History.

Gas-phase microreactors have a long history but those involving liquids started to appear in the late 1990s. One of the first microreactors with embedded high performance heat exchangers were made in the early 1990s by the Central Experimentation Department ("Hauptabteilung Versuchstechnik", HVT) of Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe in Germany, using mechanical micromachining techniques that were a spinoff from the manufacture of separation nozzles for uranium enrichment. As research on nuclear technology was drastically reduced in Germany, microstructured heat exchangers were investigated for their application in handling highly exothermic and dangerous chemical reactions. This new concept, known by names as microreaction technology or micro process engineering, was further developed by various research institutions. An early example from 1997 involved that of azo couplings in a pyrex reactor with channel dimensions 90 micrometres deep and 190 micrometres wide.

Benefits.

Using microreactors is somewhat different from using a glass vessel. These reactors may be a valuable tool in the hands of an experienced chemist or reaction engineer:

T reactors.

One of the simplest forms of a microreactor is a 'T' reactor. A 'T' shape is etched into a plate with a depth that may be 40 micrometres and a width of 100 micrometres: the etched path is turned into a tube by sealing a flat plate over the top of the etched groove. The cover plate has three holes that align to the top-left, top-right, and bottom of the 'T' so that fluids can be added and removed. A solution of reagent 'A' is pumped into the top left of the 'T' and solution 'B' is pumped into the top right of the 'T'. If the pumping rate is the same, the components meet at the top of the vertical part of the 'T' and begin to mix and react as they go down the trunk of the 'T'. A solution of product is removed at the base of the 'T'.

Applications.

Synthesis.

Microreactors can be used to synthesise material more effectively than current batch techniques allow. The benefits here are primarily enabled by the mass transfer, thermodynamics, and high surface area to volume ratio environment as well as engineering advantages in handling unstable intermediates. Microreactors are applied in combination with photochemistry, electrosynthesis, multicomponent reactions and polymerization (for example that of butyl acrylate). It can involve liquid-liquid systems but also solid-liquid systems with for example the channel walls coated with a heterogeneous catalyst. Synthesis is also combined with online purification of the product. Following Green Chemistry principles, microreactors can be used to synthesize and purify extremely reactive Organometallic Compounds for ALD and CVD applications, with improved safety in operations and higher purity products.  In microreactor studies a Knoevenagel condensation was performed with the channel coated with a zeolite catalyst layer which also serves to remove water generated in the reaction. The same reaction was performed in a microreactor covered by polymer brushes. A Suzuki reaction was examined in another study with a palladium catalyst confined in a polymer network of polyacrylamide and a triarylphosphine formed by interfacial polymerization:  The combustion of propane was demonstrated to occur at temperatures as low as 300 °C in a microchannel setup filled up with an aluminum oxide lattice coated with a platinum / molybdenum catalyst:

Enzyme catalyzed polymer synthesis.

Enzymes immobilized on solid supports are increasingly used for greener, more sustainable chemical transformation processes. Microreactors are used to study enzyme-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone to polycaprolactone. A novel microreactor design developed by Kundu and Bhangale et al. enabled to perform heterogeneous reactions in continuous mode, in organic media, and at elevated temperatures. Using microreactors, enabled faster polymerization and higher molecular mass compared to using batch reactors. It is evident that similar microreactor based platforms can readily be extended to other enzyme-based systems, for example, high-throughput screening of new enzymes and to precision measurements of new processes where continuous flow mode is preferred. This is the first reported demonstration of a solid supported enzyme-catalyzed polymerization reaction in continuous mode.

Analysis.

Microreactors can also enable experiments to be performed at a far lower scale and far higher experimental rates than currently possible in batch production, while not collecting the physical experimental output. The benefits here are primarily derived from the low operating scale, and the integration of the required sensor technologies to allow high quality understanding of an experiment. The integration of the required synthesis, purification and analytical capabilities is impractical when operating outside of a microfluidic context.

NMR.

Researchers at the Radboud University Nijmegen and Twente University, the Netherlands, have developed a microfluidic high-resolution NMR flow probe. They have shown a model reaction being followed in real-time. The combination of the uncompromised (sub-Hz) resolution and a low sample volume can prove to be a valuable tool for flow chemistry.

Infrared spectroscopy.

Mettler Toledo and Bruker Optics offer dedicated equipment for monitoring, with attenuated total reflectance spectrometry (ATR spectrometry) in microreaction setups. The former has been demonstrated for reaction monitoring. The latter has been successfully used for reaction monitoring and determining dispersion characteristics of a microreactor.

Academic research.

Microreactors, and more generally, micro process engineering, are the subject of worldwide academic research. A prominent recurring conference is IMRET, the International Conference on Microreaction Technology. Microreactors and micro process engineering have also been featured in dedicated sessions of other conferences, such as the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), or the International Symposia on Chemical Reaction Engineering (ISCRE). Research is now also conducted at various academic institutions around the world, e.g. at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon, at University of California, Berkeley in Berkeley, California in the United States, at the EPFL in Lausanne, Switzerland, at Eindhoven University of Technology in Eindhoven, at Radboud University Nijmegen in Nijmegen, Netherlands and at the LIPHT of Université de Strasbourg in Strasbourg and LGPC of the University of Lyon, CPE Lyon, France and at KU Leuven, Belgium.

Market structure.

Depending on the application focus, there are various hardware suppliers and commercial development entities to service the evolving market. One view to technically segment market, offering and market clearing stems from the scientific and technological objective of market agents:

A microreactor or microstructured reactor or microchannel reactor is a device in which chemical reactions take place in a confinement with typical lateral dimensions below 1 mm; the most typical form of such confinement are microchannels. Microreactors are studied in the field of micro process engineering, together with other devices (such as micro heat exchangers) in which physical processes occur. The microreactor is usually a continuous flow reactor (contrast with/to a batch reactor). Microreactors offer many advantages over conventional scale reactors, including vast improvements in energy efficiency, reaction speed and yield, safety, reliability, scalability, on-site/on-demand production, and a much finer degree of process control.


Plot summary.

Lange (1982, ix) has written that a "simple summary becomes entirely inadequate when we attempt to interpret the intricate texture of ambivalence and illusion that ["The Golden Pot"] spreads lavishly before the reader." The following synopsis is presented with this limitation in mind.  The novella, which comprises twelve "vigils" (chapters, literally "night watches"), begins with the clumsy student Anselmus running through the Black Gate in Dresden, where he knocks over the basket of wares of a hideous old applemonger, scattering them in all directions. She reviles him prophetically with the words "Yes, run! Run, you child of Satan! Run into the crystal which will soon be your downfall." He flees and stops only when he has reached the banks of the River Elbe. There, coming from an elder tree, he hears melodious voices and the sounds of crystal bells. He looks up and beholds three green-gold snakes. One of them, who has marvelous blue eyes, stretches herself (snakes are grammatically feminine in German) out towards him, and he instantly falls in love with her. When she suddenly disappears, he is beside himself.  Anselmus later chances to meet his friend, Assistant Headmaster Paulmann, who invites him to his home. There, he meets Paulmann's blue-eyed daughter, Veronika, who falls in love with him. He also meets Registrar Heerbrand, who procures for him a job copying old manuscripts for Archivist Lindhorst, an eccentric alchemist and magician. On what is to be his first day of work, however, the old applemonger appears before him at the Archivist's door, and, consumed with terror, Anselmus falls unconscious and fails to assume his new position. A few days later, Anselmus accidentally encounters Lindhorst, who impresses him in extravagant ways with his magic and reveals to him that the green-gold snakes he saw in the elder tree are his three daughters and that the blue-eyed one he fell in love with is his youngest, Serpentina. Full of love for Serpentina, he begins his new job the next day. His work consists of making exact copies of Arabic and Coptic texts that he cannot decipher. The Archivist warns him explicitly that he must not spot any of the originals with ink from his pen. Fortunately, Anselmus obtains help from Serpentina and is able to perform his duties impeccably.  The more he works with the manuscripts the more familiar he becomes with them, until one day he copies a document that he can understand. It turns out to be the story of Archivist Lindhorst, who in reality is a salamander, the Elemental Spirit of Fire, who has been banished from the Land of Atlantis by Phosphorus, the Prince of Spirits, and must enter mankind's prosaic existence on earth. To compensate for his offences and to be allowed to return to Atlantis, the Salamander must find loving "childlike and poetic" mates for his three daughters. The Salamander owns three radiant golden pots, given to him by the Elemental Spirit of the Earth, which are to be his daughters' dowries. Serpentina assures Anselmus that her dowry will ensure their happiness together.  Veronika, who fears that she will lose Anselmus, turns for help to the old applemonger (in the guise of a friendly old woman), who casts a magic metal mirror during the night of the autumnal equinox. Later, as Anselmus gazes into it, its magic powers cause him to think that Serpentina and the story of the Salamander are merely products of his imagination, and he falls in love with Veronika. He promises to marry her as soon as he becomes a Court Councilor.  As he subsequently attempts to copy another of Lindhorst's manuscripts, it appears alien to him, and he accidentally splashes it with ink. As punishment, the enraged Archivist imprisons him in a crystal bottle on a shelf in his library.  A short time later, a witch (the applemonger) appears and attempts to steal the golden pot that is Serpentina's dowry. Archivist Lindhorst enters with his parrot, and they fiercely battle the witch and her black cat. Lindhorst and the parrot are victorious, and the vanquished witch is transformed into a beet. The Archivist realizes that Anselmus had been under the influence of a "hostile principle," forgives him, and frees him from the bottle.  In the penultimate vigil of the novella, Veronika accepts a marriage proposal from Heerbrand, who meanwhile has become a Court Councilor. In the final vigil, Hoffmann employs an unusual narrative device. The narrator, who previously has told the story in the usual manner, inserts himself into the tale and reports to the gentle reader on the difficulty he is having in bringing his account to an end. He receives and shares with the reader a letter from Archivist Lindhorst. From the letter, the reader learns that Anselmus has married Serpentina and now lives happily with her on the country estate of the Salamander in Atlantis. The Salamander himself, however, must wait until his other two daughters are "off his hands" before he can return to this Kingdom of Marvels. Lindhorst invites the narrator to his study, where the narrator has a vision of Serpentina leaving a temple with the golden pot in her hands. From the pot has sprung a bright lily that represents the love, happiness, and fulfillment of the young couple. Anselmus, in his rapture, exclaims that the lily represents "knowledge of the sacred harmony of all things." The story ends with the Archivist comforting the narrator with the words "Is the bliss of Anselmus anything else but life in poetry, poetry where the sacred harmony of all things is revealed...?" and asking the narrator rhetorically whether he himself does not have a "nice little farm in Atlantis that is a poetic possession of his inner mind."  "Poetry" is Hoffmann's term for any form of creative writing.

Origins.

"The Golden Pot" was written between the summer of 1813 and February 15, 1814, and was first published in 1814 as the third volume of the anthology "Fantasy Pieces in the Manner of Callot" ["Fantasiestücke in Callots Manier"]. The reference is to Jacques Callot (1592-1635), who executed brilliantly detailed etchings and drawings in the baroque style.

Life influences.

Letters, diary entries, and essays that Hoffmann wrote as he was working on "The Golden Pot" indicate that it was written during one of the most unsettled periods of his life. During his stay in Dresden, where he was working as a music director, he witnessed the death, hunger, and disease that were the result of the bloody battles fought between the troops of Napoleon and those of the Allies (Prussia, Austria, and Russia).  In a letter that reports on the terrible conditions in Dresden and his own impaired health, Hoffmann admits that it is the menacing external conditions that have allowed him access to the marvelous world of "The Golden Pot" (Feldges & Stadler 1986, 71):  "Never before this dark and fateful time, in which one lives a day-to-day existence and is happy to have it, has writing so attracted me. It is as though a wondrous kingdom has opened itself to me, a kingdom that originates within me and, as it takes shape, removes me from the stress of external events."  In this letter of 1813 Hoffmann also sketches out his concept for "The Golden Pot" in some detail: "I have been exceedingly busy with the continuation of [the "Fantasy Pieces"], primarily a fairytale that will take up most of an entire volume. Do not think for a moment, good Sir, of Scheherazade and one thousand and one nights--turbans and Turkish trousers have been banned completely. I intend the entire fairytale to step into everyday life and there to assume its shapes in a manner that is fairylike and wondrous but at the same time bold. For example,... the youth... falls eternally and madly in love with one of the green snakes. He... marries her and receives as a dowry a golden chamber pot that is studded with jewels. The first time he pisses in it he is transformed into a meerkat, etc."  Hoffmann's letter indicates that he originally planned a shallow, joking story. He later revised this concept to make his tale deeper and more serious. Passages from other letters written in 1813 suggest that this change was brought about by a process that Hoffmann describes as a continuing opening of his internal self. He concerns himself more and more with his own past, with the aim of coming to grips with wrongs he feels he has suffered; that is, he is going through what has been called a process of mourning (Feldges & Stadler 1986, 73). The author increasingly writes himself into his story, and the finished work contains a number of autobiographical allusions and references to contemporary events and places in Dresden. The subtitle of the novella ("A Modern Fairytale") likely is a reflection of this. With "The Golden Pot", Hoffmann has consciously invented a new literary genre. In contrast to the traditional fairy tale, the “modern fairytale” takes place in a contemporary setting that would be recognizable to any citizen of Dresden in the 19th century.  Although the final story was more serious than the one originally planned, "The Golden Pot" still contains a great deal of humor. In a number of scenes, the reader cannot help but laugh, or at least smile, at the antics of supernatural beings at large in the everyday world of the proud and proper citizens of Dresden.

Influences of published works.

The "deepening" of "The Golden Pot" probably also was influenced by published works that Hoffmann is known to have read shortly before and during the period of his work on the novella (Feldges & Stadler 1986, 72). Important appears to be Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert's "Views on the Night Side of the Natural Sciences" ["Ansichten von der Nachtseite der Naturwissenschaften"]. The theories of the romantic mythologist and linguist Johann Arnold Kannes, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling's "Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature as Introduction to the Study of this Science" ["Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissehschaft"] also appear to have had an influence on "The Golden Pot". Hoffmann also read Montfaucon de Villar's "Count of Gabalis or Conversations on the Hidden Sciences" ["Le Comte de Gabalis ou Entretiens des Sciences Secrètes"], from which he clearly derived material for his depiction of the elemental spirits (Robertson 1992, xiii).

Operatic influences.

The plot of Hoffmann's fairytale may have been influenced by his experience in the theater, which began in 1808 (Robertson 1992, xi). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera "The Magic Flute" was one of the many operas that Hoffmann conducted during the period in which he wrote "The Golden Pot". In the opera, Tamino must survive tests imposed by Sarastro,a wise magician, if he is to win her. The wise old Sarastro resembles Archivist Lindhorst in this regard, and Sarastro also has a female foe, the Queen of the Night, who is Pamina’s mother, comparing to the applemonger, who was Veronika’s wardress. Like the applemonger, the Queen is associated with both the night and the lowly realm of the earth. Tamino, like Anselmus, must learn the differences between a wise, majestic mentor and a female personification of evil.  Hoffmann's work on one of his own operas, "Undine", which he composed in Dresden between 1812 and 1814, may also have influenced "The Golden Pot". Based on a story by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, the opera is the story of a water nymph who gains an immortal soul by winning the love of a human being.

Influencing other works.

The transformation of Lindhorst's bronze knocker into the face of the Applewoman is echoed in Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol" when Ebenezer Scrooge sees Jacob Marley's face in his own door knocker. (Dickens, 421)  It has been speculated that "The Golden Pot" was an influence for Joseph Smith when authoring the origin story for how he created The Book of Mormon. This was first suggested in the 2002 book "An Insider’s View of Mormon Origins" written by Grant H. Palmer. There are similarities between the two stories and since "The Golden Pot" was published in 1814, and The Book of Mormon was published in 1830, it has been used by critics of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormons).

Analysis.

"Hoffmann saw things we could not have thought of and wrote them down in a way that compels us to believe them". -Rolf Vollmann  "The Golden Pot" is widely viewed as a product of the romantic imagination. Indeed, the novella shows many of the characteristics commonly associated with romanticism in general and German romanticism in particular: imagination, instincts, and feelings are afforded more importance than logical reason; the reconciliation of opposites and the harmony of nature are central ideals; symbolism and myth play prominent roles; preference is given to boldness and suggestiveness over absolute clarity and decorum; and the poetic is elevated above the prosaic.  Another quality attributed to romantic literature is the juxtaposition of the real and the fantastic (the "unreal") in order to denigrate the former and exalt the latter. In "The Golden Pot", this clearly is not the author's intent, and thus his story perhaps should not be labeled “romantic” at all. What we normally would call the "real" world is intertwined with a "supernatural" realm inhabited by elemental spirits, but in Hoffmann's tale, the fantastic "is" the real. Hoffmann certainly shares the contempt of other romantics for the philistine, but he considers the smugness, narrow-mindedness, contentment, and banality of the bourgeoisie to be elements that must be drawn into the wondrous realm of the imagination, not something to be reviled. In "The Golden Pot", art and love spring from lives empty of color, beauty, and enthusiasm. Anselmus and the narrator, who, as mentioned above, steps out of his role to become a character in the story, are able to break free of the world of the middle class and enter the Kingdom of Marvels. Associate Headmaster Paulmann and Registrar Heerbrand belong to the philistine world but are not portrayed as hostile or blameworthy. They are depicted, rather, as convivial, benevolent, and generous. They will not enter Atlantis, but they do at least approach the world of imagination when they compose their songs and drink their intoxicating punch. Veronika enters the world of magic when she avails herself of the service of the applemonger, even though she later withdraws from this world completely to become a proud councilor's wife.  As Kent and Knight (1972, xxvii) put it: "[In Hoffmann] we are left with one satisfactory conclusion: the world itself has more than one reality, and different realities may coexist at exactly the same moment; this being so, the world we thought we knew so well is undermined."

Adaptations.

"The Golden Pot" is one of three Hoffmann tales serving as the basis of the Russian stop-motion-animated feature, "Hoffmaniada".

The Golden Pot: A Modern Fairytale (Der goldne Topf. Ein Märchen aus der neuen Zeit) is a novella by E. T. A. Hoffmann, first published in 1814. Hoffmann regarded it as his best story (Kaiser 1988, 37), and there is wide agreement among literary scholars that it is a masterpiece of romantic literature (Feldges & Stadler 1986, 64).


Early life.

Zhang Zhao was born in the late Eastern Han dynasty in the Pengcheng State (), a principality in Xu Province centred around present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu. As a youth, he was known for being diligent in his studies and for specialising in the clerical script style of calligraphy. He studied the "Zuo zhuan" and "Chunqiu" under the tutelage of Bohou Zi'an (), and was known for being well read in history. He was also a close friend of two other well-known scholars, Zhao Yu () and Wang Lang.  When Zhang Zhao reached the age of adulthood around 19, he was nominated as a "xiaolian" (civil service candidate) to serve in the government. However, he declined the offer and chose to join Wang Lang in compiling an essay on the ancient use of taboo names. They received praise from other Xu Province scholars, such as Chen Lin, for their work. The essay contradicted the arguments of Ying Shao, another celebrated scholar from Runan Commandery (汝南郡; around present-day central Henan).  Sometime later, when Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province, nominated Zhang Zhao as a "maocai" (茂才; outstanding candidate) to serve in the government, Zhang Zhao declined the offer again. Tao Qian perceived Zhang Zhao's rejection as an insult, so he ordered the latter's arrest. However, Zhao Yu, who was serving in Tao Qian's administration at the time, managed to convince the governor to pardon Zhang Zhao.

Service under Sun Ce.

When chaos broke out throughout China in the 190s, many people living in Xu Province fled their homes and crossed the Yangtze River to take shelter in Yang Province (or the Jiangdong region) in the south. Zhang Zhao followed suit and moved from Pengcheng State to Jiangdong.  Between 194 and 199, the warlord Sun Ce conquered the territories in Jiangdong and established his own regime in the region. During this time, he heard of Zhang Zhao and wanted to recruit him as an adviser. After Zhang Zhao agreed and joined him, he was so delighted that he told Zhang Zhao: "Now that I have expanded my domain in all the four corners, I should treat learned and virtuous men with the utmost respect. I won't treat you in any degrading manner." He then appointed Zhang Zhao as a Colonel () and honoured him like a teacher.  Later on, Sun Ce made Zhang Zhao his Chief Clerk () and promoted him from Colonel to General of the Household Who Pacifies the Army (). Apart from paying his respects to Zhang Zhao's mother and treating Zhang Zhao like an old friend, Sun Ce also consulted Zhang Zhao on various matters related to civil and military policy.

Receiving flattering letters.

While serving under Sun Ce, Zhang Zhao received several flattering letters from his fellow literati in the north. He faced a dilemma on how to deal with those letters. On one hand, he was afraid that if he kept quiet about those letters, Sun Ce would start questioning his loyalty. On the other hand, he was also worried that others would scorn him for being boastful if he revealed the letters.  When Sun Ce found out, he laughed and told Zhang Zhao: "In the past, when Guan Zhong was the chancellor of Qi, he was called "zhongfu". With his help, Duke Huan of Qi became a hegemon among the feudal lords. Today, as I have a virtuous talent like Zibu to assist me, isn't his glory also mine?"

Sun Ce entrusting Sun Quan to Zhang Zhao's care.

In the year 200, before Sun Ce died, he entrusted his younger brother and successor, Sun Quan, to Zhang Zhao's care. He told Zhang Zhao: "If Zhongmou turns out to be incompetent, you may replace him. If there is no way to overcome the difficulties, you can gradually retreat back to the west where you will have no worries."  After Sun Ce's death, Zhang Zhao led all of Sun Ce's former subjects to support Sun Quan and pledge their allegiance to him. Zhang Zhao also wrote a memorial to the Han central government to inform them about Sun Ce's death and that Sun Quan had succeeded his brother. He also wrote to all the key appointment holders throughout Sun Quan's domain to order them to continue performing their duties as before.

Service under Sun Quan.

Assisting Sun Quan in consolidating power.

When an 18-year-old Sun Quan first came to power, he was so overwhelmed with grief over his brother's death that he spent his time mourning instead of taking charge of the regime established by his brother in Jiangdong. Zhang Zhao told him:  Sun Quan's biography in the "Sanguozhi" recorded that Zhang Zhao told the young Sun Quan:  Sun Quan heeded Zhang Zhao's advice. He changed out of his mourning attire, got onto horseback with Zhang Zhao's help, and inspected his troops as they assembled in formation. Sun Ce's former subjects accepted Sun Quan's leadership and pledged their allegiance to him. Sun Quan also appointed Zhang Zhao as his Chief Clerk () and ordered him to perform the same duties as he did under Sun Ce.  With Zhang Zhao's assistance, Sun Quan managed to consolidate his control over the unstable Jiangdong regime left behind by Sun Ce. Apart from pacifying and winning over the people, he also recruited many talented and capable persons to serve in his administration. Whenever Sun Quan went into battle, he left Zhang Zhao behind to guard his base and oversee day-to-day affairs in the Jiangdong territories. During this time, Zhang Zhao suppressed an uprising by remnants of the Yellow Turban rebels.

Battle of Jiangxia.

In the spring of 208, Gan Ning, who had recently joined Sun Quan, pointed out to Sun Quan that Cao Cao, the warlord who controlled the Han central government and most of northern China, was planning to attack Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) to the west of the Jiangdong (or Wu) territories. He also noted that Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, was incapable of defending his domain, so it would be better for Sun Quan to seize Jing Province before Cao Cao could do so. The first step in Gan Ning's plan was to attack Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Wuhan, Hubei), which was guarded by Liu Biao's subordinate Huang Zu.  Sun Quan approved Gan Ning's plan, but Zhang Zhao strongly objected and said: "The territories in Wu have not been completely pacified yet. If we proceed with this campaign, I am afraid there will be chaos." Gan Ning rebuked Zhang Zhao: "Our lord has entrusted responsibilities to you as if you were Xiao He. If you can't even be confident that there won't be chaos under your watch, how can you expect to be like Xiao He?"  Sun Quan ignored Zhang Zhao and put Gan Ning in charge of planning and leading the campaign. They emerged victorious in the campaign as they killed Huang Zu in battle and conquered Jiangxia Commandery.

Battle of Red Cliffs.

In the late autumn of 208, Cao Cao launched a military campaign aimed at eliminating all forces in southern China who opposed him. He swiftly conquered Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) after the provincial governor Liu Cong surrendered without a fight. When Sun Quan's subjects heard that Cao Cao had gained control of Jing Province along with its tens of thousands of land and naval troops, they became fearful as they knew that Cao Cao's next target was Sun Quan's territories in the Jiangdong region. Sun Quan summoned them for a meeting and showed them a threatening letter he received from Cao Cao, in which Cao Cao claimed that he had 800,000 troops.  Some of Sun Quan's subjects, including Zhang Zhao and Qin Song, suggested that Sun Quan surrender to Cao Cao because, in their opinion, they could not win a battle against Cao Cao. However, Sun Quan ultimately heeded the advice of Lu Su and Zhou Yu and hardened his decision to go to war with Cao Cao. He also told Lu Su and Zhou Yu privately that he was deeply disappointed with Zhang Zhao, Qin Song and those who advised him to surrender to Cao Cao. After making up his mind, he summoned all his subjects, drew his sword, slashed the table in front of him and said: "Any of you who dares to speak of surrendering to Cao Cao shall end up like this table!"  In the winter of 208–209, Sun Quan and his ally Liu Bei scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. After the Battle of Red Cliffs, while Zhou Yu led Sun Quan's forces to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Jiangling, Sun Quan personally led another army to attack Hefei, a heavily fortified city under Cao Cao's control. During the campaign, he ordered Zhang Zhao to lead a separate detachment of troops to assault Kuangqi (), another of Cao Cao's fortresses in Guangling Commandery (廣陵郡; around present-day Huai'an, Jiangsu). Sun Quan and Zhang Zhao did not manage to capture Hefei and Kuangqi, while Zhou Yu successfully conquered Jiangling.  Zhang Zhao later led Sun Quan's forces to attack and eliminate bandit forces led by Zhou Feng () in Yuzhang Commandery (豫章郡; around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi). After this battle, Zhang Zhao hardly assumed positions of military command again as Sun Quan decided to keep him by his side as a strategist and adviser. Sun Quan also treated him very respectfully because of his senior status in the administration.  In late 209 or early 210, after Sun Quan received the appointment of acting General of Chariots and Cavalry () from the Han central government through Liu Bei's nomination, he appointed Zhang Zhao as his Army Adviser ().

Lecturing Sun Quan on hunting excursions.

Sun Quan enjoyed going on hunting excursions as a leisure activity. On one occasion, while he was hunting a tiger on horseback with a bow and arrows, the tiger suddenly attacked him and clawed at his saddle.  When Zhang Zhao heard about it, he lectured Sun Quan: Sun Quan then apologised to Zhang Zhao: "I am young and lacking in wisdom. Sir, I am sorry for letting you down."  Despite being lectured, Sun Quan was unwilling to give up on his favourite pastime so he designed a chariot for his hunting excursions. The chariot had squarish openings but no roof. Accompanied by only a driver to drive the chariot, Sun Quan fired arrows at wild beasts through the openings. When they encountered animals who left their packs/herds and came very close to the chariot, Sun Quan got out and took pleasure in hand-to-hand combat with the animal. When Zhang Zhao found out, he repeatedly urged Sun Quan to stop engaging in such dangerous activities but the latter laughed and ignored him.

Service under the King of Wu.

In late 220, Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty and established the state of Cao Wei (or Wei) with himself as the emperor. This event marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China.  In September 221, Sun Quan pledged nominal allegiance to Cao Pi and agreed to become a vassal of Wei. In return, Cao Pi sent an emissary, Xing Zhen (), to confer the title "King of Wu" () on Sun Quan. On 23 September that year, when Xing Zhen arrived at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), the capital of Sun Quan's domain, for the conferment ceremony, he did not dismount from his carriage when he reached the city gates. Zhang Zhao told him: Upon hearing what Zhang Zhao said, Xing Zhen immediately got off the carriage and entered the city on foot.  After Sun Quan became the King of Wu, he awarded Zhang Zhao the appointment of General Who Pacifies Distant Lands () and the peerage of Marquis of Youquan (). Zhang Zhao, along with Sun Shao, Teng Yin, Zheng Li () and others, drafted the rules of imperial protocol for the Kingdom of Wu based on those of the Zhou and Han dynasties.

Lecturing Sun Quan on making merry.

When Sun Quan was in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), he once hosted a drinking party on a terrace and invited all his subjects to attend. He ordered his servants to splash water at everyone, after which he jokingly declared: "The party shall not end until everyone gets dead drunk."  Zhang Zhao did not say anything, put on a stern face, walked out of the party, and sat inside his carriage alone. Sun Quan sent someone to ask him to come back, and then asked him: "This is a time for all of us to make merry and be happy. Sir, why are you angry?" Zhang Zhao replied: Sun Quan fell silent and looked embarrassed after hearing Zhang Zhao's words. He then called off the party.

Not chosen to be Imperial Chancellor.

In November 222, Sun Quan broke ties with Cao Pi and declared himself an independent ruler of his Kingdom of Wu by adopting an era name for his reign. After that, he wanted to create the position of Imperial Chancellor () in his government, so he consulted his subjects on suitable candidates to fill in this post. Although all of them came to the consensus that Zhang Zhao was the best candidate, Sun Quan said: "We are living in times of chaos. Such key appointments are to be filled by persons capable of shouldering great responsibilities; they shouldn't be treated like honorary positions." Sun Quan ultimately selected Sun Shao to be the first Imperial Chancellor of Wu.  After Sun Shao died in office in the summer of 225, Sun Quan's subjects nominated Zhang Zhao to succeed Sun Shao as Imperial Chancellor. However, Sun Quan refused again and said: "It's not that I am being unkind towards Zibu (by not choosing him). The person holding the position of Imperial Chancellor has to deal with so many issues on a daily basis. (Zhang Zhao) is too headstrong. If people don't listen to him, there will be a lot of conflicts. It won't be helpful at all." He then chose Gu Yong to be the second Imperial Chancellor of Wu.

Service under the Emperor of Wu.

In the summer of 229, after Sun Quan declared himself emperor of Wu, Zhang Zhao retired from active service on the grounds of old age and poor health. He resigned from his position as General Who Pacifies Distant Lands () and returned command of his troops to the Wu government.

Sun Quan snubbing Zhang Zhao.

According to the "Jiang Biao Zhuan", although Sun Quan highly respected Zhang Zhao for his loyal, bold and forthright character, he never forgot that Zhang Zhao had advised him to surrender to Cao Cao before the Battle of Red Cliffs. After he became emperor, he told all his subjects: "I wouldn't have become an emperor today if there wasn't Zhou Yu to assist me." Just as Zhang Zhao prepared to hold up his "hu" and congratulate Sun Quan, the emperor remarked: "If I had listened to Lord Zhang, I'd be begging for food today." Zhang Zhao felt deeply embarrassed and he broke out in a cold sweat as he sank to his knees.  Pei Songzhi, in his annotations to Zhang Zhao's biography in the "Sanguozhi", argued that Zhang Zhao had never intended to help Sun Ce or Sun Quan become rulers in their own right; all he desired was to assist them in bringing peace to the common people living under their control. When he saw that Cao Cao had pacified northern China and conquered Jing Province just before the Battle of Red Cliffs, he advised Sun Quan to surrender to Cao Cao because he saw that as an opportunity for the fragmented Han Empire to be reunified under Cao Cao's control. If the Han Empire were reunified, there would be no more conflicts among the warlords, and the common people would finally be able to live in peace. Pei Songzhi thus concluded that although Zhang Zhao may not be considered loyal towards Sun Quan, he had the greater interests of the common people at heart.  The Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny believed that this account from the "Jiang Biao Zhuan" is probably false because Sun Quan stood to gain little for his own reputation and authority from making such an extraordinary public insult at Zhang Zhao.

Life in retirement.

Although Zhang Zhao had effectively retired, Sun Quan still gave him an honorary position as General Who Assists Wu (), whose status was just below the Three Ducal Ministers in the hierarchy of the Eastern Wu government. Sun Quan also changed Zhang Zhao's peerage from the Marquis of Youquan () to the Marquis of Lou (), and awarded him a marquisate comprising 10,000 taxable households.  Zhang Zhao stayed at home after retiring and he spent his time writing a guide to the "Zuo zhuan" and an annotated copy of the "Analects".  Sun Quan once asked Yan Jun to recite something he memorised in his childhood. Yan Jun thus recited "The Scope and Meaning of the Treatise", the opening paragraph of the "Classic of Filial Piety". Zhang Zhao, who was also present, remarked: "Yan Jun is a mediocre scholar. I humbly seek permission to recite for Your Majesty." After Sun Quan approved, Zhang Zhao recited "The Service of the Ruler", another paragraph in the "Classic of Filial Piety". Sun Quan's other subjects agreed that Zhang Zhao had a good understanding of what he should recite in front of the emperor.

Quarrel with Sun Quan.

Zhang Zhao was known for being very outspoken, forthright and blunt in his speech whenever he spoke up in Sun Quan's imperial court. On one occasion, after he openly defied an order from Sun Quan, he was not allowed to enter the imperial court for some time.  During this time, Wu's ally state Shu sent an ambassador to Wu for an official visit. The Shu ambassador sang praises about Shu in front of Sun Quan and his imperial court. Some Wu officials tried to challenge the Shu ambassador but failed. Sun Quan sighed: "If Lord Zhang were here, (the Shu ambassador) would feel intimidated before he could even debate with us, much less boast about his state!"  The following day, Sun Quan sent a messenger to visit Zhang Zhao at his residence and invite him back to the imperial court. When Zhang Zhao showed up, he apologised to Sun Quan but refused to take his seat, so Sun Quan knelt down and begged him to stop. Zhang Zhao then sat down, with his eyes looking up, and said: Sun Quan apologised to him and left.

Quarrel with Sun Quan over the Liaodong issue.

In 233, the Liaodong-based warlord Gongsun Yuan pledged allegiance to Sun Quan and expressed willingness to become a vassal of Eastern Wu. Sun Quan was delighted as he saw Gongsun Yuan as a potential ally against Wu's rival state, Wei. He then wanted to send Zhang Mi () and Xu Yan () as his representatives to Liaodong to meet Gongsun Yuan and grant him the title "King of Yan" (). However, Zhang Zhao strongly objected and said:  Sun Quan and Zhang Zhao had a heated quarrel over this issue; Zhang Zhao, adamant that he was right, stubbornly refused to yield. Sun Quan eventually lost his temper, placed his hand on the hilt of his sword, and angrily told Zhang Zhao: "When the people of Wu enter the palace, they pay respects to me. Outside the palace, they pay respects to you. My respect for you has already reached the maximum possible extent, yet you humiliate me in front of everyone. I am really afraid that I will lose control of myself and end up hurting you." Zhang Zhao stared at Sun Quan for some time before replying: He then broke down in tears. Sun Quan dropped his sword and started crying too.  When Sun Quan ultimately sent Zhang Mi and Xu Yan to Liaodong, Zhang Zhao felt so frustrated with the emperor for not heeding his advice that he claimed that he was sick and refused to show up in the imperial court. An angry Sun Quan then ordered the entrance of Zhang Zhao's residence to be sealed by piling up earth in front of it to block people from entering or leaving. In response, Zhang Zhao also ordered his servants to pile up earth too and block the entrance from the inside.  In the autumn of 233, Gongsun Yuan betrayed Sun Quan and executed Zhang Mi and Xu Yan. When Sun Quan heard about it, he realised that he was in the wrong. After Zhang Zhao ignored his apologies several times, Sun Quan personally went to Zhang Zhao's residence and called him to come out but Zhang Zhao refused and claimed that he was ill. Sun Quan then set fire to the entrance of Zhang Zhao's residence to scare him and force him to come out. His plan backfired as Zhang Zhao not only refused to come out, but also shut all the doors and windows of his residence. Left with no choice, Sun Quan ordered his servants to put out the fire, and he stood at the entrance for a long time. Zhang Zhao's sons then helped their father out, while Sun Quan arranged for a carriage to fetch Zhang Zhao to his palace. At the palace, Sun Quan apologised profusely to Zhang Zhao, who finally forgave him and returned to work.  The Jin dynasty historian Xi Zuochi praised Sun Quan for acknowledging his mistake and doing his best to show his remorse and apologise to Zhang Zhao. However, he also criticised Zhang Zhao for his pompous and condescending attitude towards Sun Quan. He argued that Zhang Zhao, as a subject of a ruler, should know his place and refrain from pushing things to such an extreme even if he was right.

Death.

Throughout his life, Zhang Zhao was known for maintaining a dignified and solemn appearance, and for having an awe-inspiring bearing. His colleagues in the Wu imperial court saw him as an intimidating figure. Sun Quan once said: "When I speak to Lord Zhang, I don't dare to say anything in jest."  Zhang Zhao died at the age of 81 (by East Asian age reckoning) in 236 during the Jiahe era (232–238) of Sun Quan's reign. Before he died, he gave instructions that he wanted to be buried in a coffin of simple design and to be dressed in plain clothes. Sun Quan donned mourning garments and attended his funeral in person. He also honoured Zhang Zhao with the posthumous title "Marquis Wen" ().

Family.

Zhang Zhao was survived by at least two sons, who both served as military generals in Eastern Wu. His first son, Zhang Cheng, had already received a peerage of his own, so his second son Zhang Xiu inherited his peerage and became the next Marquis of Lou ().  Zhang Zhao's nephew, Zhang Fen (), designed a war chariot to serve as a siege engine when he was only 19. Bu Zhi recognised his talent and recommended him to serve in the Wu army. However, Zhang Zhao disapproved as he told Zhang Fen: "You are still young. Why do you want to put yourself through hardship by serving in the army?" Zhang Fen replied: "In the past, Wang the boy died a hero while Ziqi governed E. I may be untalented but I am no longer young." He then served in the army and rose through the ranks to become a general. The highest appointment he held was Chief Controller of Pingzhou (). He was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Lexiang Village ().

Appraisal.

Chen Shou, who wrote Zhang Zhao's biography in the "Sanguozhi", appraised him as follows: "Zhang Zhao received a mission to assist (Sun Quan). His contributions were outstanding. He was loyal, outspoken and upright; his actions were not for his own interests. However, he was feared because he was too stern, and he was shunned by others because he liked to assume the moral high ground. He was given neither the role of a chancellor nor an imperial tutor. Instead, he had a rather unimpressive career and spent his old age in retirement. This shows that Sun Quan was not as wise as Sun Ce."  The "Dianlue" () recorded that Liu Biao, the governor of Jing Province, once wrote a letter to Sun Ce. Before sending, he showed it to Mi Heng, who disdainfully remarked: "Is this letter for children in Sun Ce's domain to read out? Or is it for Zhang Zibu's perusal?" This remark showed that even the notoriously haughty Mi Heng acknowledged Zhang Zhao's literary talent.

In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms".

Zhang Zhao's fictionalised persona in the 14th-century historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is generally similar to its historical counterpart. In the novel, he first appears in Chapter 15 when Zhou Yu recommends him and Zhang Hong (not related to Zhang Zhao), who are collectively referred to as the "Two Zhangs" () of Jiangdong", as talents to assist Sun Ce. Sun Ce then visited them at their homes and succeeded in recruiting them to serve as his advisers. In Chapter 29, when Sun Ce is about to die, he says that if Sun Quan cannot make decisions on domestic and external issues, he can consult Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu respectively.  In chapters 43 to 49, when Sun Quan is discussing with his subjects about how to counter an impending invasion by Cao Cao just before the Battle of Red Cliffs, his subjects are divided into two camps: one advocating surrender to Cao Cao, and the other advocating going to war with Cao Cao. Zhang Zhao is one of the leading figures in the former camp. Chapter 43, in particular, describes a fictitious debate between Zhuge Liang and the various scholar-officials serving under Sun Quan. Zhang Zhao is the first among those scholar-officials to challenge Zhuge Liang, who manages to silence all of them through his eloquent responses to their queries and comments, as well as taunts and insults.

Zhang Zhao (156–236), courtesy name Zibu, was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, military general, and politician. He served as an official of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Zhang Zhao started his career as a scholar in his native Xu Province before the chaos towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty forced him to flee south to the Jiangdong (or Wu) region for shelter. In Jiangdong, Zhang Zhao became an adviser to the rising warlord Sun Ce. After Sun Ce's death in the year 200, Zhang Zhao played a key supporting role to Sun Ce's younger brother and successor, Sun Quan, as he consolidated power and his control over the Jiangdong territories. In 208, Zhang Zhao strongly urged Sun Quan to surrender to Cao Cao, a rival warlord, because he believed that they stood no chance against an impending invasion by Cao Cao. However, Sun Quan refused to listen to Zhang Zhao and instead heeded the advice of Lu Su and Zhou Yu. Sun Quan's forces ultimately scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208. From 200 until his death in 236, Zhang Zhao served under Sun Quan through the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty and into the Three Kingdoms period after Sun Quan became the founding emperor of the Eastern Wu state. Throughout his career, Zhang Zhao was known for being a stern, uncompromising and intimidating figure who commanded respect from both his colleagues and Sun Quan. Despite Zhang Zhao's seniority and experience, Sun Quan passed him over twice as a candidate for the position of Imperial Chancellor in 222 and 225 as he believed that Zhang Zhao was so headstrong and stubborn that he would not be able to effectively lead the administration. Nevertheless, Sun Quan paid his due respects to Zhang Zhao as a mentor-like figure who saw him through his formative years to his accession to the throne.


Community.

Arviat is the southernmost community on the Nunavut mainland and is close to the geographical centre of Canada. In Arviat, Inuktitut and English are primarily spoken, having the third largest population in Nunavut, behind Rankin Inlet and Iqaluit. From the 2011 census to the 2016 census there was a population increase of 14.6%. The mayor of Arviat is Joe Savikataaq (Jr.). The hamlet of Arviat also possesses a Tim Hortons in the Northern Store and a self-serve Tim Hortons in the Quick Stop (owned by Northern Store).  Cargo and passenger air service is provided by Calm Air/First Air out of Arviat Airport.  Hunting and fishing are very active in the community; they are the primary source of sustenance. Four locally operated stores - Padlei Co-op, Northern Stores, Artic Connection and Eskimo Point Lumber Supply - carry a wide range of products.  To the south, the town of Churchill, Manitoba is accessible by boat (summer and fall only), snowmobile and Bombardier from Arviat and is often travelled to for supplies.  Arviat is well known around the Arctic for its artistic qualities. It is a thriving community with many talented musicians: Susan Aglukark, a well known musician; Simon "Johnny Cash of the North" Sigyariaq; the band Uniaqtuq, with Arsene, Pelagie and Mary Angalik; the Arviat Band, with John and Billy Kuksuk, Paul Kattau and others; the Irksuk band, played by Paul Irksuk and sons. All have had CDs recorded commercially.  Many types of wildlife are abundant. Within the vicinity of Arviat, polar bears, millions of migratory birds, beluga whales, and caribou are often spotted.  The only access is by air and snowmobile, but the Nunavut government and the federal Senate member for Nunavut, Dennis Patterson, are investigating the possibility of a highway from Thompson, Lynn Lake, or Gillam to Rankin Inlet, through Arviat. Like other Arctic coast communities there is an annual sealift but it is not available to passengers.  Arviat was originally inhabited by the Paallirmiut, a coastal/inland Inuit band. In 1957, dying of starvation, the last remaining Ihalmiut, another Caribou Inuit band, were relocated to Arviat by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Though there are differences between the two bands, they recognize a need to work together in order to benefit the community.  Arviat was featured in "Dancing Towards the Light," a 2017 CBC News short film and article telling the story of the hamlet's annual dance competition.

Recreation.

The Hudson Bay Quest sled-dog race was run from Churchill to Arviat for the first time in 2004.

Internet.

The community has been served by the Qiniq network since 2005. Qiniq is a fixed wireless service to homes and businesses, connecting to the outside world via a satellite backbone. The Qiniq network is designed and operated by SSI Micro. In 2017, the network was upgraded to 4G LTE technology, and 2G-GSM for mobile voice.

Climate.

Based on the Köppen climate classification Arviat has a subarctic climate, but has a polar climate by the Nordenskjöld classification, and is north of the Arctic tree line. Spring is slow to warm up, with June being cooler than September and May cooler than October. With a yearly mean of it is the third-warmest in Nunavut and the maximum of recorded on 22 July 1973 is second only to Kugluktuk. Arviat has a yearly rainfall of, the fourth-wettest in Nunavut, but only of snow, the third-least.

Arviat (, syllabics: ᐊ<unk>ᐊᑦ; formerly called Eskimo Point until 1 June 1989) (2016 population 2,657; Population Centre 2,514) is a predominantly Inuit hamlet located within Inuit Nunangat on the western shore of Hudson Bay in the Kivalliq Region of Nunavut, Canada. Arviat ("place of the bowhead whale") is derived from the Inuktitut word "arviq" meaning "Bowhead whale". Earlier in history, its name was "Tikirajualaaq" ("a little long point"), and "Ittaliurvik", ("a place where the people make tents").


Route.

The way begins on the Nahe Cycleway. Running past Disibodenberg Abbey and then making its way via Odernheim am Glan and Meisenheim it reaches the Kusel Musikantenland. In the Veldenz town of Lauterecken there is a railway connexion and the option to switch onto the Lauter Valley Cycleway to Kaiserslautern. A few kilometres further on, the trail passes Offenbach-Hundheim and the old Benedictine Provost Church of St. Mary. It then continues initially in a southwesterly direction, then swings south to Altenglan. At Altenglan, a junction with the Fritz-Wunderlich Way runs through Kusel on an old railway trackbed to Freisen. Between Altenglan and Staudernheim, there is a separate draisine route that runs through the Glan valley. The cycleway continues for two kilometres alongside the federal highway. Between Glan-Münchweiler and Niedermohr the Barbarossa Cycleway branches off, running through North Palatinate to Worms. From Glan-Münchweiler the route follows the old trackbed of the Glan Valley Railway via Nanzdietschweiler, with its old washing facility and the preserved mill from 1884, through the Elschbach Tunnel. It continues past the lake of Ohmbachsee to Schönenberg-Kübelberg, where it passes the protected railway station. Next, the way passes Waldmohr with its bog mill and the Eichelscheiderhof. Here it leaves the route of the railway and follows cycle tracks to Homburg.  After Beeden the way runs along the River Blies through the Bliesgau Biosphere Reserve. In Wörschweiler, a detour goes to the abbey ruins and the Schwarzenacker Roman Museum. On the next stage, the route reaches Blieskastel with its baroque "Altstadt". The route runs along the old embankment of the Blies Valley Railway. The last station on German soil is the Bliesbruck-Reinheim European Culture Park, with a Celtic prince's grave and settlement from the Roman era. Here the way crosses the Franco-German border and comes to an end after Saargemünd (French: "Sarreguemines") at the confluence of the Blies and the Saar.  In Sarreguemines the Glan-Blies Way is joined from the north by the Saar Cycleway, which runs between Sarreguemines and Völklingen parallel to the Saarland Cycleway. To the south is a junction with the cycling path along the Saar Canal and thus to the French cycle network.

Signage and surfacing.

The bidirectional way is signposted throughout. The waymarks along the route give the distances and destinations as well as the logo of the way. The multicoloured logo depicts a beckoning cyclist and bears the inscription "Glan-Blies-Weg". The route runs predominantly on asphalt forest tracks, farm tracks and cycle paths.

The Glan-Blies Way () is a long distance cycle route and hiking trail that is 130 kilometres long. It begins in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate at Staudernheim on the River Nahe, follows the course of the Glan, crosses the state of Saarland along the Blies and finishes in Lorraine.


Overview.

The idea of an ethnolect relates to linguistic variation and to ethnic identity. According to Joshua Fishman, a sociologist of language, the processes of language standardization and nationalism in modern societies make links between language and ethnicity salient to users. Ethnicity can affect linguistic variation in ways that reflect a social dimension of language usage. The way in which ethnic groups interact with one another shapes their usage of language. Ethnolects are characterized by salient features that distinguish them as different from the standard variety of the language spoken by native speakers of the particular language. These features can either be related to the ethnolect’s lexical, syntactic, phonetic and/or prosodic features. Such linguistic difference may be important as social markers for a particular ethnic group.

Types of ethnolects.

Ethnolect varieties can be further subdivided into two types. One type is characteristic of a specific group, where a majority language currently used by speakers is influenced in terms of lexicon, grammar, phonology and prosody by a minority language associated with their ethnic group but is no longer in active use. Examples include Jewish American English, previous German Australian English and African American Vernacular English.  The other type, is called a multiethnolect, because several minority groups use it collectively to express their minority status and/or as a reaction to that status to upgrade it. In some cases, members of the dominant (ethnic) group, especially young people, share it with the ethnic minorities in a 'language crossing' situation to express a new kind of group identity. Examples include, Multicultural London English and Singapore English.

Purpose.

Establishing identities.

Using ethnolects allow speakers to define their social position, and helps them construct their identity. Subscribing to language features commonly associated with a particular ethnic group works to either affiliate or distance themselves from a particular ethnic group.  Establishing an ethnic identity through language is not necessarily singular. Studies have found speakers who have melded linguistic features of separate communities together in order to create a mixed ethnic identity. African Americans in rural western North Carolina have been found to adopt both local pronunciation and AAVE vocabulary in their speech. Second-generation Italian Canadians in Toronto have been recorded to participate in a vowel shift that resembles both Italian and Canadian pronunciations.

Facilitating communication.

Ethnolects can also serve a communicative purpose in the intergenerational context. Common in new migrant families of non-english language background, ethnolects can be used by the younger generation to communicate with their elders. This usage of ethnolects may be concurrent or in replacement of the community language.Speakers have been found to believe that the use the ethnolect eases communication with the older generations.  The use of ethnolect may also address bilingual communication in the home, where there is a discontinuity in the language that parents and their children use. Children whose first language are different may pick up terms from their parents’ ethnolect. The two varieties in this case can symbolize a speaker’s multiple identity.

Examples.

Listed below are a few examples of ethnolects, with several linguistic features they display highlighted. These distinguished linguistic features are present in areas such as phonetics, grammar, syntax and lexicon. They are usually brought about by influence of another language - the mother tongue of its speakers.

Chicano English (Mexican ethnolect).

Example 1  Chicano English, or Mexican-American English, refers to the ethnolect spoken primarily by Mexican Americans. Chicano English developed as a result of immigration into the United States in the 20th Century. Some features of Chicano English include:

African American Vernacular English (African-American ethnolect).

Example 2  African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is one of most researched and salient ethnic varieties of English. It generally refers to the ethnolect primarily spoken by working or middle-class African-Americans in more informal conversations. Some prevalent features of AAVE include:

Greek Australian English (Greek ethnolect).

Example 3  Greek Australian English refers to the English spoken by Greek immigrants in Australia. It is known and used by the Greek Australians during the last 170 years of settlement. Some salient features of Greek Australian English include:

Further manifestations.

Ethnolects are typically employed by speakers to either decrease or increase social distance with others. Listed below are more atypical manifestations of using ethnolects in order to achieve certain social purposes.

Crossing.

Crossing refers to the use of a language, or aspects of it, by speakers who are not accepted by members of the group associated with the language. In reference to ethnolects, crossing refers to speakers using ethnolects that do not formally belong to them. Considering the inherent connection between ethnolect and ethnicity, crossing is highly contentious as it involves a movement across ethnic boundaries. Speakers are required to negotiate their identity to perform crossing. Beyond being a linguistic phenomenon, crossing has social implications, and community members are generally aware of the sanctions against crossing.

Hypercorrection.

Ethnolects may also be rejected by its speakers. This linguistic choice is apparent in ethnic hypercorrection. Ethnic hypercorrection is a subclass of linguistic hypercorrection, and refers to the over-application of certain linguistic markers common in the variety of another group. Speakers belonging to an ethnicity, often a minority group, hypercorrect to draw distance between themselves and their ethnic groups. Often, speakers hypercorrect due to the social prestige associated with the different language varieties. For example, second and third generation Italian and Jewish immigrants in New York were found to have stronger vowel sounds that are distinctive of the New York accent in their speech. (link 19) The vowels they spoke were opposite of what was expected from their Italian and Yiddish ethnicity.

Criticism of the "ethnolect" approach.

Some twenty-first century linguists object to broader application of the term "ethnolect" to describe linguistic differences that are believed to reflect ethnic group affiliation. According to these scholars, this may inaccurately posit ethnicity as the central explanation for linguistic difference, when in fact there may be other variables which are more influential to an individual's speech.  Some scholars also point out that the common use of "ethnolect" is used to compare the "ethnolects" of ethnic minorities with the "standard" speech of ethnic majorities, which is designated as the regional dialect instead of as a majority ethnolect. The ethnolinguistic repertoire approach is therefore proposed as a more effective model in linguistic research that could counteract the problems of the ethnolect approach as listed below.

Intra-group variation.

The way one speaks can vary widely within any ethnic group on a continuum of styles that could be mixed across variants. Some may employ a few or none of the features in an ethnolect while others may use many. Therefore, it is difficult to draw the line between speakers and non-speakers of an ethnolect. Although qualifications and modifiers are established in definitions to enhance the fluidity of the concept, it is still unable to fully resolve the problem as variation exists in complex and intricate patterns that are unlikely to be fully accounted for in brief definitions.

Intra-speaker variation.

Speakers of ethnolects tend to be aware of the differences in their speech compared to others to some extent. They may therefore temper their usage of salient features in their ethnolects when speaking to interlocutors who are not part of their ethnic group and may also be able to code-switch fluently between their ethnolectal variety and Standard English. Speakers who do that are considered to be "bidialectal". Yet, the selective use of elements from an ethnolect is not predictable, which then confounds the notion of code-switching.

Out-group use.

Some speakers who are not part of a particular ethnic group may also make use of elements of the group’s ethnolect, which can include behaviours like crossing or passing when people imitate an ethnic stereotype or assimilate to an ethnic group’s behaviour to be included. This can be observed in phenomena such as ‘crossing’ in multi-ethnic interactions. For example, elements of AAVE are used by people who have little association with African Americans because of the language's influence in hip-hop. Non-group members may also extensively employ features from an ethnic group’s repertoire in their speech if they spend much of their time with the group members.

Delineating the ethnic group.

It is difficult to define the ethnic group a person belongs to, especially in Western societies where ethnic groups are porous and fluid. Individuals often shift from one ethnic identity to another as they transition between life stages. Ethnic group membership is constructed not just on the basis of descent but also on the basis of symbolic practices, including language. Viewing ethnic identity as an inheritance that cannot be changed may pose problems. In addition, an increasing number of individuals consider themselves as part of two or more ethnic groups. It is thus difficult to define one’s ethnicity by their parentage or physical features. Ethnic identification also generally involves self-identification of a shared understanding and belonging with culture or language, as well as affirmation from existing members of the existing ethnic group. The factors that determine ethnic identity are ambiguous.

Delineating ‘ethnolect’.

The final problem lies in the conceptualisation of a given group’s language as a separate ethnic variety like AAVE and Chicano English, or merely as ethnic variation from an abstract norm such as the phonological variation among people of a shared ethnicity. In the ethnolect approach, distinctions are drawn to categorize certain languages spoken as ethnolects (i.e. ethnic varieties) while others are considered as a repertoire of linguistic features associated with the ethnic group that are employed in ethnic variation.

An ethnolect is generally defined as a language variety that mark speakers as members of ethnic groups who originally used another language or distinctive variety. According to another definition, an ethnolect is any speech variety (language, dialect, subdialect) associated with a specific ethnic group. It may be a distinguishing mark of social identity, both within the group and for outsiders. The term combines the concepts of an ethnic group and dialect.


General.

Madrid first became the capital in the 16th century, a period in which Spain experienced its Golden Age. The kingdom underwent enormous economic growth by virtue of its colonies in South America. The Habsburgs commissioned a variety of buildings and infrastructure projects, in order to represent their power and wealth through their shaping of public space. El Madrid de los Austrias subsequently took the name of its builders, the Spanish Habsburgs, who are known as "the Austrians" in Spanish. Its typical architectural style ranges from the late Renaissance through the early Baroque.  The most notable Habsburg construction and the essential part of El Madrid de los Austrias is the Plaza Mayor, in the middle of which stands a statue of its builder, King Philip III. Laid out in 1619, the Plaza Mayor is a large, rectangular plaza with arcades and nine entrances. It is maintained in a colorful dark red and orange; these colors having been chosen in a citywide poll. The Plaza Mayor was the scene of bullfights, executions, and coronations.

Reign of Phillip II.

Before becoming the capital, in 1535, the Madrid area was 72 hectares, increasing to 134 in 1565, only four years after the establishment of the Court in the town. At the end of the reign of Philip II, the town occupied 282 hectares and had about 7590 homes, three times more than in 1563 (2,250), shortly after the appointment of Madrid as capital.  The intense housing activity of this period was not sufficient to meet the demand for housing by courtiers and servants of the Crown. This induced the king to issue the edict known as Regalía de Aposento, through which property owners of more than one floor were forced to give one to a family of the court.  This decree encouraged the development of what became known as "casas a la malicia", a kind of home in which the owners, attempting to avoid compliance with the decree, used different solutions (a single storey, excessive compartmentalization of the interior or concealment of the upper floor from view from the roads...).

Palacio de Santa Cruz.

The Palacio de Santa Cruz, located on the Plaza de Santa Cruz, was built between 1629 and 1643. Characteristic of Habsburg architecture is the red facade with white-framed windows and it resembles the style of the Plaza Mayor. The structure has two prominent corner towers with pointed roofs, and originally accommodated a prison, the "Cárcel de la Corte". Here the condemned would be held before being taken to the adjacent Plaza Mayor for execution. One famous prisoner was the bandit Luis Candelas, a sort of Spanish Robin Hood, who was executed in November 1837.  Despite the Spanish Civil War and the subsequent reconstruction, the palace has lost little of its original form. Briefly hosting the "Ministro de Ultramar" (Overseas Ministry), since 1931 it has been the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Plaza de la Villa.

Several important buildings are also located in the Plaza de la Villa, one of the oldest plazas in Madrid. The oldest building is the Torre de los Lujanes, built in the Gothic style in the 15th century. Strictly speaking the Torre does not belong to the Habsburg period, though it is situated in the "Madrid de los Austrias". Another building, the Casa de Cisneros, was built in 1537. Alongside it is the Ayuntamiento, the old town hall. It was built by the architect Juan Gómez de Mora, designer of the Plaza Mayor, and it is architecturally similar with a relatively austere red-orange facade and mansard roof, and steep-roofed corner towers.  Other important buildings include:

El Madrid de los Austrias (English: "The Madrid of the Austrians" or "the Habsburgs") is a name used for the old centre of Madrid, built during the reign of the Habsburg Dynasty (1516–1700), known in Spain as "Casa de Austria". The area is located south of the Calle Mayor, in between the Metro stations "Sol" and "Ópera".


Early life.

Denby-Ashe was born in North West London on 9 August 1978, the daughter of Polish immigrants; her father's original name was Miroslaw Pszkit. Before her parents married, they decided to adopt a more British-sounding surname, so they each chose a surname they liked from the telephone directory and hyphenated them. Denby-Ashe is fluent in English, Polish, and French, learning the latter from her grandmother, who was raised in France until World War II broke out. She began studying ballet at the age of two and tap at a later stage; from the ages of 10 to 16, she attended several drama schools, including the Corona Academy.

Career.

Daniela first gained film experience on the children's video "Nursery Rhymes 2" from Pickwick Video. She appeared in many television commercials as a child actor which then led on to children's drama such as Kevin & Co, as well as the Channel 4 sitcom "Desmond's". Daniela also appeared briefly alongside Jennifer Saunders and Julia Sawalha in season 3 episode 6 of "Absolutely Fabulous". Her big break came in 1995 when she landed the role of Sarah Hills in the BBC soap opera "EastEnders". She played this character until 1999.  The following year she got the role of Janey Harper in the BBC sitcom "My Family". Daniela took a break from "My Family" for the fourth series in 2003, but returned to the role in 2004. The eleventh and final series first aired on BBC One from June 2011.  In 2005 she took the lead role of Margaret Hale in the BBC TV drama adaptation of Elizabeth Gaskell's "North & South", and in 2006 played Mary in the science fiction TV series "Torchwood" episode "Greeks Bearing Gifts". Her other television roles include "Office Gossip", "Rescue Me", "Is Harry on the Boat?", and "The Afternoon Play". From 2003 she appeared in the Radio 4 comedy "Ring Around the Bath".  In 2007, she starred as Robert Maxwell's secretary in "Maxwell", a BBC drama about his life.  In December 2008 she appeared in BBC Four's supernatural drama series "Crooked House", and in October 2010 she starred in an episode of the ITV detective drama "Midsomer Murders". In April 2009 she appeared in the fourth series of the BBC drama "Waterloo Road" as deceitful supply teacher, Jem Allen. In April 2012, she returned to the drama as a new regular character, Lorraine Donegan. The character, a former pupil taught by current headteacher Michael Byrne (Alec Newman), played an important role in a storyline that has seen the current school move from its location in Rochdale to a new site in Greenock, Scotland at the end of the seventh series. The character appeared regularly throughout the eighth series, however the character left the school toward the end of the series due to a disagreement with Michael, leading to her handing the school over to LEA control.  She appeared in "Mum" in 2019.

Daniela Jolanta Denby-Ashe (born 9 August 1978) is an English actress. She is best known for playing Sarah Hills on the soap opera "EastEnders", Margaret Hale on the period drama "North and South", and Janey Harper on the BBC sitcom "My Family". She also played Lorraine Donnegan on the drama series "Waterloo Road".


Early life in Bavaria.

Born Anton Franz Englert in Dillingen, Bavaria, Father Sebastian spent his school days in Eichstätt and Burghausen.  In 1907, he entered the novitiate of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin and received the religious name Sebastian. He undertook his canonical studies in philosophy and theology in the Capuchin studium of Dillingen, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1912.  During the First World War, Father Sebastian served as a chaplain in the German Army in France and Belgium, and after the war he worked for five years as a parish priest in the Schwabing district of Munich. In 1922, he went at his own request as a missionary to the Mapuche at Villa Rica and Pucon in Southern Chile.

Missionary and scientific activity in Chile.

Father Sebastian served in the Apostolic Vicariate of the Araucanía in Villarrica and Pucón, which at the time was administered almost entirely by Capuchins. There, in addition to his pastoral duties, he conducted ethnological and linguistic research into Mapuche culture and the Mapudungun language. From 1934 to 1938, he published studies in Araucanian literature, ethnology and folklore. During this period, his linguistic studies included an investigation of the relationship of Quechua and Aymara to the Mapuche language.

Rapa Nui.

From 1935 for more than 30 years until his death, Father Sebastian worked as a missionary priest on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). At the time, he was perhaps the only non-Rapa Nui to have mastered their language. Although he celebrated Mass in Latin, he preached, heard confessions and catechized the faithful in the Rapa Nui language. He also translated popular Catholic devotions into Rapa Nui and encouraged native religious song. In 1964, he produced a history of the early activity of the French Sacred Hearts missionaries who first evangelized the island.  Given the isolation of Rapa Nui during the period before air travel, Father Sebastian researched the language, ethnology and anthropology of Easter Island. His knowledge of Rapa Nui culture and prehistory impressed the scientific staff of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition of 1955. William Mulloy, a member of that expedition, writes:  Father Sebastian published several books, the most important being "La tierra de Hotu Matu'a" (The Land of Hotu Matu'a) a 1948 study of the history, archaeology, anthropology, and language of Easter Island. His research is best known to English-speakers through radio broadcasts for Chilean naval personnel in Antarctica, published in the United States as "Island at the Center of the World: New Light on Easter Island".  Father Sebastian arrived intending to stay only a short time on the island, but in February 1936 he received a letter, via a visiting ship of the Chilean navy, from his superior, Bishop Edwards, asking him to stay for two months more, which he did. However, it was almost a year until the next ship arrived, in January 1937. In that time he had revitalized the island's church, and had himself become attached to the island. The ship carried another letter from Bishop Edwards, appointing Father Sebastian as priest of Easter Island by attaching it to the "Apostolic Vicariate of Araucania".  He was "strict, authoritarian and patriarchal" with the islanders, supported the Chilean authorities in making it difficult for islanders to travel, and publicly censured churchgoers in his sermons, based on information they gave him when privately confessing their sins, adversely affecting their ability to work and to buy imported goods, both of which were controlled by the state-backed island company. In historian Steven Roger Fischer's view, this may have contributed to the failure of the islanders to "internalize Catholicism fully during those crucial development years." (See also History of Easter Island)  Because of his work for the island's people, especially its lepers, Thor Heyerdahl, leader of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition, called Father Sebastian the "uncrowned king of Easter Island." In 1963, Fr. Sebastian was awarded the Bundesverdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) First Class by the Federal Republic of Germany. He died in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1969 during a lecture tour of the United States. His remains were returned to Rapa Nui and interred in the cemetery in the Tahai district, but were later transferred to the site of Holy Cross Church in Hanga Roa.

Father Sebastian Englert OFM Cap., (November 17, 1888 – January 8, 1969) was a Capuchin Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest, missionary, linguist and ethnologist from Germany. He is known for his pioneering work on Easter Island, where the Father Sebastian Englert Anthropological Museum is named after him.


Biography.

Sorby was born at Woodbourne, near Sheffield in Yorkshire, and attended Sheffield Collegiate School. He early on developed an interest in natural science. One of his first papers related to the excavation of valleys in Yorkshire. In 1847, when he was 21, his father died, leaving him a comfortable private income. He immediately established a scientific laboratory and workshop at his home. He subsequently dealt with the physical geography of former geological periods, with the wave-structure in certain stratified rocks, and the origin of slaty cleavage.  He took up the study of rocks and minerals under the microscope, and published an important memoir, "On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals", in 1858 ("Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc."). In England, he was one of the pioneers in petrography; he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1869, and became its president. In his presidential addresses, Sorby gave the results of original research on the structure and origin of limestones and of non-calcareous stratified rocks (1879–1880). In 1863, he used etching with acid to study the microscopical structure of iron and steel. Using this technique, he was the first in England to understand that a small but precise quantity of carbon gave steel its strength. This paved the way for Henry Bessemer and Robert Forester Mushet to develop the method for mass-producing steel. Due to this accomplishment, Sorby is known to modern metallurgists as the "father of metallography", with an award bearing his name being offered by the International Metallographic Society for lifetime achievement.  His interests were broad. He published essays on the construction and use of the micro-spectroscope in the study of animal and vegetable colouring matter and on the temperature of the water in estuaries. He also applied his skill in making preparations of invertebrate animals for lantern slides.  He was president of the Royal Microscopical Society. In 1882, he was elected president of Firth College, Sheffield after the death of founder Mark Firth. Sorby also worked hard for the establishment of the University of Sheffield, which was eventually founded in 1905. A university hall of residence, Sorby Hall, built in the 1960s and demolished in August 2006, was named after him.  He died in Sheffield and was buried in Ecclesall churchyard.

Honours and awards.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1857 as one who was "Author of various papers on Slaty Cleavage; on the peculiarities of stratification due to the action of currents & their application to the investigation of the Physical Geography of ancient periods; on the microscopical structure of limestones and other peculiarities of the physical & chemical constitution of rocks. Distinguished for his acquaintance with the science of Geology.". He delivered their Bakerian Lecture in 1863 for his work "on the Direct Correlation of mechanical and Chemical Forces" and was awarded their Royal Medal in 1874. In 1892, Sorby was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  Both the International Association of Sedimentologists and the Yorkshire Geological Society have Sorby Medals named in honour of his achievements in geology. The Henry Clifton Sorby Award is offered by the International Metallographic Society in recognition of lifetime achievement in metallurgy. The University of Sheffield has a chair of geology/physical geology named after him and the Sorby Natural History Society is named after him. The area in which the society operates (north East Derbyshire, the Sheffield and Chesterfield areas) are known to members as 'Sorbyshire'.  Dorsa Sorby on the Moon is named after him. There is also a wing at the Northern General Hospital named after him.

Henry Clifton Sorby (10 May 1826 – 9 March 1908), was an English microscopist and geologist. His major contribution was the development of techniques for studying iron and steel with microscopes. This paved the way for the mass production of steel.


Asia.

Great Post Road (), from Anyer to Panarukan, Indonesia, was a notable post road in Asia, built during the governancy of Herman Willem Daendels of Dutch East Indies from 1808 to 1811.

Europe.

Notable post roads in Europe include:

North America.

The following are notable posts roads in Canada and the U.S.

Canada.

Chemin du Roy was built between Montreal (Repentigny) and Quebec City from 1731 to 1737, for mail and as a means of travel for the key settlements in New France/Lower Canada. It was later incorporated as Quebec Route 2 and is now part of Quebec Route 138.  Two notable post roads built in the late 1700s and early 1800s were Dundas Road (The Governor's Road) and Kingston Road (Lakeshore Road or York Road) to provide a route for mail and stagecoaches between key settlements in Upper Canada.  The latter route, which became The Provincial Highway in 1917 (Ontario Highway 2 c. 1923), and the former which became a Dundas Highway in 1920 (Ontario Highway 5 in 1925), were the beginning of the provincial highway system in Ontario.

United States.

In what was to later become the United States, post roads developed as the primary method of communicating information across and between the colonies.  The Articles of Confederation authorized the national government to create post offices but not post roads. Adoption of the U.S. Constitution changed this, as Article I, Section Eight, known as the Postal Clause, specifically authorizes Congress the enumerated power "to establish post offices and post roads." This was generally interpreted liberally, to include all public highways. U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story defended the broad interpretation that had become dominant in his influential "Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States" (1833).  Notable American post roads built for the purpose include:

A post road is a road designated for the transportation of postal mail. In past centuries, only major towns had a post house and the roads used by post riders or mail coaches to carry mail among them were particularly important ones or, due to the special attention given them, became so. In various centuries and countries, post road became more or less equivalent to main road, royal road, or highway. The 20th century spread of postal service blurred the distinction.


Description.

Skiliftkarussell Winterberg is located in a forested low mountain range called Rothaargebirge, approx. 120 km N of Frankfurt, 70 km W of Kassel and 110 km E of Cologne. The highest points are Kahler Asten ( ), Bremberg (809 m), Kappe (776 m), Poppenberg (746 m) and Herrloh (733 m).  The ski resort offers 25 ski lifts: The network of ski slopes adds up to a length of 23 km and consists mainly of easy and intermediate ski runs. The steepest ski run is the FIS slalom run at Kappe, featuring the greatest vertical drop of 190 metres. Snowmaking was increasingly set up since the 1990s, to ensure snow safety, today it covers 95% of the slopes. The ski resort also offers night skiing on Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays. the resort usually opens up in December and closes by the end of March.

Summer.

In summer, the ski resort offers a terrain park for downhill biking. The chair lift at Kappe operates to carry cyclists uphill. At Poppenberg, there are also several mountainboarding cross-country runs.

Additional facilities.

In addition to the skiing slopes, there are numerous trails for Cross-country skiing in the vicinity of Winterberg. The Winterberg bobsled track at Kappe is a regular venue for international competitions in bobsleigh, sledding and Skeleton. In Germany, it is also known for hosting the wok racing event, invented by the German TV entertainer Stefan Raab. The St. George ski jump is a landmark of Winterberg, and used to be the venue for German Championships in the Nordic combined sport. Today it is used as a training facility by the local ski club.

Skiliftkarussell Winterberg is one of the major ski resorts in central Germany. It is located near the town of Winterberg in the Hochsauerland region in North Rhine-Westphalia. As an international destination, popular especially with skiers from the Netherlands, it attracts nearly 900,000 visitors annually. Nearby ski resorts are Altastenberg, Postwiese and Willingen.


Early life.

Hermann was born around 1818 in Offenbach am Main, Hesse-Darmstadt, to Johann Balthasar Spiess and his wife Luise Werner Spiess. The multi-lingual elder Spiess had been instrumental in founding the Offenbach public school system, and was a musician, pastor and writer.  The family was well-connected. Hermann's brother Adolph was a tutor to Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels. Adolph was involved with the 1833 Frankfurter Wachensturm attempt to overthrow the government. When events caused Adolph to flee to Burgdorf, Switzerland, he took young Hermann along. Hermann returned in 1835 and enrolled in the Gymnasium in Darmstadt, where he met Ferdinand Ludwig Herff. The same year, he enrolled in the University of Giessen but was expelled for 21⁄2 years because of student political activity opposing the university's administration. He spent the expulsion period enrolled at Polytechnic Institute in Karlsruhe. In 1842, he returned to the University of Giessen and passed his exams. From 1842–1845, Spiess worked for the Woods and Forests Commission in Darmstadt. He then took a two-year leave of absence.

Texas.

Bettina.

Spiess, Ferdinand Ludwig Herff and Gustav Schleicher founded the Socialistic Colony and Society, or Die Vierziger (the Society of Forty), which originally had plans to establish socialistic communes in Wisconsin.

Commissioner-General of Adelsverein.

In 1846, John O. Meusebach designated Dr. Friedrich A. Schubbert the director of the colony at Fredericksburg, recommended by Henry Francis Fisher. Unknown to Meusebach at the time, Schubbert's real name was Friedrich Armand Strubberg. He changed his name after fleeing two duels, one in Germany and one in New York City. On arrival in Texas in 1844, he used the alias Dr. Friedrich A. Schubbert. He and Henry Francis Fisher worked in tandem to entice immigrants away from the Verein settlements to the St. Gabriel colony he had established in Milam County.  In Fredericksburg, Schubbert instigated a failed coup d'état against Meusebach. On July 12, 1847, Meusebach sent Schubbert a letter of dismissal from his position as director of Fredericksburg, appointing Jean Jacques von Coll as his successor.  After a duel with Schubbert (Strubberg) trying to oust him from the Nassau Plantation, two men were shot. The State of Texas tried Spiess, and he was acquitted on September 27, 1848, on grounds of self-defense. With the finances of the Adelsverein on the verge of collapse, the administration of Fredericksburg and Indianola was ended.  Spiess continued the Verein activities of New Braunfels. In 1848, Spiess, Ludwig Bene and Louis Cachand Ervendberg established the Western Texas Orphan Asylum. In 1850, Spiess joined others to construct a toll bridge across the river in New Braunfels.

Personal life and death.

In 1851 Spiess married to Lena Spiess. The couple had ten children. Spiess owned property at Waco Springs, four miles north of New Braunfels, where he built a sawmill and a shingle mill. In 1867, the Spiess family moved to Warrensburg, Missouri where Hermann Spiess spent his final years. His date of death and final resting place are unknown. Lena Spiess died in Glendale, California on January 3, 1914.

Hermann Spiess (c. 1818–1873) was co-founder of the Bettina, Texas commune in 1847. He became Commissioner-General of the Adelsverein after the resignation of John O. Meusebach.