic dialects use a voiceless fricative ( or ) instead, and in southern dialects it may be palatal. Nevertheless, word-finally it is always voiceless in all dialects, including the standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands. On the other hand, some dialects (like Amelands) may have a phonemic.  Faroese uses to represent, in addition to, and also uses it to indicate a glide.  In Māori, is used in the digraph which represents the velar nasal and is pronounced like the in "singer".  In older Czech and Slovak orthographies, was used to represent, while was written as ( with caron).

G or g is the seventh letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its name in English is "gee" (pronounced ), plural "gees".


History.

On 7 February 1990, the "Neue Forum" (“New Forum”), the "Initiative Frieden und Menschenrechte" (“Peace and Human Rights Initiative”) and "Demokratie Jetzt" (“Democracy Now”) groups agreed upon the creation of the strategic partnership "Bündnis 90" (“Alliance ’90”) for the German "Volkskammer" elections. On 18 March 1990, in the next and final free election of the former East Germany, the electoral alliance received 2.9% of the vote, thus securing 12 seats. By far the best result for Alliance ’90 was in constituency of Berlin with 6.3%. In the remaining constituencies results ranged from 1.6% in Neubrandenburg to 3.8% in Potsdam. Together with the eight electees from the “Green Party in the GDR”, they created the "Fraktion Bündnis 90/Grüne" (“Alliance ’90/Greens Party”).  In the East German Landtag election on 14 October 1990 the differently-comprised electoral alliances made their entry into every Landtag except Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, where the "Neue Forum" did not participate in the alliance. In Brandenburg, the three civic groups of the "Bündnis 90" took office alone. In other states, the Greens also successfully took part in the electoral alliances. In Brandenburg from 1990 until 1994, "Bündnis 90" formed part of a traffic light coalition with the Social Democrats and Free Democrats.  In the 12th Bundestag election on 2 December 1990, the first after the German reunification, 6.1% of voters in the Eastern electoral area (1.2% across Germany) cast their "Zweitstimme" (the vote for a party, as opposed to for a person) for the group "Bündnis 90/Grüne – BürgerInnenbewegung" (“Alliance ’90/Greens – Citizens' Movement”), that entered into the German Bundestag with eight East German electees: Klaus-Dieter Feige, Ingrid Köppe, Gerd Poppe, Christina Schenk, Werner Schulz, Wolfgang Ullmann, Konrad Weiß and Vera Wollenberger. Werner Schultz took over the function of Speaker of the Bundestag group, which he held for the entirety of the legislative period. Its West German partners, the Greens, fell short of election to the parliament.  On 21 September 1991, the party "Bündnis 90" was founded, which brought together parts of the "Neue Forum", "Demokratie Jetzt" and the "Initiative Frieden und Menschenrechte". On 14 May 1993 came the agreement create the union of "Bündnis 90/Die Grünen" with the Greens which had been a cross-German party since the end of 1990.  One part of the Brandenburg state alliance advocated against a unification with the Greens, including Matthias Platzeck, Günter Nooke, Ute Platzeck, Peter Schüler, Manfred Kruczek and Gerd Gebhardt. However, they were unsuccessful in their case and founded the "BürgerBündnis" (“Citizens’ Alliance”), headed by Günter Nooke, Matthias Platzeck und Wolfgang Pohl.  The party "Bündnis 90/Die Grünen" in Saxony had already been established on 27 September 1991, one and a half years before the unification at federal level.

Alliance 90 () was an alliance of three non-communist political groups in East Germany. It was formed in February 1990 by the New Forum ("Neues Forum"), Democracy Now ("Demokratie Jetzt") and the Initiative for Peace and Human Rights ("Initiative Frieden und Menschenrechte"). It received 2.9% of the vote in the 1990 Volkskammer elections. For the first all-German elections it formed a joint list with the East German Green Party. It was this coalition that merged with the West German Green Party in 1993 to form Alliance 90/The Greens.


Early years.

German publications of the 1950s and 1960s contained criticism of some features of nuclear power including its safety. Nuclear waste disposal was widely recognized as a major problem, with concern publicly expressed as early as 1954. In 1964, one author went so far as to state "that the dangers and costs of the necessary final disposal of nuclear waste could possibly make it necessary to forego the development of nuclear energy".  In the early 1960s there was a proposal to build a nuclear power station in West Berlin, but the project was dropped in 1962. Another attempt to site a reactor in a major city was made in 1967, when BASF planned to build a nuclear power station on its ground at Ludwigshafen, to supply process steam. Eventually the project was withdrawn by BASF.  The tiny hamlet of Wyhl, located just outside the Kaiserstuhl wine-growing area in the southwestern corner of Germany, was first mentioned in 1971 as a possible site for a nuclear power station. In the years that followed, local opposition steadily mounted, but this had little impact on politicians and planners. Official permission for the plant was granted and earthworks began on 17 February 1975. On 18 February, local people spontaneously occupied the site and police removed them forcibly two days later. Television coverage of police dragging away farmers and their wives through the mud helped to turn nuclear power into a major national issue. The rough treatment was widely condemned and made the wine-growers, clergy, and others all the more determined. Some local police refused to take part in the action.  Subsequent support came from the nearby university town of Freiburg. On 23 February about 30,000 people re-occupied the Wyhl site and plans to remove them were abandoned by the state government in view of the large number involved and potential for more adverse publicity. On 21 March 1975, an administrative court withdrew the construction licence for the plant. The plant was never built and the land eventually became a nature reserve.  The Wyhl occupation generated extensive national debate. This initially centred on the state government's handling of the affair and associated police behaviour, but interest in nuclear issues was also stimulated. The Wyhl experience encouraged the formation of citizen action groups near other planned nuclear sites. Many other anti-nuclear groups formed elsewhere, in support of these local struggles, and some existing citizens' action groups widened their aims to include the nuclear issue. This is how the German anti-nuclear movement evolved. Anti-nuclear success at Wyhl also inspired nuclear opposition in the rest of Europe and North America.

Other protests.

In 1976 and 1977, mass demonstrations took place at Kalkar, the site of Germany's first fast breeder reactor, and at Brokdorf, north of Hamburg. Some of these demonstrations, which always started peacefully, were organized by the World Union for Protection of Life. The circumstances at Brokdorf were similar to those at Wyhl, in that the behaviour of the police was again crucial:  The authorities had rushed through the licensing process, and police occupied the site hours before the first construction license was granted, in order to prevent a repetition of Wyhl. Demonstrators trying to enter the site a few days later got harsh treatment, and all this helped consolidate the population in opposition. In February 1977 the Minister-President of Lower Saxony, Ernst Albrecht of the Christian Democratic Union, announced that the salt mines in Gorleben would be utilised to store radioactive waste. New protests by the local population and opponents of nuclear power broke out and approximately 20,000 people attended the first large demonstration in Gorleben on 12 March 1977. Protests about Gorleben continued for several years and, in 1979, the prime minister declared that plans for a nuclear waste plant in Gorleben were “impossible to enforce for political reasons".  In 1980 an Enquete Commission of the Bundestag proposed "a paradigmatic change in energy policy away from nuclear power". This contributed to a broad shift in German public opinion, the formation of the Green Party, and its election to the German Bundestag in 1983.  In the early 1980s plans to build a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in the Bavarian town of Wackersdorf lead to major protests. In 1986, West German police were confronted by demonstrators armed with slingshots, crowbars and Molotov cocktails at the site of a nuclear reprocessing plant in Wackersdorf. The plans for the plant were abandoned in 1988. It still isn't clear whether protests or plant economics led to the decision.  In 1981, Germany's largest anti-nuclear demonstration took place to protest against the construction of the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant on the North Sea coast west of Hamburg. Some 100,000 people came face to face with 10,000 police officers. Twenty-one policemen were injured by demonstrators armed with gasoline bombs, sticks, stones and high-powered slingshots. The plant began operations in October 1986 and is scheduled to close in 2018.

Chernobyl disaster.

The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was a pivotal event for Germany's anti-nuclear movement. After the radioactive fallout cloud covered large parts of the country, Germans went to great lengths to deal with the contamination. Contaminated crops were destroyed, firemen dressed in protective gear cleaned cars as they crossed the border from other countries, and sand in playground sandboxes was replaced.  Following Chernobyl, the Green Party strived "for the immediate shut-down of all nuclear facilities". The SPD pushed for a nuclear phase-out within ten years. Länder governments, municipalities, parties and trade unions explored the question of "whether the use of nuclear power technology was reasonable and sensible for the future".  In May 1986 clashes between anti-nuclear protesters and West German police became common. More than 400 people were injured in mid-May at the site of a nuclear-waste reprocessing plant being built near Wackersdorf. Police "used water cannons and dropped tear-gas grenades from helicopters to subdue protesters armed with slingshots, crowbars and Molotov cocktails".

More recent developments.

Several advanced reactor designs in Germany were unsuccessful. Two fast breeder reactors were built, but both were closed in 1991 without the larger ever having achieved criticality. The High Temperature Reactor THTR-300 at Hamm-Uentrop, under construction since 1970, was started in 1983, but was shut down in September 1989.  The anti-nuclear protests were also a driving force of the green movement in Germany, from which the party The Greens evolved. When they first came to power in the Schröder administration of 1998 they achieved their major political goal for which they had fought for 20 years: abandoning nuclear energy in Germany.  From the mid-1990s onwards, anti-nuclear protests were primarily directed against transports of radioactive waste called "castor" containers. In 1996 there were sit-ins against the second castor consignment bringing nuclear waste from La Hague in France to Gorleben. In 1997 the third castor transport reached Gorleben despite the efforts of several thousand protesters.  In 2002, the "Act on the structured phase-out of the utilization of nuclear energy for the commercial generation of electricity" took effect, following a drawn-out political debate and lengthy negotiations with nuclear power plant operators. The act legislated for the shut-down of all German nuclear plants by 2021. The Stade Nuclear Power Plant was the first one to go offline in November 2003, followed by the Obrigheim Nuclear Power Plant in 2005. Block-A of the Biblis Nuclear Power Plant is still provisionally scheduled to be shut down in 2008. Block-B is going back online after a year-long shutdown on 13 or 14 December 2007 and is scheduled to keep operating until 2009 or 2012.  In 2007, amid concerns that Russian energy supplies to western Europe may not be reliable, conservative politicians, including Chancellor Angela Merkel and Economics Minister Michael Glos, continued to question the decision to phase out nuclear power in Germany. WISE along with other anti-nuclear movement groups contend that the climate problem can only be solved by the use of renewable forms of energy along with efficient and economical energy technologies.  In summer 2008, a cover of the German magazine Der Spiegel read "Atomkraft - Das unheimliche Comeback "(Nuclear Power - Its eerie comeback). As a consequence the Germans anti-nuclear organisation "" decided to coordinate the various anti-nuclear movements on their website leading to a more powerful protest. Anti-nuclear Monday evening walks become popular in various German cities.  In November 2008, a shipment of radioactive waste from German nuclear plants arrived at a storage site near Gorleben after being delayed by large protests from nuclear activists. More than 15,000 people took part in the protests which involved blocking trucks with sit-down demonstrations and blocking the route with tractors. The demonstrations were partly a response to conservative calls for a rethink of the planned phaseout of nuclear power stations.  In April 2009, activists blocked the entrance to controversial Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant with an 8-metre wall. Their protest coincided with the annual meeting of the company that runs the plant, EnBW Energie Baden-Württemberg.  Also in April 2009 about 1,000 people demonstrated against nuclear power generation in the north-western city of Münster. Located southwest of Hamburg, Münster is surrounded by a nuclear waste dump at Ahaus, Germany's only uranium enrichment plant at Gronau and another such plant at Almelo in neighbouring Holland.  On 24 April 2010, about 120,000 people built a human chain ("KETTENreAKTION!") between the nuclear plants Krümmel and Brunsbüttel. This way they were demonstrating against the plans of the German government to extend the period of producing nuclear power. Demonstrations were also held in other German cities "where public opinion is mainly opposed to nuclear energy".  In September 2010, German government policy shifted back toward nuclear energy, and this generated some new anti-nuclear sentiment in Berlin and beyond. On 18 September 2010, tens of thousands of Germans surrounded Chancellor Angela Merkel’s office in an anti-nuclear demonstration that organisers said was the biggest of its kind since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. In October 2010, tens of thousands of people protested in Munich against the nuclear power policy of Chancellor Angela Merkel's coalition government. Protesters called for a move away from nuclear power towards renewable energy. The action was the biggest anti-nuclear event in Bavaria for more than two decades.  In November 2010, police wielding batons clashed with protesters who disrupted the passage of a train carrying reprocessed nuclear waste from France to Germany. The train carrying the nuclear waste was heading for Dannenberg where the 123 tonnes of waste was loaded onto trucks and taken to the nearby storage facility of Gorleben, in central Germany. Tens of thousands of protesters gathered in Dannenberg to signal their opposition to the cargo. Organisers said 50,000 people had turned out but police said the figure was closer to 20,000. Around 16,000 police were mobilised to deal with the protests.

Post Fukushima.

In light of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, public opposition intensified. 60,000 Germans participated in a protest on 12 March 2011, forming a 45-km human chain from Stuttgart to the Neckarwestheim power plant. 110,000 people protested in 450 other German towns on 14 March, with opinion polls indicating 80% of Germans opposed the government's extension of nuclear power. On 15 March 2011, Angela Merkel said that seven nuclear power plants which went online before 1980 would be temporarily closed and the time would be used to study speedier renewable energy commercialization. Merkel has effectively reversed a previous decision to keep older nuclear plants operating beyond their previously designated life span.  Former proponents of nuclear energy such as Angela Merkel, Guido Westerwelle, Stefan Mappus have changed their positions, yet 71% of the population believe that to be a tactical maneuvre related to upcoming state elections. In the largest anti-nuclear demonstration ever held in Germany, some 250,000 people protested on 26 March under the slogan "Fukushima reminds - shut off all nuclear plants." The 27 March state elections in Baden-Württemberg and Rhineland-Palatinate saw the Greens gain their voting share significantly as a result of their long-time anti-nuclear politics, ending up with the second largest share of the vote in the Baden-Württemberg election.  In March 2011, more than 200,000 people took part in anti-nuclear protests in four large German cities, on the eve of state elections. Organisers called it the biggest anti-nuclear demonstration the country has seen, with police estimating that 100,000 people turned out in Berlin alone. Hamburg, Munich and Cologne also saw big demonstrations. The "New York Times" reported that "most Germans have a deep-seated aversion to nuclear power, and the damage at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in Japan has galvanized opposition". Thousands of Germans demanding an end to the use of nuclear power took part in nationwide demonstrations on 2 April 2011. About 7,000 people took part in anti-nuclear protests in Bremen. About 3,000 people protested outside of RWE's headquarters in Essen. Other smaller rallies were held elsewhere.  Chancellor Angela Merkel's coalition announced on 30 May 2011, that Germany's 17 nuclear power stations will be shut down by 2022, in a policy reversal following Japan's Fukushima I nuclear accidents. Seven of the German power stations were closed temporarily in March, and they will remain off-line and be permanently decommissioned. An eighth was already off line, and will stay so. Between 2011 and 2014 Germany burned more coal, an additional 9.5 million tonnes of oil equivalent.  In November 2011, thousands of anti-nuclear protesters delayed a train carrying radioactive waste from France to Germany. Many clashes and obstructions made the journey the slowest one since the annual shipments of radioactive waste began in 1995. The shipment, the first since Japan's Fukishima nuclear disaster, faced large protests in France where activists damaged the train tracks. Thousands of people in Germany also interrupted the train's journey, forcing it to proceed at a snail's pace, covering 1,200 kilometers (746 miles) in 109 hours. More than 200 people were reported injured in the protests and several arrests were made. Galvanised by the Fukushima nuclear disaster, first anniversary anti-nuclear demonstrations were held in Germany in March 2012. Organisers say more than 50,000 people in six regions took part.

Timeline.

Spiegel Online has presented this timeline of events associated with the anti-nuclear power movement in Germany:

The anti-nuclear movement in Germany has a long history dating back to the early 1970s when large demonstrations prevented the construction of a nuclear plant at Wyhl. The Wyhl protests were an example of a local community challenging the nuclear industry through a strategy of direct action and civil disobedience. Police were accused of using unnecessarily violent means. Anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired nuclear opposition throughout Germany, in other parts of Europe, and in North America. A few years later protests raised against the NATO Double-Track Decision in Germany and were followed by the foundation of the Green party.