Clerical celibacy in the Catholic Church

Description.

The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, without exception, rule out ordination of married men to the episcopate, and marriage after priestly ordination. Throughout the Catholic Church, East as well as West, a priest may not marry. In the Eastern Catholic Churches, a married priest is one who married before being ordained.  The Catholic Church considers the law of clerical celibacy to be not a "doctrine", but a "discipline". Exceptions are sometimes made, especially in the case of married male Anglican and Protestant clergy who convert to the Catholic Church, and the discipline could, in theory, be changed for all ordinations to the priesthood.

Theological and scriptural foundations.

Theologically, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that priesthood is a ministry conformed to the life and work of Jesus Christ. Priests as sacramental ministers act "in persona Christi", that is in the mask of Christ. Thus the life of the priest conforms, the Church believes, to the chastity of Christ himself. The sacrifice of married life is for the "sake of the Kingdom" (, ), and to follow the example of Jesus Christ in being "married" to the Church, viewed by Catholicism and many Christian traditions as the "Bride of Christ" (following and, together with the spousal imagery at ; cf. ).  Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) in "Salt of the Earth" saw this practice as based on Jesus' words in : "Some are eunuchs because they were born that way; others were made that way by men; and others have renounced marriage because of the kingdom of heaven. The one who can accept this should accept it." He linked this celibacy "because of the kingdom of heaven" with God's choice to confer the Old Testament priesthood on a specific tribe, that of Levi, which unlike the other tribes received no land from God, but which had "God himself as its inheritance" ().  Paul, within a context of having "no command from the Lord" (1 Cor 7:25), recommends celibacy, but acknowledges that it is not God's gift to all within the church: "For I wish that all men were even as I myself. But each one has his own gift from God, one in this manner and another in that. But I say to the unmarried and to the widows: It is good for them if they remain even as I am,... I want you to be without care. He who is unmarried cares for the things of the Lord—how he may please the Lord. But he who is married cares about the things of the world—how he may please his wife. There is a difference between a wife and a virgin. The unmarried woman cares about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spirit. But she who is married cares about the things of the world—how she may please her husband. And this I say for your own profit, not that I may put a leash on you, but for what is proper, and that you may serve the Lord without distraction" (, ). Peter Brown and Bart D. Ehrman speculate that for early Christians celibacy had to do with the "imminent end of the age" ().

Historical origins.

In the earliest years of the church, the clergy were largely married men. C. K. Barrett points to 1 Cor 9:5 as clearly indicating that "apostles, like other Christians, have a right to be (and many of them are) married" and the right for their wife to be "maintained by the communities in which they [the apostles] are working." However, Paul himself was celibate, and there is no consensus that inclusion among the requirements for candidacy to the office of "overseer" of being "the husband of one wife" meant that celibate Christians were excluded.  Studies by some Catholic scholars, such as the Ukrainian Roman Cholij and Christian Cochini, have argued for the theory that, in early Christian practice, married men who became priests—they were often older men, "elders"—were expected to live in complete continence, refraining permanently from sexual relations with their wives. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western Church limited ordination to unmarried men and required a commitment to lifelong celibacy, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, whose separation, along with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, came slightly later, allows deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry after ordination, but not priests: any future priests who wish to marry must do so before becoming priests. The Armenian Apostolic Church, which also belongs to Oriental Orthodoxy, while technically prohibiting, like the Eastern Orthodox Church, marriage after ordination to the sub-diaconate, has generally let this rule fall into disuse and allows deacons to marry up to the point of their priestly ordination, thus continuing to maintain the traditional exclusion of marriage by those who are priests. This theory would explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.  Some Catholic scholars, such as Jesuits Peter Fink and George T. Dennis of Catholic University of America, have argued that we cannot know if priests in early Christianity practised sexual abstinence. Dennis says "there is simply no clear evidence of a general tradition or practice, much less of an obligation, of priestly celibacy-continence before the beginning of the fourth century." Fink says that a primary book used to support apostolic origins of priestly celibacy "remains a work of interpretation. There are underlying premises that seem to hold firm in this book but which would not stand up so comfortably to historical scrutiny."  The earliest textual evidence of the forbidding of marriage to clerics and the duty of those already married to abstain from sexual contact with their wives is in the fourth-century decrees of the Synod of Elvira and the later Council of Carthage (390). According to some writers, this presumed a previous norm, which was being flouted in practice.  Among the early Church statements on the topic of sexual continence and celibacy are the "Directa" and "Cum in unum" decretals of Pope Siricius (c. 385), which asserted that clerical sexual abstinence was an apostolic practice that must be followed by ministers of the church.  The writings of Saint Ambrose (died 397) also show that the requirement that priests, whether married or celibate, should be continent was the established rule. To the married clergy who, "in some out-of-the-way places", claimed, on the model of the Old Testament priesthood, the right to father children, he recalled that in Old Testament times even lay people were obliged to observe continence on the days leading to a sacrifice, and commented: "If such regard was paid in what was only the figure, how much ought it to be shown in the reality!" Yet more sternly he wrote: "(Saint Paul) spoke of one who "has" children, not of one who "begets" children."

Medieval Christendom.

Beyond the fact that clerical celibacy functioned as a spiritual discipline, it also was guarantor of the independence of the Church and of its essential dimension as a spiritual institution ordered toward ends beyond the competence and authority of temporal rulers.  During the decline of the Roman Empire, Roman authority in western Europe completely collapsed. However, the city of Rome, under the guidance of the Catholic Church, still remained a centre of learning and did much to preserve classical Roman culture in Western Europe. The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. Philosopher Will Durant argues that certain prominent features of Plato's ideal community were discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of the medieval Church in Europe:  In his book "The Ruling Class", Gaetano Mosca wrote of the medieval Church and its structure:  It is sometimes claimed that celibacy became mandatory for Latin Church priests only in the eleventh century; but others say, for instance: "(I)t may fairly be said that by the time of St. Leo the Great (440–61) the law of celibacy was generally recognized in the West," and that the eleventh-century regulations on this matter, as on simony, should obviously not be interpreted as meaning that either non-celibacy or simony were previously permitted.

Reformation period.

Celibacy as a requirement for ordination to the priesthood (in the Western Church) and to the episcopate (in East as well as in West) and declaring marriages of priests invalid (in both East and West) were important points of disagreement during the Protestant Reformation, with the Reformers arguing that these requirements were contrary to Biblical teaching in,, and, and implied a degradation of marriage, and were one reason for "many abominations" and for widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation. The doctrinal view of the Reformers on this point was reflected in the marriages of Zwingli in 1522, Luther in 1525, and Calvin in 1539; in England, the married Thomas Cranmer was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533. Both of these actions, marriage after ordination to the priesthood and consecration of a married man as a bishop, went against the long-standing tradition of the Church in the East as well as in the West.

Celibacy in the present-day Church.

Celibacy of deacons.

Following recommendations made at the Second Vatican Council, the Latin Church now admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, to remain permanently as deacons and not as part of the process by which aspirants are temporarily deacons on their way to priestly ordination. The change was effected by Pope Paul VI's motu proprio "Sacrum diaconatus ordinem" of 18 June 1967. A candidate for ordination to the permanent diaconate must have reached the age of 25 if unmarried or the age of 35 if married (or higher if established by the Conference of Bishops), and must have the written consent of his wife.  Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage (for example, if a man who was already married by the time of ordination to the diaconate subsequently becomes a widower), though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.

Celibacy of priests.

Debate on celibacy of priests.

Garry Wills, in his book "Papal Sin: Structures of Deceit", argued that the imposition of celibacy among Catholic priests played a pivotal role in the cultivation of the Church as one of the most influential institutions in the world. In his discussion concerning the origins of the said policy, Wills mentioned that the Church drew its inspiration from the ascetics, monks who devote themselves to meditation and total abstention from earthly wealth and pleasures in order to sustain their corporal and spiritual purity, after seeing that its initial efforts in propagating the faith were fruitless. The rationale behind such strict policy is that it significantly helps the priests perform well in their religious services while at the same time following the manner in which Jesus Christ lived his life. Moreover, the author also mentioned that although the said policy insists on helping priests focus more on ecclesiastical duties, it also enabled the Church to control the wealth amassed by the clerics through their various religious activities, hence contributing to the growing power of the institution.  The Latin Church discipline continues to be debated for a variety of reasons.  First, many believe celibacy was not required of the apostles. Peter himself had a wife at some time, whose mother Jesus healed of a high fever. And 1 Corinthians 9:5 is commonly interpreted as saying that years later, Peter and other apostles were accompanied by their wives. However, on the basis especially of, others think the apostles left their wives, and that the women mentioned in 1 Corinthians as accompanying some apostles were "holy women, who, in accordance with Jewish custom, ministered to their teachers of their substance, as we read was the practice with even our Lord himself."  Second, this requirement excludes a great number of otherwise qualified men from the priesthood, qualifications which according to the defenders of celibacy should be determined not by merely human hermeneutics but by the hermeneutics of the divine. Supporters of clerical celibacy answer that God only calls men to the priesthood if they are capable. Those who are not called to the priesthood should seek other paths in life since they will be able to serve God better there. Therefore, to the supporters of celibacy no one who is called is excluded.  Third, some say that resisting the natural sexual impulse in this way is unrealistic and harmful for a healthy life. Sexual scandals among priests, especially homosexuality and pedophilia, the defenders say, are a breach of the Church's discipline, not a result of it, especially since only a small percentage of priests have been involved.  Fourth, it is said that mandatory celibacy distances priests from this experience of life, compromising their moral authority in the pastoral sphere, although its defenders argue that the Church's moral authority is rather enhanced by a life of total self-giving in imitation of Christ, a practical application of the Vatican II teaching that "man cannot fully find himself except through a sincere gift of himself."  In 1970, nine German theologians, including Joseph Ratzinger (the future Pope Benedict XVI), signed a letter calling for a new discussion of the law of celibacy, though refraining from making a statement as to whether the law of celibacy should in fact be changed.  In 2011, hundreds of German, Austrian, and Swiss theologians (249 as of 15 February 2011) signed a letter calling for married priests, as well as for women in Church ministry.

Since the Second Vatican Council.

During and after the Council, the Magisterium of the Catholic Church has repeatedly re-affirmed the permanent value of the discipline of obligatory clerical celibacy in the Latin Church. Pope John Paul II wrote in 1992:  He added that the "unchanging" essence of ordination "configures the priest to Jesus Christ the Head and Spouse of the Church." Thus, he said, "The Church, as the Spouse of Jesus Christ, wishes to be loved by the priest in the total and exclusive manner in which Jesus Christ her Head and Spouse loved her."  There has never been any doubt, however, that it is an ecclesiastical discipline, as the Council Fathers explicitly recognised when they stated that "it is not demanded by the very nature of the priesthood." Pope John Paul II took up this theme when he said at a public audience on 17 July 1993 that celibacy "does not belong to the essence of priesthood." He went on to speak of its aptness for, and its congruence with, the requirements of sacred orders, asserting that the discipline "enters into the logic of [priestly] consecration."  Yet some commentators have argued for the possibility that married men of proven seriousness and maturity ("viri probati", taking up a phrase which appears in the first-century First Epistle of Clement in a different context) might be ordained to a localized and modified form of the priesthood. The topic of "viri probati" was raised by some participants in discussions at Ordinary General Assembly XI of the Synod of Bishops held at the Vatican in October 2005 on the theme of the Eucharist, but it was rejected as a solution for the insufficiency of priests.

Pope Francis.

Pope Francis shared his views on celibacy, and the possibility of church discussion on the topic, when he was the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, recorded in the book "On Heaven and Earth", a record of conversations conducted with a Buenos Aires rabbi. He commented that celibacy "is a matter of discipline, not of faith. It can change" but added: "For the moment, I am in favor of maintaining celibacy, with all its pros and cons, because we have ten centuries of good experiences rather than failures... Tradition has weight and validity." He said that now the rule must be strictly adhered to, and any priest who cannot obey it "has to leave the ministry." "National Catholic Reporter" Vatican analyst, Jesuit Thomas J. Reese, called Bergoglio's use of "conditional language" regarding the rule of celibacy "remarkable." He said that phrases like "for the moment" and "for now" are "not the kind of qualifications one normally hears when bishops and cardinals discuss celibacy."  In a conversation with Bishop Erwin Krautler about mandatory celibacy on 4 April 2014, the Pope also spoke about a possible mechanism for a change starting with national bishop conferences. These conferences would  seek and find consensus on reform and we should then bring up our suggestions for reform in Rome....The pope explained that he could not take everything in hand personally from Rome. We local bishops, who are best acquainted with the needs of our faithful, should be ‘corajudos,’ that is ‘courageous’ in Spanish, and make concrete suggestions... It was up to the bishops to make suggestions, the pope said again.  In 2018 Francis showed that he wanted the topic discussed, beginning with remote areas like Amazonia that have a shortage of priests.  In October 2018, Belgian Catholic bishop conference supported married priests.  Different German catholic bishops like Ulrich Neymeyr (Roman Catholic Diocese of Erfurt), Reinhard Marx (Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Munich and Freising), Peter Kohlgraf (Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz), Helmut Dieser (Roman Catholic Diocese of Aachen), Franz Jung (Roman Catholic Diocese of Würzburg), Franz-Josef Overbeck (Roman Catholic Diocese of Essen) and Karl-Heinz Wiesemann (Roman Catholic Diocese of Speyer) support exceptions from clerical celibacy for priests. Also German bishop Georg Bätzing (Roman Catholic Diocese of Limburg) said, there should be also married priests in Roman Catholic Church. The same opinion was also expressed by German bishop Gerhard Feige (Roman Catholic Diocese of Magdeburg) in February 2019 and German bishop Heiner Wilmer (Roman Catholic Diocese of Hildesheim) in February 2019. In March 2019, German bishop Stefan Oster (Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau) said, there can be also married priests in Roman Catholic Church. In Lingen the German catholic bishops started a reformgroup under leadership of bishop Felix Genn (Roman Catholic Diocese of Münster) to talk over a reform of clercial celibacy for priests and if married priests should also be allowed. In April 2019, Austrian bishop Christoph Schönborn (Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna) said, there can be clerical celibacy priests and also married priests in Roman Catholic Church. In June 2019, German bishop Franz-Josef Bode (Roman Catholic Diocese of Osnabrück) said, there can be clerical celibacy priests and also married priests in Roman Catholic Church. In December 2019, German bishop Heinrich Timmerevers answered also, there can be married priests in Catholic Church.  In November 2019, the "Amazonassynode" in Rome voted by 128 to 41 votes in favour for married priests in Latin America.

Exceptions to the rule of priestly celibacy.

Exceptions to the rule of celibacy for priests of the Latin Church are sometimes granted by authority of the Pope, when married Protestant clergy become Catholic. Thus married Anglicans have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood in personal ordinariates and through the United States Pastoral Provision. Because the rule of celibacy is an ecclesiastical law and not a doctrine, it can, in principle, be changed at any time by the Pope. Nonetheless, both Pope Benedict XVI and his predecessors have spoken clearly of their understanding that the traditional practice was not likely to change.  Father Richard McBrien, a controversial voice within the Church, argued that the existence of these exceptions, coupled with a declining number of priests in active ministry (per McBrien's North America and in Europe) and reported cases of non-observance of the norm will keep the subject in the spotlight. However, the number of priests worldwide has been increased from about 405,000 in 1995 to 415,000 in 2016, reversing the previous downward tendency from about 420,000 in 1970 to 403,000 in 1990.

Lack of enforcement.

Despite the Latin Church's historical practice of priestly celibacy, there have been Catholic priests throughout the centuries who have engaged in sexual relations through the practice of concubinage.  One notable example was former EWTN priest Francis Mary Stone, who was also revealed to have privately maintained his clerical status after violating his vow of celibacy and also fathering a child with an employee at EWTN when he was serving as a host of the network's show "Life on the Rock". After these revelations were made public, Stone was at first only suspended from public ministry. He was later accused of sexually abusing the son he fathered with this employee, but was later acquitted. By 2018, it was reported that Stone was still only suspended from his religious order and was not yet acknowledged to have been removed.  On February 18, 2019, the Vatican acknowledged that the celibacy policy has not always been enforced. Some of the Catholic clergy who violated their vow of celibacy had also fathered children as well. It was also revealed that during the course of history, rules were secretly established by the Vatican to protect clergy who had violated the celibacy policy, including those who fathered children. Some people who were fathered by Catholic clergy also made themselves public as well.  In an interview with Vatican News editor Andrea Tornielli on February 27, 2019, Prefect of Congregation of the Clergy Beniamino Stella revealed that his Congregation manages matters concerning priests who violate their vows of celibacy. Regarding violation of the celibacy policy, Stella stated "In such cases there are, unfortunately, Bishops and Superiors who think that, after having provided economically for the children, or after having transferred the priest, the cleric could continue to exercise the ministry."  Some clergy who violated the celibacy policy, which also forbids marriage for clergy who did not convert from the Anglican or Protestant faiths, have also maintained their clerical status after marrying women in secret. One example was shown in the Diocese of Greensburg in Pennsylvania, where a priest maintained his clerical status after marrying a girl he impregnated. In 2012, Kevin Lee, a priest in Australia, revealed that he had maintained his clerical status after being secretly married for a full year and that church leaders were aware of his secret marriage, but disregarded the celibacy policy. The same year, it was revealed that former Los Angeles Auxiliary Bishop Gabino Zavala had privately fathered two children and had "more than a passing relationship" with their mother, who had two separate pregnancies, before he resigned from his post as Auxiliary Bishop and from the Catholic clergy.

Eastern Catholic churches.

In general, the Eastern Catholic Churches allow ordination of married men as priests. Within the lands of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the largest Eastern Rite Catholic Church, priests' children often became priests and married within their social group, establishing a tightly-knit hereditary caste. In North America, by the provisions of the decree "Cum data fuerit", and for fear that married priests would create scandal among Latin Church Catholics, Eastern Catholic bishops were directed to ordain only unmarried men. This ban, which some bishops determined to be null in various circumstances or at times or simply decided not to enforce, was finally rescinded by a decree of June 2014.  A condition for becoming an Eastern Catholic bishop is to be unmarried or a widower.  The mainly Lebanese Maronite Church does not demand celibacy vows from its deacons or parish priests; their monks, however, are celibate, as well as their bishops who are normally selected from celibate priests and sometimes from the monasteries. The current Patriarch of the Maronite Church is originally a monk in the Mariamite Maronite Order.

Clerical celibacy is the discipline within the Catholic Church by which only unmarried men are ordained to the episcopate, to the priesthood (with individual exceptions) in some autonomous particular Churches, and similarly to the diaconate (with exceptions for certain categories of people). In other autonomous particular churches, the discipline applies only to the episcopate.


Emergence.

The earliest known catarrhine is "Kamoyapithecus" from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Kenya Rift Valley, dated to 24 million years ago. Its ancestry is thought to be species related to "Aegyptopithecus", "Propliopithecus", and "Parapithecus" from the Faiyum depression, at around 35 million years ago. In 2010, "Saadanius" was described as a close relative of the last common ancestor of the crown catarrhines, and tentatively dated to 29–28 million years ago, helping to fill an 11-million-year gap in the fossil record. Notable species also include "Nsungwepithecus" "gunnelli" and "Rukwapithecus fleaglei", dubiously taxonomized catarrhines of the Oligocene. In the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, the many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to "Victoriapithecus", the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are "Proconsul", "Rangwapithecus", "Dendropithecus", "Limnopithecus", "Nacholapithecus", "Equatorius", "Nyanzapithecus", "Afropithecus", "Heliopithecus", and "Kenyapithecus", all from East Africa.  The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of middle Miocene age from sites far distant—"Otavipithecus" from cave deposits in Namibia, and "Pierolapithecus" and "Dryopithecus" from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, "Oreopithecus", is from coal beds in Italy that have been dated to 9 million years ago.  Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae) diverged from Great Apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other Great Apes at about 12 million years; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown South East Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by "Sivapithecus" from India and "Griphopithecus" from Turkey, dated to around 10 million years ago.

Evolution of lemurs.

Lemurs, in the suborder Strepsirrhini, had been isolated on the island of Madagascar between 42 and 50 mya, allowing for their independent evolution.

Human evolution.

Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates – in particular genus "Homo" – and leading to the emergence of "Homo sapiens" as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language.  The study of human evolution involves many scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, paleontology, neurobiology, ethology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, embryology and genetics. Genetic studies show that primates diverged from other mammals about, in the Late Cretaceous period, and the earliest fossils appear in the Paleocene, around.  Within the superfamily Hominoidea (apes), the family Hominidae diverged from the family Hylobatidae (gibbons) some 15–20 million years ago; African great apes (subfamily Homininae) diverged from orangutans (Ponginae) about ; the tribe Hominini (humans, "Australopithecines" and other extinct biped genera, and chimpanzee) parted from the tribe Gorillini (gorillas) between and ; and, in turn, the subtribes Hominina (humans and biped ancestors) and Panina (chimpanzees) separated about to.

Evolution of the pelvis.

In primates, the pelvis consists of four parts—the left and the right hip bones which meet in the mid-line ventrally and are fixed to the sacrum dorsally and the coccyx. Each hip bone consists of three components, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis, and at the time of sexual maturity these bones become fused together, though there is never any movement between them. In humans, the ventral joint of the pubic bones is closed.  The most striking feature of evolution of the pelvis in primates is the widening and the shortening of the blade called the ilium. Because of the stresses involved in bipedal locomotion, the muscles of the thigh move the thigh forward and backward, providing the power for bi-pedal and quadrupedal locomotion.

The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back 65 million years. One of the oldest known primate-like mammal species, the "Plesiadapis", came from North America; another, "Archicebus", came from China. Other similar basal primates were widespread in Eurasia and Africa during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. "Purgatorius" is the genus of the four extinct species believed to be the earliest example of a primate or a proto-primate, a primatomorph precursor to the Plesiadapiformes, dating to as old as 66 million years ago.


History.

In his 1952 text "Introduction to Metamathematics", Stephen Kleene formally proved that the CASE function (the IF-THEN-ELSE function being its simplest form) is a primitive recursive function, where he defines the notion codice_6 in the following manner:  Kleene provides a proof of this in terms of the Boolean-like recursive functions "sign-of" sg( ) and "not sign of" ~sg( ) (Kleene 1952:222-223); the first returns 1 if its input is positive and −1 if its input is negative.  Boolos-Burgess-Jeffrey make the additional observation that "definition by cases" must be both mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. They too offer a proof of the primitive recursiveness of this function (Boolos-Burgess-Jeffrey 2002:74-75).  The IF-THEN-ELSE is the basis of the McCarthy formalism: its usage replaces both primitive recursion and the mu-operator.

Typical syntax.

In most languages, programmers write a switch statement across many individual lines using one or two keywords. A typical syntax involves:  Each alternative begins with the particular value, or list of values (see below), that the control variable may match and which will cause the control to goto the corresponding sequence of statements. The value (or list/range of values) is usually separated from the corresponding statement sequence by a colon or by an implication arrow. In many languages, every case must also be preceded by a keyword such as codice_3 or codice_11.  An optional default case is typically also allowed, specified by a codice_12, codice_13, or codice_14 keyword. This executes when none of the other cases match the control expression. In some languages, such as C, if no case matches and the codice_12 is omitted the codice_2 statement simply exits. In others, like PL/I, an error is raised.

Semantics.

Semantically, there are two main forms of switch statements.  The first form are structured switches, as in Pascal, where exactly one branch is taken, and the cases are treated as separate, exclusive blocks. This functions as a generalized if–then–else conditional, here with any number of branches, not just two.  The second form are unstructured switches, as in C, where the cases are treated as labels within a single block, and the switch functions as a generalized goto. This distinction is referred to as the treatment of fallthrough, which is elaborated below.

Fallthrough.

In many languages, only the matching block is executed, and then execution continues at the end of the switch statement. These include the Pascal family (Object Pascal, Modula, Oberon, Ada, etc.) as well as PL/I, modern forms of Fortran and BASIC dialects influenced by Pascal, most functional languages, and many others. To allow multiple values to execute the same code (and avoid needing to duplicate code), Pascal-type languages permit any number of values per case, given as a comma-separated list, as a range, or as a combination.  Languages derived from C language, and more generally those influenced by Fortran's computed GOTO, instead feature fallthrough, where control moves to the matching case, and then execution continues ("falls through") to the statements associated with the "next" case in the source text. This also allows multiple values to match the same point without any special syntax: they are just listed with empty bodies. Values can be special conditioned with code in the case body. In practice, fallthrough is usually prevented with a codice_8 keyword at the end of the matching body, which exits execution of the switch block, but this can cause bugs due to unintentional fallthrough if the programmer forgets to insert the codice_8 statement. This is thus seen by many as a language wart, and warned against in some lint tools. Syntactically, the cases are interpreted as labels, not blocks, and the switch and break statements explicitly change control flow. Some languages influenced by C, such as JavaScript, retain default fallthrough, while others remove fallthrough, or only allow it in special circumstances. Notable variations on this in the C-family include C#, in which all blocks must be terminated with a codice_8 or codice_20 unless the block is empty (i.e. fallthrough is used as a way to specify multiple values).  In some cases languages provide optional fallthrough. For example, Perl does not fall through by default, but a case may explicitly do so using a codice_21 keyword. This prevents unintentional fallthrough but allows it when desired. Similarly, bash defaults to not falling through, when terminated with ;; but more recent versions allow fallthrough with ;& instead.  An example of a switch statement that relies on fallthrough is Duff's device.

Compilation.

Optimizing compilers such as GCC or Clang may compile a switch statement into either a branch table or a binary search through the values in the cases. A branch table allows the switch statement to determine with a small, constant number of instructions which branch to execute without having to go through a list of comparisons, while a binary search takes only a logarithmic number of comparisons, measured in the number of cases in the switch statement.  Normally, the only method of finding out if this optimization has occurred is by actually looking at the resultant assembly or machine code output that has been generated by the compiler.

Advantages and disadvantages.

In some languages and programming environments, the use of a codice_3 or codice_2 statement is considered superior to an equivalent series of "if else if" statements because it is:  Additionally, an optimized implementation may execute much faster than the alternative, because it is often implemented by using an indexed branch table. For example, deciding program flow based on a single character's value, if correctly implemented, is vastly more efficient than the alternative, reducing instruction path lengths considerably. When implemented as such, a switch statement essentially becomes a perfect hash.  In terms of the control flow graph, a switch statement consists of two nodes (entrance and exit), plus one edge between them for each option. By contrast, a sequence of "if...else if...else if" statements has an additional node for every case other than the first and last, together with a corresponding edge. The resulting control flow graph for the sequences of "if"s thus has many more nodes and almost twice as many edges, with these not adding any useful information. However, the simple branches in the if statements are individually conceptually easier than the complex branch of a switch statement. In terms of cyclomatic complexity, both of these options increase it by "k"−1 if given "k" cases.

Alternative uses.

Many languages evaluate expressions inside codice_2 blocks at runtime, allowing a number of less obvious uses for the construction. This prohibits certain compiler optimizations, so is more common in dynamic and scripting languages where the enhanced flexibility is more important than the performance overhead.  For example, in PHP, a constant can be used as the "variable" to check against, and the first case statement which evaluates to that constant will be executed:  switch(true) { switch(5) {  This feature is also useful for checking multiple variables against one value rather than one variable against many values. COBOL also supports this form (and others forms) in the codice_25 statement. PL/I has an alternative form of the codice_26 statement where the control expression is omitted altogether and the first codice_27 that evaluates to "true" is executed.  In Ruby, due to its handling of codice_28 equality, the statement can be used to test for variable’s class: case input when Array then puts 'input is an Array!' when Hash then puts 'input is a Hash!' end Ruby also returns a value that can be assigned to a variable, and doesn’t actually require the codice_3 to have any parameters (acting a bit like an codice_30 statement): catfood =  A switch statement in assembly language:  switch: a: b: swtend:

Exception handling.

A number of languages implement a form of switch statement in exception handling, where if an exception is raised in a block, a separate branch is chosen, depending on the exception. In some cases a default branch, if no exception is raised, is also present. An early example is Modula-3, which use the codice_31...codice_32 syntax, where each codice_32 defines a case. This is also found in Delphi, Scala, and Visual Basic.NET.

Alternatives.

Some alternatives to switch statements can be:

In computer programming languages, a switch statement is a type of selection control mechanism used to allow the value of a variable or expression to change the control flow of program execution via search and map.


Italian occupation.

The initial Italian occupation of France territory occurred in June 1940; it was then expanded in November 1942. The German offensive against the Low Countries and France began on 10 May and by the middle of May German forces were on French soil. By the start of June, British forces were evacuating from the pocket in Northern France. On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war against the French and British. Ten days later, the Italian army invaded France. On 24 June 1940, after the Fall of France, Italy and France signed the Franco-Italian Armistice, two days after the cessation of hostilities between France and Germany, agreeing upon an Italian zone of occupation.  This initial zone of occupation annexed officially to the Kingdom of Italy was and contained 28,500 inhabitants. The largest town contained within the initial Italian zone of occupation was Menton. The main city inside the "demilitarized zone" of 50 km (31 mi) from the former border with the Italian Alpine Wall was Nice.  In November 1942, in conjunction with "Case Anton", the German occupation of most of Vichy France, the Royal Italian Army ("Regio Esercito") expanded its occupation zone. Italian forces took control of Toulon and all of Provence up to the river Rhône, with the island of Corsica (claimed by the Italian irredentists). Nice and Corsica were to be annexed to Italy (as had happened in 1940 with Menton), in order to fulfil the aspirations of Italian irredentists (including local groups such as the Nizzardo Italians and the Corsican Italians). But this was not completed because of the Italian surrender to the Allies in September 1943 when the Germans took over the Italian occupation zones.  The area of south-east France actually occupied by the Italians has been disputed. A study of the postal history of the region has cast new light on the part of France controlled by the Italians and the Germans.(Trapnell, 2014). By studying mail that had been censored by the occupying power, this study showed that the Italians occupied the eastern part up to a "line" joining Toulon - Gap - Grenoble - Chambéry - Annecy - Geneva. Places occupied by the Italians west of this were few or transitory.

Characteristics.

The Italian Army of occupation in southern France in November 1942 was made up of four infantry divisions with 136,000 soldiers and 6,000 officers, while in Corsica there were 66,000 soldiers with 3,000 officers. There was virtually no guerrilla war against the Italians in France until summer 1943. The Vichy regime that controlled southern France was friendly toward Italy, seeking concessions of the sort Germany would never make in its occupation zone.

Refuge.

Many thousands of Jews moved to the Italian zone of occupation to escape Nazi persecution in Vichy France. Nearly 80% of the remaining 300,000 French Jews took refuge there after November 1942. The book Robert O. Paxton's "Vichy France, Old Guard, New Order" describes how the Italian zone acted as a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in Vichy France during the occupation. The Italian Jewish banker Angelo Donati had an important role in convincing the Italian civil and military authorities to protect the Jews from French persecution.  In January 1943 the Italians refused to cooperate with the Nazis in rounding up the Jews living in the occupied zone of France under their control and in March prevented the Nazis from deporting Jews in their zone. German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop complained to Mussolini that "Italian military circles... lack a proper understanding of the Jewish question."  However, when the Italians signed the armistice with the Allies, German troops invaded the former Italian zone on 8 September 1943 and initiated brutal raids. Alois Brunner, the SS official for Jewish affairs, was placed at the head of units formed to search out Jews. Within five months, 5,000 Jews were caught and deported.

Bordeaux.

In August 1940, the Italian Royal Navy ("Regia Marina") established a submarine base at Bordeaux, outside Italian-occupied France.  Operating from "Bordeaux Sommergibile" ("BETASOM") as it was known, thirty-two Italian submarines participated in the Battle of the Atlantic. These submarines sank 109 Allied merchant ships (593,864 tons) and 18 warships (20,000 tons) up to September 1943. Eleven of these submarines were lost.

Italian territorial claims.

In addition to Nice/Nizza and Corsica, the Italians projected further territorial claims for the defeated France. In 1940, The Italian Armistice Commission ("Commissione Italiana d'Armistizio con la Francia", CIAF) produced two detailed plans concerning the future of the occupied French territories. Plan 'A' presented an Italian military occupation all the way to the river Rhone, in which France would maintain its territorial integrity except for Corsica and Nizza. Plan 'B' encompassed the Italian annexation of the Alpes Maritimes (including the Principality of Monaco) and parts of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Hautes Alpes and Savoie. The territory would be administrated as the new Italian region of "Alpi Occidentali" with the town of Briançon (Italian: "Brianzone") acting as the provincial capital.

Italian-occupied France was an area of south-eastern France occupied by the Kingdom of Italy in two stages during World War II. The occupation lasted from June 1940 until the Armistice of Cassibile between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943, when Italian troops on French soil retreated under pressure from the Germans.


History.

Pantteri candies were first invented in 1965 as small, black salmiakki and liquorice gum drops in a typical cardboard candy box, with a picture of a panther on the box cover. A sugar coating was later added to the drops, slightly altering their taste.  The most famous form of Pantteri, however, is the larger, sugar coated disc-shaped candies sold in a plastic bag, also with a picture of a panther on it. At first only salmiakki Pantteri candies were available, but in the 1990s Fazer introduced a fruit-flavoured version of Pantteri, "Pantteri Mix" (containing red, yellow and green fruit candies and normal salmiakki candies).  In the 2000s, the Pantteri drops sold in boxes were reverted to the original 1965 version, without the sugar coating. The text on the box says "Original Pantteri drops from 1965".  Later additions include "Lumipantteri Mix" (Finnish for "snow panther") in summer 2006, "Pantteri Mix" candies with white coating, "Musta Pantteri" (Finnish for "black panther"), which has a slightly higher ammonium chloride content than the regular salmiakki Pantteri, and "Pantteri Black Shot", candies with a salty liquorice filling.  Discontinued variations include "Yöpantteri Mix" ("night panther") featuring fruit and salmiakki candies, shaped like panthers, stars and moons and "Rock Pantteri Mix", containing many different salty liquorice and fruit candies.  Visible advertising campaigns are an important part of Pantteri's publicity image. They were awarded as best advertising campaign in Finland twice, in 1999 and 2000. One advertising campaign featured a fictional latino character called "El Pantero", sporting advertising slogans in mock Spanish such as "El Pantero baila" and "Baila y come". The current advertising campaign promotes "Panthóur", a humorous variation of the popular parkour sport.

Pantteri (Finnish for "panther"), sold in Sweden as Katten (Swedish: "Cat"), is a brand of Finnish salmiakki candy, made by Fazer.


History.

Before World War II.

Prior to World War II, most public schools in the country were "de jure" or "de facto" segregated. All Southern states had Jim Crow laws mandating racial

After World War II.

The origins of desegregation busing can be traced back to two major developments that occurred in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s.

Black population shift.

Starting in 1940, the Second Great Migration brought five million blacks from the agrarian South to the urban and manufacturing centers in Northern and Western cities to fill in the labor shortages during the industrial buildup of World War II and for better opportunities during the post-war economic boom. "Shelley

Legal rulings.

At the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in "Brown vs Board of Education" (1954) overturned racial segregation laws for public schools that had been in place in a number of states since the late 19th century, and ruled that separate but equal schools were "inherently unequal". Although the "Brown" decision affirmed principles of equality and justice, it did not specify how its ruling would promote equality in education. Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP wanted a speedy process for desegregating the school districts, but the Court waited until the following year to make its recommendations. Reasons for delaying had to do with the changes in the Court and with Chief Justice Earl Warren steering a careful course given the expected opposition from Southern states. In May 1955, the Court ruled in "Brown II" that the school districts desegregate "with all deliberate speed". Public school administrators had to begin the process of desegregating the schools through the development of policies that would promote racial mixing. A backlash of resistance and violence ensued. Even members of Congress refused to abide by the decision. In 1956 over a hundred congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto, promising to use all legal means to undermine and reverse the Court's ruling.  The momentum continued with two additional Supreme Court decisions aimed at implementation. In 1968, the Warren Court in "Green v. County School Board of New Kent County", rejected a freedom of choice plan. The Court ordered the county to desegregate immediately and eliminate racial discrimination "root and branch". Then in 1971, the Burger Court in "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" ruled that the school district must achieve racial balance even if it meant redrawing school boundaries and the use of busing as a legal tool. The impact of "Green" and "Swann" served to end all remnants of "de jure" segregation in the South. However, the consequence of the "Swann" decision ushered in new forms of resistance in subsequent decades. The decision failed to address "de facto" segregation.  Consequently, despite being found "inherently unequal" in "Brown v. Board of Education", by the late 1960s public schools remained "de facto" segregated in many cities because of demographic patterns, school district lines being intentionally drawn to segregate the schools racially, and, in some cases, due to conscious efforts to send black children to inferior schools. Thus, for example, by 1969, more than nine of every ten black students in Nashville still attended all-black schools. Evidence of such de facto segregation motivated early proponents of plans to engage in conscious "integration" of public schools, by busing schoolchildren to schools other than

Civil rights movement.

The struggle to desegregate the schools received impetus from the Civil Rights Movement, whose goal was to dismantle legal segregation in all public places. The movement's efforts culminated in Congress passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Signed by President Lyndon Johnson, the two laws were intended to end discriminatory voting practices and segregation of public accommodations. The importance of these two laws was the injection of both the legislative and executive branches joining the judiciary to promote racial integration. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 authorized the federal government to cut off funding if Southern school districts did not

Sociological study.

Another catalyst for the development of busing was an influential sociological report on educational equality commissioned by the U.S. government in the 1960s. It was one of the largest studies in history, with more than 150,000 students in the sample. The result was a massive report of over 700 pages. That 1966 report—titled "Equality of Educational

Reaction.

Before 2007.

The impact of the "Brown v. Board of Education" ruling was limited because whites and blacks tended to live in all-white or all-black communities. Initial integration in the South tended to be symbolic: for example, the integration of Clinton High School, the first public school in Tennessee to be integrated, amounted to the admission of twelve black students to a formerly all-white school.  "Forced busing" was a term used by many to describe the mandates that generally came from the courts. Court-ordered busing to achieve school desegregation was used mainly in large, ethnically segregated school systems, including Boston, Massachusetts; Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio; Kansas City, Missouri; Pasadena and San Francisco, California; Richmond, Virginia; Detroit, Michigan; and Wilmington, Delaware. From 1972 to 1980, despite busing, the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools barely changed, moving from 63.6 percent to 63.3 percent. Forced busing was implemented starting in the 1971 school year, and from 1970 to 1980 the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools decreased from 66.9 percent to 62.9 percent. The South saw the largest percentage change from 1968 to 1980 with a 23.8 percent decrease in blacks attending mostly-minority schools and a 54.8 percent decrease

After 2007.

Civil rights advocates see the 2007 ruling of the Roberts court as the inevitable consequence of gradual court decisions dating back to the early 1970s to ease judicial supervision and limit important tools to achieve integrated schools. Even those school districts that voluntarily created race-conscious programs are under pressure to abandon these efforts as the white parents are refusing to participate in any pupil assignment programs. In some cases, white parents filed reverse discrimination lawsuits in court. Wherever the courts have backed away from mandating school districts to implement desegregation plans, resegregation of Blacks and Latinos has increased dramatically. In 1988, 44 percent

Criticism.

Support for the practice is influenced by the methodology of the study conducted. In a Gallup poll taken in the early 1970s, very low percentages of whites (4 percent) and blacks (9 percent) supported busing outside of local neighborhoods. However, a longitudinal study has shown that support for desegregation busing among black respondents has only dropped below 50% once from 1972–1976 while support among white respondents has steadily increased, suggesting that the Gallup poll numbers may be skewed. This increased support may be due the diminished impact of desegregation policies over time. A 1978 study by the RAND Corporation set out to find why whites were opposed to busing and concluded that it was not because they held racist attitudes, but because they believed it destroyed neighborhood schools and camaraderie and increased discipline problems. It is said that busing eroded the community pride and support that neighborhoods had for their local schools. After busing, 60 percent of Boston parents, both black and white, reported more discipline problems in schools. In the 1968, 1972, and 1976 presidential elections, candidates opposed to busing were elected each time, and Congress voted repeatedly to end court-mandated busing.  Some critics of busing cited increases in distance to schools. However, segregation of schools often entailed far more distant busing. For example, in Tampa, Florida, the longest bus ride was nine miles under desegration whereas it was 25 miles during segregation.  Critics point

Effects.

Busing integrated school age ethnic minorities with the larger community. The "Milliken v. Bradley" Supreme Court decision that busing children across districts is unconstitutional limited the extent of busing to within metropolitan areas. This decision made suburbs attractive to those who wished to evade busing.  Some metropolitan areas in which land values and property-tax structures were less favorable

Historical examples.

Boston, Massachusetts.

In 1965 Massachusetts passed into law the Racial Imbalance Act, which ordered school districts to desegregate or risk losing state educational funding.

Springfield, Massachusetts.

Unlike Boston, which experienced a large degree of racial violence following Judge Arthur Garrity's decision to desegregate the city's public schools in 1974, Springfield quietly enacted its own desegregation busing plans. Although not as well-documented as Boston's crisis, Springfield's situation centered on the city's elementary schools. Much of the primary evidence for Springfield's busing plans

Kansas City, Missouri.

In 1985, a federal court took partial control of the Kansas City, Missouri School District (KCMSD). Since the district and the state had been found severally liable for the lack of integration, the state was responsible for making sure that

Las Vegas, Nevada.

In May 1968, the Southern Nevada chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed a lawsuit against the Clark County School District (CCSD). The NAACP wanted the CCSD to acknowledge publicly, and likewise, act against the "de facto" segregation that existed in six elementary schools located on the city's Westside. This area of Las Vegas had traditionally been a black neighborhood. Therefore, the CCSD did not see the need to desegregate the schools, as the cause of segregation appeared to result from factors outside of its immediate control.

Los Angeles, California.

In 1963, a lawsuit, "Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles", was filed to end segregation in the Los Angeles Unified School District. The California Supreme Court required the district to come up with a plan in 1977. The board returned to court with what the court of appeal years later would describe as "one of if not the most drastic plan of mandatory student reassignment in the nation". A desegregation busing plan was developed, to be

Nashville, Tennessee.

In comparison with many other cities in the nation, Nashville was not a hotbed of racial violence or massive protest during the civil rights era. In fact, the city was a leader of school desegregation in the South, even housing a few small schools that were minimally integrated before the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision in 1954. Despite this initial breakthrough, however, full desegregation of the schools was a far cry from reality in Nashville in the mid-1950s, and thus 22 plaintiffs, including black student Robert Kelley, filed suit against the Nashville Board of Education in 1955.  The result of that lawsuit was

Pasadena, California.

In 1970 a federal court ordered the desegregation of the public schools in Pasadena, California. At that time, the proportion of white students in those schools reflected the proportion of whites in the community, 54 percent and 53 percent, respectively. After the desegregation process began, large numbers of whites in the upper and middle classes who could afford it pulled their children from the integrated public school system and

Prince George's County, Maryland.

In 1974, Prince George's County, Maryland, became the largest school district in the United States forced to adopt a busing plan. The county, a large suburban school district east of Washington, D.C., was over 80 percent white in population and in the public schools. In some county communities close to Washington, there was a higher concentration of black residents than in more outlying areas. Through a series of desegregation orders after the "Brown" decision, the county had a neighborhood-based system of school boundaries. However, the NAACP argued that housing patterns in the county still reflected the vestiges of segregation. Against the will of the Board of Education of Prince George's County, the federal court ordered that a school busing plan be set in place. A 1974 Gallup poll showed that

Richmond, Virginia.

In April 1971, in the case "Bradley v. Richmond School Board", Federal District Judge Robert R. Merhige, Jr., ordered an extensive citywide busing program in Richmond, Virginia. When the massive busing program began in the fall of 1971, parents of all races complained about the long rides, hardships with transportation for extracurricular activities, and the separation of siblings when elementary schools at opposite sides of the city were "paired", (i.e., splitting lower and upper elementary grades into separate schools). The result was further white flight to private schools and to suburbs in the neighboring counties of Henrico and Chesterfield that were predominantly white. In January 1972, Merhige ruled that students in

Wilmington, Delaware.

In Wilmington, Delaware, located in New Castle County, segregated schools were required by law until 1954, when, due to "Belton v. Gebhart" (which was later rolled into "Brown v. Board of Education" on appeal), the school system was forced to desegregate. As a result, the school districts in the Wilmington metropolitan area were split into eleven districts covering the metropolitan area (Alfred I. duPont, Alexis I. duPont, Claymont, Conrad, De La Warr, Marshallton-McKean, Mount Pleasant, New Castle-Gunning Bedford, Newark, Stanton, and Wilmington school

Indianapolis, Indiana.

Institutional racial segregation was coming to light in Indianapolis in the late 1960s as a result of Civil Rights reformation. U.S. District Judge S. Hugh Dillin issued a ruling in 1971 which found the Indianapolis Public Schools (IPS) district guilty of "de jure" racial segregation. Beginning in 1973, due to

Re-segregation.

According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in 1988; since then, schools have become more segregated because of changes in demographic residential patterns with continuing growth in suburbs and new communities. Jonathan Kozol has found that as of 2005, the proportion of black students at majority-white schools was at "a level lower than in any year since 1968". Changing population patterns, with dramatically increased growth in the South and Southwest, decreases in old industrial cities, and much increased immigration of new ethnic groups, have altered school populations in many areas.  School districts continue to try various programs to improve student and school performance, including magnet schools and special programs related to the economic standing of families. Omaha proposed incorporating some suburban districts within city limits to enlarge its school-system catchment area. It wanted to create a "one tax, one school" system that would also allow it to create magnet programs to increase diversity in now predominantly white schools. Ernest Chambers, a 34-year-serving black state senator from North Omaha, Nebraska, believed a different solution was needed. Some observers said that in practical terms, public schools in Omaha had been re-segregated since the end of busing in 1999.  In 2006, Chambers offered an amendment to the Omaha school reform bill in the Nebraska State Legislature which would provide for creation of three school districts in Omaha according to current racial demographics: black, white, and Hispanic, with local community control of each district. He believed this would give the black community the chance to control a district in which their children were the majority. Chambers' amendment was controversial. Opponents to the measure described it as "state-sponsored segregation".  The authors of a 2003 Harvard study on re-segregation believe current trends in the South of white teachers leaving predominantly black schools is an inevitable result of federal court decisions limiting former methods of civil rights-era protections, such as busing and affirmative action in school admissions. Teachers and principals cite other issues, such as economic and cultural barriers in schools with high rates of poverty, as well as teachers' choices to work closer to home or in higher-performing schools. In some areas black teachers are also leaving the profession, resulting in teacher shortages.  Education conservatives argue that any apparent separation of races is due to patterns of residential demographics not due to court decisions. They argue that the "Brown" decision has been achieved and that there is no segregation in the way that existed before the ruling. They further argue that employing race to impose desegregation policies discriminates and violates "Brown"s central warning of using racial preferences.

Desegregation busing in the United States (also known as simply busing or forced busing) is the practice of assigning and transporting students to schools within or outside their local school districts in an effort to reduce the racial segregation in schools. While the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court landmark decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, many American schools continued to remain largely segregated due to housing inequality. In an effort to address the ongoing "de facto" segregation in schools, the 1971 Supreme Court decision, "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education", ruled that the federal courts could use busing as a desegregation tool to achieve racial balance.


Plot.

The short film shows Professor Owl instructing his class of birds on how to find melody around them.  The short starts with the birds entering the schoolhouse and Professor Owl taking roll call. Following this, Professor Owl discusses that today they will learn about melodies "something we really cannot do without", although Bertie Birdbrain interrupts him with multiple guesses of what the topic of the short is about and what melody means. Professor Owl then plays several notes on the piano to give us a clear demonstration of how melodies are assembled.  Following this, they fly off to discover the many melodic sounds of nature. However, Bertie cannot hear them because his dunce cap is stuck on his head. Professor Owl pulls it off unstuck to make him feel better. Then there is a short music interlude in which the chorus sings about the sounds of nature that are listed. Following this, Professor Owl discusses of how the only two creatures that can sing are birds and humans. After showing the male example, the male caricature asks what he means, and Owl demonstrates by mocking him while playing notes on the saxophone. Then he shows some female examples which are more musical than average males. The female voices overlap causing Owl's ears to get off track. He then demands the females to shut up and be quiet so that he can re-concentrate and continue the lesson.  Then there is a scene that shows the "Steps of life", demonstrating how melody is evident throughout the life of an average man. As we go through time, the overall colors shown for each step changes subtlety, as warm ochre, yellows and reds, suggesting growth and vitality, are for his childhood and school years, up until his marriage. When he gets older, the color scheme subtlety changes from reds to purples to blues, depicting maturity and loss of vitality. There is a quick survey of the stages of life, as captured by songs: "Rock-A-Bye, Baby" for birth, "The Alphabet Song" for primary school, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" for the'mating season', "Here Comes the Bride" and there goes the groom for their Wedding Day, "Home! Sweet Home" on the man's 'prime of life' at the top before the descending begins, "Happy Birthday" for the middle aged man who is beginning to regret getting older, "Silver Threads Among The Gold" for getting the first gray hair, "The Old Gray Mare" when the man's body begins to feel his age as he falls down hard on the stairs, "Auld Lang Syne" for the decrepit old man before he gets his'reward' (while being kicked off by the baby New Year's), and "Oh, Dem Golden Slippers" finishes it off with the man who gave up his ghost and gleefully became one more angel for the Heavenly Band while wearing the Golden Slippers.  Some inspirations for song are outlined in song (such as love), but a pinfeather of the class named "Penelope" states that they never, ever sing about brains.  Finally, an example is shown of how a simple melody can be expanded into a symphony: an elaborate version of the simple tune which opened the lesson.

Theater releases.

The first world showing of "Melody" in public was shown in 2 Los Angeles theaters on its release day, including the Paramount Theatre.

Home video releases.

This cartoon was released on DVD twice: once on "Fantasia 2000" and then on "".  It was also released on television twice: once on "Mickey's Mouse Tracks" Episode 27 and on "Donald's Quack Attack" Episode 4.

Soundtrack.

"Melody" was released in the year 1953, some songs of the official soundtrack are "The Bird and the Cricket and the Willow Tree" by Sonny Burke. It was sung by the Disney Studio Chorus over a sequence showing animated birds chirping, crickets rubbing their legs together, and wind blowing through a willow tree. The song has a pleasant tune and lyrics that are simply a list of these musical nature sounds.

Melody is a 1953 Walt Disney short animated cartoon film, originally released on May 28, 1953. This film was the first in a proposed series of shorts teaching the principles of music, called "Adventures in Music." Only one other film in the series was made, "Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom."


Early life and education.

Mariangela Criscuolo was born c. 1548 in Naples, Italy. She was exposed to art at a young age as members of her family were already established Neapolitan artists. Her uncle, Giovanni Angelo Criscuolo (c. 1500- after 1577 Naples), was originally a notary that later became a painter. Her father, Giovanni Filippo Criscuolo (c. 1529 – 1561), was also an artist in Naples, whose style was similar to followers of Raphael. The similarities in style in Mariangela’s work with that of her father makes him a probable source of her informal training in becoming a painter. Those similarities in style are more clearly illustrated in Giovanni Filippo’s Annunciation for San Paolo Maggiore in Naples and Mariangela’s depiction of the same scene for the parocchiale di Bucciano in Benevento.

Career.

Mariangela worked to become a prominent female portraitist before being married to another artist, Giovanni Antonio d’Amato (1535–1598). Later in her career, she turned to history painting, depicting many religious scenes, such as the Death of the Virgin and an altarpiece of the Virgin and Child with Saints. Another well known work by Mariangela is the Deposition from the Cross found in the church of San Servino in Naples. While still married to her husband, Mariangela also ran possibly the earliest documented female-organized informal school of art in Naples. She taught both female and male students. Although few of her male pupils reached great acclaim as it was perceived to be less impressive to learn from a female teacher. One of her suspected female pupils was Luisa Capomazza, who went on to take vows as a nun and paint for various churches in Naples.

Death.

Mariangela’s date of death is unknown, but it is suspected that she died after 1598, when her husband died.

Biography in 'Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti Napoletani'.

Much of what is known about Mariangela Criscuolo is based on the biography written by Bernardo de Dominici (1683-1759 Naples) in his book, 'Vite de’ Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti Napoletani' (Lives of the Neapolitan Painters, Sculptors, and Architects), published in three volumes between 1742 and 1745. In his biography of Mariangela, de Dominici references the unpublished compilation of Neapolitan artist biographies by Massimo Stanzione. De Dominici acknowledges Mariangela’s accomplishments as an artist and founder of an art school accepting both men and women. Adding to this, de Dominici also states that women were sent to her more to learn how to be good wives and Christians rather than good artists.

Mariangiola Criscuolo (c. 1548–1630) was an Italian painter of the Renaissance period, active mainly in her native city of Naples. She is known for portraiture and history painting, and excelled in painting altarpieces. She was also involved in the foundation of one of the first female-organized schools of art during the sixteenth century.


Early life.

Kazarinova graduated from the Leningrad Military Theory Air Force School in 1929 with excellent marks and the Kachin Military Pilots School in 1931. Before entering flight school with recommendations from the Komsomol she worked at a factory in Moscow. Since she was the first female cadet to enter the Leningrad school she had to live in an apartment off-campus while she studied. After completing further training in Kachin she served as a flight instructor and rose through the ranks to become a squadron commander in an assault aviation unit. She received the Order of Lenin, one of the highest Soviet awards, in 1937 during the height of the Great Purge and was able to maintain a good standing in the Soviet Air Forces during those times.

World War II.

After the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the formation of three women's aviation regiments by Marina Raskova, Kazarinova was appointed commander of the 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment. The volunteers assigned to the regiment hoped that Yevgeniya Prokhorova, who was generally well-liked by her colleagues, would become the official regimental commander; however Prokhorova was not a member of the Communist Party, meaning she would not make it to any position higher than squadron commander, and she had little previous military experience. Raskova eventually settled on Kazarinova due to her military experience but quickly ended up getting into various disputes with her, causing speculation that her appointment as regimental commander was the result of Kazarinova's friends in high places including General Osipenko in addition to her status as a recipient of the Order of Lenin. While the crew of the 586th Regiment underwent training for Yak-1 fighters at Engels Military Aviation School in Saratov, Kazarinova studied at a flight institute in Grozny where she sustained a severe leg injury during an air raid that left her with a limp and unable to fly. Despite having been rendered unable to fly she insisted on remaining regimental commander and went to the front when the regiment was deployed. Several members of the regiment complained to her superiors about her leadership, citing her lack of knowledge of fighter tactics combined with her inability to fly left her unfit to remain regimental commander. Tensions grew in the regiment between those who considered her a good commander and those who disliked her, which was not helped by her cold temperament. To sweep some of the issues under the rug, she sent eight members of the regiment to Stalingrad, where five of the eight sent out would be killed in action, two of whom went on to become the only female flying aces in history before their deaths - Lydia Litvak and Yekaterina Budanova. Eventually in November 1942 Kazarinova was removed from her post by General Mikhail Gromadin after her actions led to the death of Valeria Khomyakova, who had died in a plane crash after she was assigned to the night watch even though she was exhausted and had fallen asleep in the dugout only to be awoken by her commander who sent her out for a night flight, resulting in Khomyakova crashing since her eyes hadn't adjusted to the dark with the lack of lighting in the airfield. After removing her from her post as commander Mikhail Gromadin requested General Osipenko to open an investigation into the death of Khomyakova, but instead of doing so Osipenko just transferred her to his staff. The new commander appointed to the 586th Regiment was Aleksandr Gridnev, possibly as punishment for refusing to fly an escort flight for Lavrentiy Beria, citing poor weather. In 1943 Kazarinova achieved the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and was appointed assistant to the director of the 4th Department of the Central Administration of the Air Defense Agency of the Customs Union. In 1945 she was appointed as assistant to the chief of the intelligence department of the 1st Airborne Fighter Defense Army. In 1954 she entered the reserve and passed away in Moscow two years later; she was buried in the Preobrazhenskoe cemetery.

Tamara Aleksandrovna Kazarinova (; 9 July 1906 – 4 August 1956) was a Soviet pilot and the commander of the 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment during the Second World War until she was transferred to the General Directorate of Fighter Aviation Defense.


Development.

The live action cutscenes were all filmed using the blue screen technique.

Release.

Despite being demonstrated at a Sega of America games exhibition in 1996 and reviewed in the major North American gaming magazines of the time, the Saturn version of "Krazy Ivan" was never released in North America. The North American reviews for the Saturn version ranged from middling to outright negative. SoftBank planned to release the Sega Saturn version of the game in the US, along with Wipeout, Destruction Derby, and Assault Rigs, however only Wipeout was released.

Reception.

"Krazy Ivan" received generally mixed reviews. Air Hendrix gave the PlayStation version a mixed review in "GamePro", saying the gameplay is repetitive and requires little strategy but demands fast reflexes, the controls are tight but conspicuously lack the ability to jump, and the graphics are detailed but suffer from slowdown. He concluded that ""Krazy Ivan" has some problems, but it stands tall above its Saturn counterpart, "Ghen War"." "Electronic Gaming Monthly" called it the first great mech game for the console and praised the graphics, the cinematics, the controls, and the close guidance through mission objectives. However, they criticized the lack of replay value. A "Next Generation" critic praised the animation, heavy use of distance fog, PlayStation Link Cable support, and FMV sequences which "range from painless to humorous." However, he criticized that the levels, despite being set all around the world, all look the same, and that the game can be beaten in just a few hours. "Maximum" summarized that "Krazy Ivan" "is far too limited and, in all honesty, suffers from the perennial problem of presentation over playability." They specifically found that the game offers no motivation for the player to not simply head straight to the boss of each stage and defeat it using the simple strategy of firing while strafing.  "Next Generation" reviewed the Saturn version of the game and stated that "The gameplay [...] is still as sharp as ever, making this a respectable but unexciting game for the Saturn library." Paul Glancey of "Sega Saturn Magazine" praised the graphics and premise, but criticized the gameplay as being shallow and overly easy, with the simple strategy of sidestepping and firing working in most situations.  Reviewing the PC version, "GameSpot" echoed "Sega Saturn Magazine" by praising the graphics and premise but ultimately dismissing the game for going no deeper than a sidestep-and-fire strategy.

Krazy Ivan (stylised KГAZЧ IVAИ) is a mecha first-person shooter released for PC, Sega Saturn and PlayStation in 1996 by Psygnosis.


Powers.

Throughout its history the office of Prime Minister has been responsible, at least in theory but not always in practice, for handling Laos's internal policies. Since Laos is a one-party state with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party being the sole party allowed by the constitution, all the prime ministers of the People's Democratic Republic have been members of the party while holding office.  The current prime minister is Thongloun Sisoulith, since 20 April 2016. He is second-ranked in the Political Bureau (Politburo).  The prime minister is elected by the proposal of the president of Laos to the National Assembly and is responsible to the National Assembly, which elects all ministers to government. Activity reports by the prime minister must be given to the National Assembly, while the Standing Committee of the National Assembly supervises the activities of the Central Government and the prime minister. Finally, the deputies of the National Assembly have the right to question the prime minister and other members of government.

Office.

The Office of the Prime Minister of the People's Democratic Republic traces its lineage back to Kaysone Phomvihane, the first prime minister of the People's Democratic Republic. The predecessor office to the prime minister of the People's Democratic Republic was the prime minister of the former Kingdom of Laos. There have been 7 prime ministers of the People's Democratic Republic, but there have been 17 prime ministers of Laos if the prime ministers of the Kingdom of Laos are counted.

Trivia.

Between December 1959 to December 1960, the Kingdom of Laos had six different prime ministers, who were ousted by six successive political coups.

The prime minister of the Lao People's Democratic Republic is the head of government of Laos. It is the highest office within the Central Government.


Biography.

College Career.

A 6'8" power forward/center, Chappell was a star at Wake Forest University, where he was a teammate of future broadcaster Billy Packer He helped lead the Demon Deacons to a third-place finish in the 1962 NCAA tournament and was named ACC Men's Basketball Player of the Year in 1961 and 1962. In 1962, he became Wake Forest's first consensus All-American He was the ACC tournament's all-time leading scorer until Duke University's J. J. Redick surpassed him in 2006. Chappell was named to the ACC 50th Anniversary men's basketball team in 2002, honoring him as one of the 50 greatest players in Atlantic Coast Conference history.

Professional career.

After college, the Syracuse Nationals selected him with the fourth pick in the 1962 NBA draft. He played one season with the Nationals. The following year the team moved to Philadelphia and was renamed the 76ers. After one game in Philadelphia, the New York Knicks purchased his contract. After moving to New York, he had his best season with 17 points and nine rebounds per game, earning his only All-Star selection.  He left New York in 1966 and played for the Chicago Bulls, Cincinnati Royals, Detroit Pistons, Milwaukee Bucks, Cleveland Cavaliers, and Atlanta Hawks. He also played one season (1971–1972) with the Dallas Chaparrals of the American Basketball Association.  Chappell suffered a brain hemorrhage after a fall in April 2018 and later suffered a stroke and pneumonia. He died July 12, 2018 in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin.

Leonard R. Chappell (January 31, 1941 – July 12, 2018) was an American basketball player. He played for 10 years in the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the American Basketball Association (ABA) and was selected to one NBA All-Star Game.


Family.

Svyatopolk-Mirsky was born in Vladikavkaz into the prominent Svyatopolk-Mirsky family. He was the only son of the general Dmitry Ivanovich Svyatopolk-Mirsky and Georgian Princess Sofia Orbeliani. Pyotr was educated at Page Corps, graduating in 1874 with first-class honours, and was appointed Page of the Chamber. In 1875, he became a cornet at "Her Empress Leib-Guards Hussars". He was the father to literary historian D. S. Mirsky.

Military career.

Svyatopolk-Mirsky took part in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78 and was decorated for valour in the Battle of Kars. Then he studied at the General Staff Academy and graduated in 1881.  In 1884, he was made the acting commander of the staff of 31st Infantry division, and in 1887, he was appointed to commander of staff of 3d Grenadier division.

Political career.

In 1895, he was appointed the governor of Penza, and in 1897 the governor of Yekaterinoslav.  In 1900, Dmitry Sipyagin appointed Svyatopolk-Mirsky assistant Minister of the Interior and commander of the Imperial Corps of Gendarmes. After Sipyagin's assassination in 1902, Svyatopolk-Mirsky resigned as assistant minister but was persuaded to accept the position of Governor-General of Vilna (modern-day Lithuania and Belarus). As the Governor-General, Svyatopolk-Mirsky was credited with successful liberal reforms, defusing national tensions in the province by allowing more rights to the national minorities, stopping pogroms against the Jews.  In August 1904, he succeeded to the position of Minister of the Interior after Plehve's assassination. His appointment was seen as a victory of Liberals over the Conservatives and in the Court term as a victory of the party of widow Empress Maria Fyodorovna (who supported the liberal reforms and was a patroness of Pyotr's sister Olga) over the party of Empress consort Alexandra Fyodorovna.  Conservative Ministers Witte and Sipiagin credited Svyatopolk-Mirsky with being an honourable, intelligent man of the highest moral principles, which is notable due to his attempts at liberal reform in Imperial Russia while minister. These reforms began with permitting members of the local Zemstvos to gather to discuss broader policy issues and coordination of Zemstvo programs, something that had not been permitted in Russia regularly. The remaining reforms were embodied in a decree that called for the inclusion of elected members to the State Council, removal of the restrictions on the Old Believers, measures to strengthen legality, extend freedom of the press and religion, broaden the authority of local self-government, eliminate unnecessary restrictions on non-Russians, and do away with exceptional laws in general. Svyatopolk-Mirsky not only allowed the congress, but also participated in its work and personally delivered its decision to Tsar Nicholas II along with his own plan for constitutional reforms.  Svyatopolk-Mirsky's plan included transferring more power to the State Council of Imperial Russia. The plan was much less radical than the reforms implemented by the October Manifesto 1905, but in December 1904 it was considered ultra-radical and was dismissed.  The massacre of a peaceful demonstration in Saint Petersburg, known as Bloody Sunday, occurred on. According to Svyatopolk-Mirsky, he never had authorised the shooting of the demonstrators, but still fulfilled his final duty to the tsar, becoming the scapegoat for the massacre. According to Svyatopolk-Mirsky's opponents, he not only did authorise the shooting, but also actively encouraged the demonstration in order to push his own political agenda.  Svyatopolk-Mirsky was replaced as minister of the Interior by Alexander Bulygin in February 1905 and retired from government service. As a retired Minister of Interior, he was expected to be appointed a member of the State Council of Imperial Russia, but it was not the case. He retired from the political life until his death on 16 May 1914.

Prince Pyotr Dmitrievich Svyatopolk-Mirsky (, tr. ;, in Vladikavkaz –, in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire) was a Russian general, politician, and police official.


Gameplay.

The game features a wide variety of naval vessels, from tiny sampans to powerful speedboats and torpedo boats, on up to destroyers and a massive battleship. Over a dozen of these are playable and most have multiple weapon configurations. The weapon types include the standard chain guns, cannon, torpedoes, rockets and mines, plus some unique weapons that are unlocked as you progress through the game. Each boat has machine guns or chain guns as its base, primary armament. Most have one or more heavy weapons as their secondary armament.  The single player story-mode consists of 28 missions featuring a wide variety of attack, defense, escort and raid mission types. These missions take the player to many exotic locales and though the player never leaves the water, the game engine allows the designers to vary the sea and sky conditions to create very different gameplay environments. There is also a multiplayer mode that supports a variety of game types for up to four players. The multiplayer options are somewhat limited at first, but progress through the story mode unlocks many new options. The game also features numerous Easter Eggs such as special boats and hidden game modes, including the development team's favorite, "Blood Ball", which is essentially multiplayer soccer-on-water using a 10-meter diameter soccer ball and heavily armed gunboats.  There are many different vehicles at the player's disposal in "Blood Wake". In the Story Mode the player is assigned a particular boat for each mission. The first is the Speedboat, and each of the mission of the first act features a different variant. As the story progresses, the player is introduced to ever more powerful boats, including a few captured enemy vessels. All of these plus several more are playable in the multiplayer Battle Mode. The following are the main types used by the player during the Story Mode missions:

Plot.

The player controls Lieutenant Shao Kai, a former naval officer of the Northern League fleet who was betrayed and left for dead by his brother, Admiral Shao Lung. Kai is rescued by a band of sea raiders known as the Shadow Clan, and joins them after proving himself worthy to their leader, Ped Zeng. He will bide his time with them awaiting his chance for revenge against his brother. Here he meets a formidable young woman who advises Ped and becomes the love interest. The Shadow Clan spends most of its time preying on the third faction in the game, the Jade Kingdom, who are primarily a mercantile power led by Lord Sri Brana. All are now in the path of Admiral Shao Lung's ambitions to create the Iron Empire. Lung has developed a monstrous warship named the Dragon and a powerful magic amulet to defeat anyone and anything in his way.

Development.

Initial development began following the creation of the basic game engine by lead programmer Ralf Knoesel during his holiday break following the completion of Stormfront's previous release, a Hot Wheels racing game. Together with lead artists Tim Dean and Matt Small, they conceived a concept that was essentially "Twisted Metal on water." The team received permission to develop a prototype and Stormfront started looking for a publisher. Enter Microsoft who was looking for a suitable development partner for an original IP they had developed that was likened to ""Crimson Skies" on water." While Stormfront's engine had been designed to support arena combat, they were confident it could be adapted to support the story-driven mission-based structure needed by Microsoft. Music was composed by Robb Mills.  The development team grew under the direction of David Bunnett who hired a contract writer named David Ackerman-Gray to develop the story, and David Wessman to be the lead designer. Wessman had formerly been the gameplay and story lead for the highly acclaimed "X-Wing" series, and was eagerly welcomed to the team for his expertise in vehicular combat games. In addition, he brought a passion for research into the topic of small boat warfare and drew inspiration for the story and missions from histories of the American Civil War, the Opium Wars, World War II and the Vietnam War. As the game took shape, the team was able to consistently deliver on its milestones up to a week early, thus earning considerable respect from Microsoft. When the game entered QA at Microsoft it was observed that testers who were not assigned to work on it nevertheless would spend their free time playing it. This was noted as an extremely good sign, and Microsoft began to think they might have a sleeper hit on their hands. Stormfront was granted a small extension to their schedule for additional polish.

Reception.

The game received average reviews from critics according to Metacritic. In March 2017 "GamesRadar+" staff named "Blood Wake" one of the original Xbox franchise they would like to see revived.  The game was not literally an Xbox launch title, since its debut was part of a second wave of game releases thirty days after the first launch. It was highly anticipated following the excited press reaction at the 2000 E3. Microsoft backed "Blood Wake" with a television advertising campaign on release, and it reached sixth on the NPD sales charts in November 2002 with over 340,000 units sold, and later that year was the #1 game on the NPD Xbox game rental rankings. With strong sales the game became one of the first in Microsoft's Platinum Series Hits and was re-released with new box cover art and a lower price.

Blood Wake is a naval combat video game that was released in 2001 on the Xbox as part of Microsoft's initial wave of Xbox launch titles. The game was developed by Stormfront Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios. Set in an Asian-themed fictional world, "Blood Wake" is a story-driven, mission-based high seas action game in which the player controls a series of small fighting vessels.