Playing career.

Middlesbrough.

After playing his first match for the club in 1982, Mowbray became captain of Middlesbrough in 1986 when he was just 22 years old. Affectionately known to Boro fans as "Mogga", Mowbray became a legend in Middlesbrough for being a local lad who led the club from liquidation back into the top league of English football within two seasons.  In 2007, Mowbray was placed at number 7 in a chronological list of Middlesbrough legends compiled by local newspaper the "Evening Gazette". The Middlesbrough club fanzine "Fly me to the Moon" is named after a quote about Mowbray from ex-Middlesbrough manager Bruce Rioch – "If I had to fly to the moon I'd take Tony Mowbray, my captain, with me. He's a magnificent man". In 1991 after 348 appearances for "Boro", Mowbray moved to Scottish club Celtic for £1 million.

Celtic.

During his playing career with Celtic, Mowbray's wife Bernadette, a native of Renfrewshire, died of breast cancer. The episode is recalled in Mowbray's book, "Kissed by an Angel." It is often asserted that the "huddle" which Celtic players still perform before each match was arranged as a tribute to Bernadette. However, it was merely suggested by Mowbray on a pre-season tour of Germany to bring the squad together at a time of uncertainty.

Ipswich Town.

He later moved on to Ipswich Town, where he played for five years, becoming the team captain. He scored an equalising goal in the 2000 Division One playoff final victory against Barnsley. Ipswich won the match 4–2 and secured promotion to the FA Premier League. This match was both Mowbray's Wembley debut and the last of his playing career.

Coaching career.

Once his playing career finished he moved into coaching, starting as a first team coach at Ipswich Town. He had a brief spell as caretaker manager of Ipswich, following the sacking of George Burley and prior to the appointment of Joe Royle.

Hibernian.

In May 2004, Mowbray was appointed manager of Hibernian, replacing Bobby Williamson. He gained much acclaim for the job he did, winning the Scottish Football Writers' Association manager of the year award in his first season. Hibs finished in the top four in the SPL in his only two full seasons in charge, which was the first time that Hibs had done this in the top division in consecutive seasons since Eddie Turnbull was manager.  Hibs progressed to the later stages of every domestic cup competition in his tenure and made two appearances in European football. Hibs lost heavily to Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk in the first round of the 2005–06 UEFA Cup and on the away goals rule to OB Odense in the 2006 Intertoto Cup. During mid-2006, Mowbray was interviewed for the vacant managerial position at Ipswich Town, but he rejected their approach. In September 2006 he signed a 12-month rolling deal with Hibs that was due to take effect from July 2007. Just one month later however, Mowbray moved to West Bromwich Albion.

West Bromwich Albion.

West Bromwich Albion appointed Mowbray as their manager on 13 October 2006. Mowbray faced the task of returning the "Baggies" to the Premier League after relegation the previous season. Although he managed to turn around the club's poor away form, an indifferent run of results at home towards the end of the season meant that Albion finished fourth in The Championship table behind Sunderland, Birmingham City and Derby County, and faced the lottery of the Championship Play-Offs. Despite two famous victories over old rivals Wolverhampton Wanderers in the semi finals, Albion lost 1–0 to Derby County in the Wembley final.  As a result, during the close season, Mowbray set about restructuring his squad, moving out several of Robson's players for multimillion-pound fees, after press reports of dressing room division.  High-profile players such as Jason Koumas, Diomansy Kamara and Curtis Davies were sold to Premier League clubs for large fees, in addition to the departures of Paul McShane, Nathan Ellington, Darren Carter and Steve Watson. Mowbray replaced them by signing a total of 14 permanent and loan players in the summer transfer window, making an overall profit in the process. His most expensive signings were Chris Brunt from Sheffield Wednesday for £3 million, Leon Barnett from Luton Town for £2.5 million, and James Morrison from Middlesbrough for £1.5 million.  Despite the large changes in his squad, Mowbray won the Championship Manager of the Month award in September 2007, after Albion gained 13 out of the maximum 15 points and climbed to 2nd in the Division.  At the start of 2008, Mowbray's young Albion team topped the table, receiving growing plaudits from the media and supporters alike for their attractive brand of attacking one touch passing football, a reflection of Mowbray's staunch footballing philosophy.  Mowbray guided West Brom to the Football League Championship title, meaning promotion to the Premier League and reached the semi-final of the FA Cup. The semi-final, the first to be played at the new Wembley Stadium, pitted West Brom against Portsmouth, the only remaining Premier League team left in the FA Cup. Portsmouth won the match 1–0 with the only goal of the game coming from Kanu. Mowbray won the Championship manager of the month award for April, as well as the League Managers Association manager of the year award.  After a poor 2008–09 season, West Bromwich were relegated from the Premier League, finishing 20th. Mowbray was still thought highly of by the fans, however, and this was evidenced by them wearing Mowbray masks at their last game of the season. Mowbray left the club for Celtic shortly afterwards.

Celtic.

On 8 June 2009, it was reported that Celtic had approached West Bromwich Albion for permission to speak to Mowbray about their managerial vacancy. A compensation fee of £2 million was agreed, and Celtic declared Mowbray as their new manager on 16 June 2009. He was unveiled as Celtic manager at a press conference a day later. His coaching team was Neil Lennon, Peter Grant, Mark Venus, and Stevie Woods. On 12 September 2009 was named as the Coach of the Month of August in the Scottish Premier League.  Mowbray was described as "beleaguered" by "The Herald" after Celtic fell 10 points behind Old Firm rivals Rangers in the SPL title race after a 2–1 home defeat by Hibs.  Mowbray decided to make significant changes to his squad during the January 2010 transfer window, selling Gary Caldwell and Barry Robson, which apparently caused disruption to the team in the immediate aftermath of those deals being completed. Robbie Keane was recruited early in 2010 on a loan deal from Tottenham Hotspur amid great excitement, however further poor results, particularly a record 4–0 defeat by St Mirren, led to Mowbray being sacked on 25 March. It was reported in May 2010 that Celtic had yet to agree compensation with Mowbray and his management team.

Middlesbrough.

Mowbray was appointed Middlesbrough manager on 26 October 2010, replacing Gordon Strachan. He lost his first match in charge, 2–1 against Bristol City, but followed this with wins against Crystal Palace and Scunthorpe. Mowbray guided Boro to Championship safety, having joined the club when they were 22nd in the league. The club finished the season well, winning their last four league games and finished 12th in the league table. The same season, Mowbray started giving youngsters a first team place such as Joe Bennett, Luke Williams and Richard Smallwood. Mowbray also started giving Marvin Emnes more playing time after returning on loan from Swansea City.  Middlesbrough began the 2011–12 season well and Mowbray won manager of the month for September. Middlesbrough relinquished the only unbeaten record in the league after a 2–0 defeat to Nottingham Forest in October 2011. After a poor start to 2012, Middlesbrough's form picked up in late February with four wins in five games. Middlesbrough finished 7th in the 2011–12 season, missing out on a play-off place by one position.  After an unbeaten run in October 2012, Mowbray won the accolade of Championship Manager of the Month for that month. On 21 October 2013, it was announced that Mowbray had left the club with immediate effect after a run of two wins in 12 games in the 2013–14 campaign.

Coventry City.

On 3 March 2015, Mowbray was appointed manager of Coventry City on a deal until the end of the 2014–15 season. With the club facing the possibility of relegation to the fourth-tier for the first time since the late 1950s, Tony Mowbray's initial brief was to keep the club in the third-tier. A final day victory away at Crawley Town was enough for Mowbray to secure League One football for the Sky Blues for the 2015–16 season.  Following protracted negotiations at the end of the season, Tony Mowbray agreed to sign a two-year contract extension to remain as Coventry City manager.  Mowbray resigned from Coventry City on 29 September 2016 after a string of results without a win.

Blackburn Rovers.

On 22 February 2017, Mowbray was appointed head coach of Blackburn Rovers on an 18-month contract, effectively lasting until the end of the 2017–18 season. Despite an improvement in form that offered some hope of survival, Blackburn were relegated to League One at the end of the 2016–17 season.  Mowbray signed a new contract that would keep him at the club until 2019, with an option of a further 12 months after that as well. Under his managership, Blackburn won promotion back to the Championship after a single year in League One. Their promotion was assured on 24 April, after a 1–0 away win against Doncaster Rovers.

Personal life.

Mowbray has three sons with his wife, Amber Mowbray. His first wife, Bernadette Doyle Mowbray, died of breast cancer on New Year's Day 1995, aged 26.

Career statistics.

Source:

Honours.

Playing career.

Middlesbrough  Ipswich Town  Individual

Managerial career.

West Bromwich Albion  Blackburn Rovers  Individual Awards

Anthony Mark Mowbray (born 22 November 1963) is an English former professional footballer who is the head coach of club Blackburn Rovers. Mowbray played for Middlesbrough, Celtic and Ipswich Town as a defender.


Legend of Erau.

The legend began in the Kutai Kartanegara Ing Martadipura Kingdom in the 13th century, when it was situated in "Tepian Baru" or "Kutai Lama". It is a legend of the greatness of the Kingdom's first Sultan, who was said to be a descent from BROT.  The story goes that in a village called "Jaitan Layar", in the East Kalimantan mountainous slope, a kingdom official and his wife has been married for a few years, but had not yet been blessed with a child. They would pray to their God, hoping that a child will soon be born.  One night, as the couple were sleeping, they were interrupted by a deafening noise from the outside. A bright light shone on the night as if it was daylight. The wife told his husband to check what the whole commotion is all about. When outside, the husband found a box made of golden stone. He opened the lid and inside he found a baby covered with a golden blanket. On the baby's right hand was an egg and on his left was a golden kris.  Suddenly seven Gods appeared before him. One of the Gods would say,  The husband told the Gods that he will obey all of their commands and thanked them for answering his prayers. Once the Gods disappeared, he took the baby inside to his wife. The baby cried of hunger, confused as to what to do, the husband burnt incense, scatter yellow rice on the floor, and prayed to the Gods. Soon after, the God told the wife, "Wipe your breast with your hand repeatedly until milk is flowing". The wife did as she was told and aromatic milk flowed, which the baby lapped up ravenously.  For the next 40 days and nights, obeying the Gods' commands, the baby laid on the villagers' laps. He was bathed with flower water. And on the third day, his umbilical cord broke off and the villagers celebrated the occasion by shooting fire to the sky for seven times. The baby was named "Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti".  As the boy grew up to be 5 years old, he was restless and impatient, he wants to be able to play outside, swim in the river, walk around the village like other children. The husband then remembered the God's command and so he arranged with the villagers of Jaitan Layar to conduct the Erau ceremony. This was to be the first Erau ceremony. It was conducted lavishly for the next 40 days and nights. The Jaitan Layar community and its surrounding attended the ceremony.  Before the ceremony, buffalos were slaughtered and the corpses were prepared. During the "Tijak Tanah" ceremonial rite, Aji's feet would be placed on the heads of buffalos, living and dead; and on human, living and dead. Then, covered with yellow cloth, Aji was accompanied to the nearby river where he bathed, performing the "Mandi ke Tepian" ceremonial rite. His feet would step on iron and on stone. The villagers, male and female, would then join him in the river. Afterwards, Aji was returned to his house while wearing lavish clothing. Accompanied by the song of "Gajah Perwata" orchestra and the sound of "Sapu Jagat" cannon, he was brought to the village yard where he laid on brightly coloured rugs. He was fed with betel leaves.  The party would then started in earnest. Food and drinks were free flowing, various performances and animal competition were held, men and women were dancing. The party continued for 7 days and nights. After the party, the decorations, utensils and musical instruments were then donated to the poor villagers.  Aji grew up and became the first Sultan of Kutai Kartanegara (1300–1325). During his inauguration, Erau ceremony was also conducted.  The Sultan married a beautiful princess named "Putri Karang Melenu", who was also thought to be the descendant of God. The story goes that she was initially a small worm found by a "Hulu Dusun" officer in "Melanti" village near Mahakam River while he was chopping wood.  The officer saw a worm that kept circling the block of wood and gazing at him tearfully. The officer took it home with him, where it grew up day by day, bigger and bigger until it became a dragon. But the dragon never left the house. One night, the officer dreamt that he met a girl who was to become his daughter. She said, "Father, don’t be afraid, let me leave this house and the village, build me a stairwell so I can slither down". At once, he woke up and told his wife, Babu Jaruma.  The officer would then spend the days that followed building a stair made of "lampong" wood, with the steps made of bamboo and tied with "lembiding" roots. When he finished, he heard the girl's voice again, "As I step down to earth, come and follow me. Burn some sesame and sprinkle some yellow rice around me. When I slither down to the river and swim, follow my spume".  The dragon slithered down the stairs, to the river and swam seven times up and down the stream, came up the opposite river bank and slithered left and right three times when torrential rain came down, accompanied by strong winds and thunder.  The officer and his wife crossed the river with great difficulty. But then the weather cleared up and they saw that the river was filled with foam and rainbow-like lights were gleaming. The couple went closer to take a better look and saw a gong with a baby inside. The couple took the baby with them and brought her up as if she was their own. After three days, the baby's umbilical cord broke, she was then named Putri Karang Melenu.  When she grew up to become a beautiful young lady, the Gods united her with Aji, who was at the time already a Sultan. The couple had a son, which they named "Aji Batara Agung Paduka Nira".  The legend of "Putri Karang Melenu" is perhaps the story behind the "Mengulur Naga" procession of the Erau ceremony.

History.

Every coronation of the Kutai Kartanegara Sultans, since the time that the first Sultan was inaugurated, had been commemorated with an Erau ceremony. Erau ceremonies then developed from being solely for the Sultan's coronation to a celebration commemorating the vesting of title to individuals for their outstanding service to the kingdom. The duration of the ceremony would depend upon the Kutai Palace's wealth, it ranged from 7 days to a maximum of 40 days continuously.  The Erau ceremonies were traditionally organised by the Kutai palace courtiers, who would invite the kingdom's community leaders. Arriving from all corners of the kingdom, the leaders would bring supplies of food, livestock, fruits, and also artists for entertainment. The Sultan and his courtiers would then provide free meals to the kingdom's citizens as a gesture of the Sultan's gratitude to the dedication of his people.  The last known traditional Erau ceremony was in 1965, for the commemoration of the "Sultan Aji Pangeran Adipati Praboe Anoem Soerya Adiningrat" coronation. The traditional Erau ceremony ended along with the end of the Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate reign, when its territory was converted into the autonomous region of Kutai Kartanegara (abbrev. Kukar) Regency.

Modern Erau.

In the effort of preserving the cultural traditions of Kutai, the "bupati" (taken from a Sanskrit word, which contemporarily means the holder of executive power of the local government) of Kukar Regency government, Drs. H. Achmad Dahlan, mandated that Erau be a biennial festival commemorating the foundation of the capital Tenggarong on 29 September 1782. This biennial festival was first held in 1971.  From the advice of Kukar's last Sultan, Sultan Aji Muhammad Parikesit, the district government is only allowed to exercise some traditional ceremonies, and not others such as the "tijak kepala" (literally "step on head") and the vesting of titles.  Activities that are allowed are art and sport or agility performances, such as "Menjamu Benua, Merangin Malam, Mendirikan Tiang Ayu, Upacara Penabalan, Pelas, Seluak Mudik, Mengulur Naga and Belibur". Traditional tribal ceremonies allowed was from the Dayak tribe, such as "Papaer Maper, Kuangkay, Mumutn, Ngayau, Lemakan Balei, Uman Undad, Pasek Truit, Erau Anak". There are also the occasional Malay arts such as "Tarsul" and "Badendang".  Erau festival, held every September, has now been included in the Indonesian national tourism calendar of events. It is no longer associated with cultural tradition of the Kukar Sultanate palace, but rather to showcase the arts and culture that exist and thrive across the regency.

Erau is an Indonesian biennial cultural festival, taking place in the city of Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan. The word "Erau" is derived from the Kutai word "eroh", meaning crowded, noisy, joyful.


Background.

Steele was the son of a coal miner, an only child. At a young age, he knew that he wanted to be a preacher, and he started preaching when he was 15 years old. Steele graduated from Morehouse College in 1938. He then began preaching in Toccoa and Augusta, Georgia, then in Montgomery, Alabama, at the Hall Street Baptist Church (1938–1952). In 1952 Steele moved to Tallahassee, where he started preaching at the Bethel Missionary Baptist Church. Steele met Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. when he was on his way to Tallahassee.

Tallahassee bus boycott.

The Tallahassee bus boycott began in May, 1956, during the Montgomery bus boycott. Like other bus boycotts during the Civil Rights Movement in America, it started because black people were forced to ride in the back of the bus, and when two students refused to give up their seat to a white woman, they were arrested. An organization was formed to protest and boycott against the city bus system. The organization was called Inter-civic Council and Steele was elected president. Steele and other protesters boycotted the system by starting car pools and the bus system had stopped for the first time in 17 years on July 1. Steele was arrested many times during this period.  The people in Tallahassee thought that the protesters' demands were outrageous. Steele and the other protesters met a lot of rich and influential opposition. The Ku Klux Klan burned a cross in front of Steele's church, marched in front of his house, and threw bottles through his windows. The city commissioners were firmly opposed to integration of the buses. The bus system was integrated two years later.  He was also the lead plaintiff in the school desegregation suit, which led to the desegregation of public schools in Leon County.  Steele was also a part of many other protests, marches, and boycotts, where he helped to accomplish integration in many public places. Steele helped Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. He was made the First Vice President under Dr. King at the time of the formation of SCLC.  Steele participated in the Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965.  Steele died from bone marrow cancer in 1980 at the age of 66 in Tallahassee.

Legacy.

When the city created a new bus terminal in 1983, it was named after Steele and a statue of him (by sculptor David Lowe) was placed on the NE corner of the terminal.  Florida State University conferred on Steele the honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree in 1980—the first to an African American, and the first to be bestowed in fifty-six years from that school.  The Bethel Baptist Church in Tallahassee, where Steele was a pastor for twenty-eight years, has established a charter school which is named in his and former Governor Leroy Collins' honor: the Steele-Collins Charter School.  In 2012 Steele was inducted into the Florida Civil Rights Hall of Fame.  On March 23, 2018, Florida Governor Rick Scott signed CS/SB 382 into law, designating portions of Florida State Road 371 and Florida State Road 373 along Orange Avenue in Tallahassee as C.K. Steele Memorial Highway.

Charles Kenzie Steele (born in McDowell County, West Virginia; died in Tallahassee, Florida) was a preacher and a civil rights activist. He was one of the main organizers of the 1956 Tallahassee bus boycott, and a prominent member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. On March 23, 2018, Florida Governor Rick Scott signed CS/SB 382 into law, designating portions of Florida State Road 371 and Florida State Road 373 along Orange Avenue in Tallahassee as C.K. Steele Memorial Highway.


Early life.

Dinsmore played on high school teams for Oakwood Collegiate Institute. In 1919, he was the quarterback of their senior rugby team, which won the High School Rugby League Championship. In 1920 he was on Northview in the junior ORFU league that won the Junior title over Sarnia. He got involved in Canadian football as well as hockey, and also paddled for the Toronto Canoe Club. In 1924, he paddled in the Bala Regatta in Muskoka. Football  Dinsmore was a halfback for the 1922 Toronto Argonauts teams with Lionel Conacher, Canada's Athlete of the Half-century. Dinsmore, "is a thick set youngster, powerful and tireless... and he is as tough as a pineknot." The smallest man on either team, "Little Hercules" slid through the line and he picked up more loose balls than two men on either team. The team went to New York for an exhibition game, struggled with the American rules, losing 55 to 7; Dinsmore had a 32-yard run. "Dinsmore's loss was one of the most severe a team can suffer. He was one of the greatest secondary defence men ever produced in Canadian football, and his absence weakened the Argo wing line."  Hockey  In December 1919, 16 years old, he joined the Toronto Aura Lee Juniors, playing left wing and centre. Their club was on Avenue Road near Davenport. "Dinsmore is only a little fellow, but he is fast and a tricky stick handler." In 1922, Aura Lee defeated St. Mary's to be the OHA Champions. Headline in the newspapers was that Dinsmore was a "Backchecking Star." Dinsmore "roamed the whole front line breaking up rush after rush – a Trojan for work, a skating demon." And Dinsmore even scored two goals, once off the faceoff. When Kitchener was defeating Aura Lee, Dinsmore and Gerald Schnarr got into a mix-up. "Dinsmore came out with a bleeding face from a cut, and he went after Schnarr with his stick. And there was nearly a free-for-all. The police had to pull the combatants apart. Schnarr was lucky not to be badly hurt. Both were chased from the game." He was awarded a Life Membership to the Aura Lee Club.

Professional career.

It was Dunc Munro, Captain of the Montreal and Olympic Gold Medal team (Ice hockey at the 1924 Winter Olympics), who used to play with him on the Argos, that got him to sign with the new team Montreal Maroons. He got a no-cut three-year contract. The two also helped training the Montreal football team. Dinsmore checked the whole St. Patrick's team to a standstill. His stick-handling was immense. They couldn't take that puck away from him at all. He saved the game for the Maroons when numerous penalties threatened to bring about their downfall. In the playoff semifinal with the Pittsburgh Pirates (NHL), coach Eddie Gerard said the star of the game was Dinny Dinsmore, In the NHL championship game in Ottawa, Montreal in the third up 1-0 over the Ottawa Senators (original), finally Coach Gerard sent out "Kid Disturbance," sometimes known as Dinny Dinsmore, to break up the avalanche. He did, He grabbed the puck and heaved it down the ice and then chased down into the thinly populated backfield after it. That brought the Ottawans back... He certainly is the prize pest of the N.H.L. Each player will get around $1,500 in extra money for winning the playoffs, defeating the Victoria Cougars for the Stanley Cup. 1925–26 NHL season When he returned in 1929 he was coached by Dunc Munro and played in the 4 playoff games against Boston Bruins, including a 4-hour game with 45 minutes of overtime that was longest in Montreal's history until then.  In 1932, he returned to the ice as a reserve referee, but was suspended for inefficient refereeing in 1934. In 1942 he played in an oldtimers benefit game for Victory Loans, Montreal Canadiens versus Maroons. He was a coach at Loyola College (Montreal) (now part of Concordia University), winning the Dominion Intermediate Intercollegiate Championships and one of the first ten named to their Hall of Fame in 1967.  Between hockey seasons, he became a manufacturers' agent and travelled to England to get novelty lines. Later developed a welding business. He sold Dinsmore Co. in 1962 for $945,000 and in retirement played golf. He had season tickets for the Montreal Alouettes CFL team, but didn't watch hockey. In 1963 he told a reporter, "I'm strictly a one-sports rooter these days. I love football. The game has developed in so many directions and never ceases to intrigue me... I'm sorry to say that NHL games don't catch my fancy any more. I'm one of those old fogies that was weaned on stickhandling, precision passing, and good old bodychecking. I dislike the board checking, the hooking and holding. It's just not for me, that's all."

Charles Adrian Dinsmore (July 23, 1903 – December 5, 1982) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player who played 100 games in the National Hockey League. Known variously as Chas, Chuck, or "Dinny" Dinsmore, he was born in Toronto, Ontario, where he played for the amateur Toronto Aura Lee Juniors hockey team and the Toronto Argonauts football team, before eventually playing pro hockey for the Montreal Maroons. The 1924–25 NHL season was the first for both the Maroons and the Boston Bruins, and on December 1, 1924 Charles earned the first goal ever scored against the Bruins (the Bruins won the game 2-1). He won the Stanley Cup in 1926. He left the game in 1928 to take a job as a bond trader. But in the middle of the 1929-30 NHL season, he asked the Maroons about getting his old job back because he said the stock market did not offer the same thrills as playing in the NHL. Montreal team officials told him that they had no more money in the budget to sign another player, but Dinsmore was insistent and struck a deal by signing a contract to play for the Maroons which would pay him one dollar for the remaining nine games.


Playing career.

Making his debut in 1974 at the age of 20, Parrish became a solid hitter as a third baseman in the 1970s and 1980s, hitting 20 or more home runs in a season 5 times during his Major League career. He was a two-time All-Star, and in 1979, he was named the Montreal Expos Player of the Year after batting.307 with 30 homers and 82 runs batted in. Parrish is the only Montreal Expos player to ever hit three home runs in one game on three separate occasions (May 29, 1977, July 30, 1978, and April 25, 1980). In the May 1977 game against the Cardinals, he went 5–for–5, batting in 5 runs in a 14–4 victory. In the April 1980 game, he drove in all 7 runs for Montreal in an 8–7 loss to Atlanta. In 1982, during his first season with the Texas Rangers, Parrish tied a major league record held by Jim Northrup when he hit three grand slams in the span of one week.  Parrish ranks seventh on the Texas Rangers all-time home run list with 149 and eighth in RBIs at 522. He closed out his American Major League career by joining the Boston Red Sox during the stretch run of the 1988 season; while he was with the Red Sox, the team won the American League Eastern Division championship.  After his Major League Baseball career ended, Parrish played for two different Japanese major league teams. Parrish had a career.263 batting average in Major League Baseball with 256 home runs and 992 runs batted in. In 13 career playoff games, he batted.182 with no home runs and three RBIs.

Coaching career.

After retiring from the majors and spending time playing for the Yakult Swallows and Hanshin Tigers of the Japanese Central League, Parrish became a full-time coach within the Detroit Tigers organization. In 1992, Parrish was named the manager for the Single-A Niagara Falls of the New York–Penn League and won the league championship in 1993. In 1995, he was named the roving hitting instructor for the Tigers minor league system. In 1996, he returned to the dugout as the manager of the Double-A Jacksonville Suns, where he won another League Championship the same year. Parrish then served as bench coach under manager Buddy Bell for the 1997 season and part of the 1998 season before Bell was fired. Parrish was promoted as the replacement and managed the Tigers from 1998–99, compiling an 82–104 record; however, he was replaced by Phil Garner for the 2000 season. Parrish managed the Tigers through their final season at Tiger Stadium. Parrish remained in the Tigers organization as a scout from 2000–2002, and in 2003, he returned to the dugout once again as the manager for the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League.  In 2005, Parrish managed the Mud Hens to an impressive 89–55 record and the Governors' Cup as champions of the International League. The Mud Hens defeated the Indianapolis Indians. Following the season, Parrish was named the 2005 Minor League Manager of the Year by "The Sporting News".  In 2006, Parrish led the Mud Hens to a 76–66 record and a repeat of the Governor's Cup, giving the Mud Hens their third title and making them back-to-back champions for the first time in team history. This time, the Mud Hens defeated the Rochester Red Wings. The team moved on to play in the first Triple-A Baseball National Championship Game, in Oklahoma City, where they would take on the Tucson Sidewinders of the Pacific Coast League. The Mud Hens fell to the Sidewinders by a score of 5–2.  On October 29, 2010, it was announced that Parrish would become the hitting coach for the Atlanta Braves, replacing Terry Pendleton, who was moved to first base coach. After the Braves offense went from first in the National League in On-base percentage in 2010 to fourteenth in 2011 with roughly the same lineup, Braves general manager Frank Wren announced on September 30, 2011 that Parrish would not return to his duties for the 2012 season.  Parrish was named manager of the West Michigan Whitecaps for the 2013 season.  Parrish was elected to the International League Hall of Fame as a manager in 2013.  On September 18, 2013, it was announced that Parrish would return to the Mud Hens for his third stint as manager. He replaced Phil Nevin, whose contract was not renewed. On August 2, 2015, Parrish announced his plan to retire at the end of the Mud Hens' season.

Larry Alton Parrish (born November 10, 1953) is a former Major League Baseball third baseman and manager. Parrish played with the Montreal Expos (1974–81), Texas Rangers (1982–88), and Boston Red Sox (1988). He also played two seasons in Japan for the Yakult Swallows (1989) and the Hanshin Tigers (1990). Later, he served as manager of the Detroit Tigers (1998–99).


Gameplay.

"Sega Bass Fishing" is an arcade fishing game where players attempt to hook and reel in fish with different lures. It uses a fishing rod controller. Consisting of four stages at different times of the day, the game requires the player to catch a certain weight of fish within a time limit in order to move onto the next stage. The final stage allows only for one fish to be captured, but are among the largest in the game and most difficult to catch. Fish are measured under four weight classes: Small One, Average, Big One, and Huge.

Ports.

The game was an early title on the Sega Dreamcast, and was compatible with the Sega Fishing Controller for more realistic play. The game struggled with critics due to its narrow nature. However, it did showcase the amazing graphical capabilities of the Sega Dreamcast with the fish moving fluidly to create a smooth fishing experience. It sold well and became one of the few Sega All Stars titles.  The Sega Dreamcast port included a practice mode and a tournament mode, where players could unlock more lures. In addition to the arcade game's four stages, four new stages were also included. Each stage could now be played with different fishing conditions, such as the season, weather and time of day. The PC version of the game released in 2001 was based on the Dreamcast version.  An enhanced port of the game was released for the Wii on February 26, 2008. The game utilizes the motion controls of the Wii Remote and optionally the Nunchuck to replicate the Sega Fishing Controller. The game's graphics have been enhanced and includes the modes, features, stages and unlockables found in the Dreamcast version. The Wii version also introduces seven more stages, bringing the number to fifteen. Arcade mode now consists of courses, with the final course unlocking the original four arcade stages. Nature Trip mode is also introduced, allowing players to practice without the background music playing.  The Sega Dreamcast port of the game was featured in the compilation game "Dreamcast Collection" released in early 2011 for the Xbox 360 and PC, and as a separate digital download with for Steam in March 2011, the PlayStation Store and Xbox Live Arcade on October 2011.

Reception.

Jeff Lundrigan reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for "Next Generation", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Whether you're a true angler or just looking for a neat party game, buy this (and pick up a fishing controller while you're at it)."  "Sega Bass Fishing" received mostly positive reviews upon original release. The Xbox 360 and Wii ports received mediocre reviews.

Sequels.

A sequel, "Sega Bass Fishing 2" was released in 2001. The following year, "Sega Bass Fishing Duel" was released for the PlayStation 2, bringing multiplayer to the series.  In April 2012, an on-rails FPS crossover titled "Sega Bass Fishing of the Dead" was reported to be in production for Nintendo's Wii U and Nintendo 3DS, but the trailer was revealed to be an April Fools' joke by Random Encounters Entertainment.

Sega Bass Fishing, also known as Get Bass, is an arcade fishing video game developed in 1997 by Sega for the Sega Model 3 hardware. The game has since been ported to the Dreamcast, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii.


Synopsis.

Ramosé, a young Theban, is on a mission to exonerate his father, who has been accused of pillaging the tomb of Seti I. In the vault at dawn, he unveils a stone showing a map of the tomb and a monkey, hinting to Hori, a former draughtsman. Ramosé then sets off to the village of Deir el-Medina where he finds Hori lying dead in his cellar, along with clues alluding to a carpenter bound for the embalmers' workshop, where he discovers a wider plot the next day. He skillfully manages to pass for one of the conspirators and is led to a tomb where a burial is being held. Ramosé descends to the funerary chamber. He is immured but manages to escape via a tunnel which leads him to the site of a tomb in construction of another noble, Panéhesy, where a mourner awaits him. She leads him to the villa of the noble, who has organized a large festivity. Passing for one of the guests, he finds a map of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III in Karnak. At the temple, Ramosé finds parts of the pillage and documents alleging Ptahnéfer, a close relative of the pharaoh. His father is exonerated.

Development.

Serious Games and Edutainment Applications suggests that the 1997 video game Versailles 1685, a pioneer in the "cultural entertainment" genre that merged entertainment with cultural education, paved the way for games such as "Egypt".

Reception.

"Egypt" was a commercial success. French newspaper "Les Échos" reported its sales at 250,000 units by November 1998, and noted that it was among 1997's 10 best-selling computer games. According to Cryo Interactive, it sold above 500,000 copies by November 2000. Marketing manager Mattieu Saint-Dennis explained in December that "Egypt"s sales totaled 550,000 units in Europe alone, of which France accounted for 200,000 units. By February 2004, "Egypt" and its sequel, "Egypt II", had achieved combined global sales above 700,000 units.

Legacy.

The game was followed by two sequels, "" and "Egypt III".

Egypt 1156 B.C. – Tomb of the Pharaoh () is a 1997 adventure video game co-published by Cryo Interactive Entertainment, Canal+ Multimedia and the Réunion des Musées Nationaux for the Microsoft Windows and PlayStation (PAL region only). It was later released in North America by DreamCatcher Interactive.


Early life.

Born in Joplin, Missouri, Allen lost his father to typhoid fever when he was three; his mother died during the flu epidemic about nine years later. Allen lived with relatives in Missouri until attending school in Minnesota. While there, he developed rheumatic fever, and on the advice of a doctor, moved to California to live with an aunt and uncle. His health improved, but the rheumatic fever weakened his heart.  After completing high school, Allen attended UCLA, and joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). He became comfortable around military people, and later recruited servicemen to help run the Gorre & Daphetid.  In 1934, Allen and his brother went to the World's Fair in Chicago, and saw scale model trains in operation, and he was impressed. He was attending UCLA studying economics, but switched to art school, which he attended for three years, specializing in photography. There he acquired the skills that set his layout and model photography apart.  In 1935, John's paternal grandparents died, leaving him about $1,900 ($ today), then the equivalent of a year's salary for a middle-class man. John invested the money with the help of his brother, and in about 11 years, the value was such that he did not have to work. His investments, combined with a frugal lifestyle, resulted in a sum of over $500,000 at the time of his death. After completing school, John and another student opened a photography business in the Westlake Park area of Los Angeles.

World War II.

Before World War II, Allen and his brother Andrew visited an uncle living near Oakland who had a model railroad. He became interested in working on it.  When the U.S. entered the war, Andrew joined the military and John offered his services as a photo analyst.  Allen came to Monterey, California, to visit his brother, and decided to stay. He opened a new photography shop on the main street with partner Weston Booth, and did a brisk business photographing servicemen.  In 1946, John sold his business, invested the money and retired.  He said that he got into model railroading just before the end of the war. Due to a limited supply of hobby materials, he began building things from scratch. He spent a lot of time studying and observing railroads in operation, and how prototype equipment was built. Allen built models, then meticulously arranged and photographed them.  In July 1946, he published the first of many photographs to appear in "Model Railroader" magazine.

Gorre & Daphetid.

Early version.

He moved into a house in 1946 and began construction of the first version of the Gorre & Daphetid (G&D) model railroad in HO scale. (The name is a play on words; pronounced "Gory and Defeated.") In 1953 he needed more space, and decided to move. He offered a railroad for sale, with free house. When no one was interested in buying the house with the railroad, he dismantled it. The original by G&D was saved and incorporated into the final version, while other parts were given to friends.

Final version.

John Allen moved to his final house, chosen for its unfinished basement. He dug out the basement, placed a concrete floor, and prepared it for construction of the final layout. He allocated about half the to the layout, with the remainder used for a workshop and storage.  Allen built a scale model of the house to aid in planning, in addition to models of the layout he planned to build. His planning was very thorough. Early plans included the use of real water in scale rivers and lakes. Construction began in January 1954. One feature of the layout was Devil's Gulch, a part of the basement not excavated, but shaped and then concrete was poured over it. Allen constructed the layout almost completely by himself. He devoted the next 20 years to this project.  During this period Allen revolutionized model railroading with realistic operations, lighting (including night lighting), and weathering of models. He used forced perspective to enhance the illusion of realism, and only allowed photography under his conditions.

Death and aftermath.

John Allen suffered a fatal heart attack on the evening of January 6, 1973. He had previously suffered at least one heart attack during the 1960s. Although he was not feeling well, he worked at completing the Gorre & Daphetid. In a telephone conversation with Linn Westcott, he suggested that he would drive the last spike in the spring of 1973, and that Linn should come for a visit then. In 1972, he was already suggesting that things might not be going well, and wondering "what to do with the railroad" in letters to a friend.  Ten days after Allen died, some of Allen's friends gathered for an operating session and discussion on the preservation of the railroad in accordance with Allen's wishes. When they left, someone set a furnace in the train room to 65 °F. Allen never used the furnace and had covered it with tar paper. This caused a fire, which was quickly reported and extinguished fast enough to save the house, but it destroyed the final, still-unfinished incarnation of Allen's railroad. The damage was mainly contained to the layout room, and the house was rehabilitated and sold. A few model railroad items attributed to Allen survive and have been authenticated.  According to Linn Westcott's book "Model Railroading with John Allen" ("The Book"), the fire was determined by an investigator have been started from a small gas furnace. John rarely used the furnace, because he liked to keep the house cool, or possibly because it was not vented correctly.  Linn Westcott was asked by Andrew Allen (John's brother) to investigate if the layout could be salvaged. The fire caused extensive damage. They tried to save the "French Gulch" section, but it collapsed as they moved it after two hours of work.

Legacy.

Allen's death was covered in the April 1973 issue of "Model Railroader" magazine. It contained an obituary and Allen was featured on the front cover. There was also a retrospective on John Allen in the January 2003 issue of "Model Railroader" in remembrance of him 30 years after his death.  Former "Model Railroader" editor Linn Westcott's final book, entitled "Model Railroading with John Allen", was published posthumously in 1981. Westcott died in 1980 while writing the book. It contained various quotes and photographs from Allen demonstrating his techniques.  There is a video about John Allen's railroad by "Sunday River Productions" called "The Gorre & Daphetid" with footage shot by Richard Reynolds with a small intro by Glenn Beier who also operated on the G&D. Glenn Beier says "it is the only motion picture ever made of the world's most famous model railroad". Until February 2007, only a VHS copy of the video was for sale. Now both VHS and DVD versions are available.  John Allen is also famous for devising the Timesaver model railway shunting puzzle.

John Whitby Allen (July 2, 1913 – January 6, 1973) was an American model railroader who created the HO scale Gorre & Daphetid model railroad in Monterey, California, and wrote numerous magazine articles on model railroading starting in the 1940s. Allen was renowned for his skill at scratch building and creating scenery. He also pioneered the technique of weathering his models for a more realistic appearance. In addition to his superdetailing of locomotives, rolling stock, structures, and scenery, Allen was known for populating his model world with scale figures in humorous scenes. Other techniques Allen promoted were realistic train operation and the use of forced perspective to create the illusion of a model railroad layout larger than it really was.


Publication process.

Kublai Khan endorsed a proposal by Liu Bingzhong and Wang E 王鹗 (1190-1273) for the compilation of historic records of the Song, Jin, and Liao dynasties but the compilation effort stalled for some time. In March 1343, the third year of Ukhaantu Khan, Emperor Huizong of Yuan's Zhizheng Era (至正年号), an Imperial edict ordered the creation of histories of the Song, Liao and Jin Dynasties. Under the overall supervision of Toktogan, Temür Daš (Chinese Tiemuertashi 铁木儿塔识/鐵木兒塔識), He Weiyi, (贺惟一/賀惟一), Zhang Qiyan (张起岩/張起巖), Ouyang Xuan (欧阳玄/ 歐陽玄) Li Haowen (李好文), Wang Yi (王沂) and Yang Zongduan (楊宗端) were given responsibility for the project with Woyuluntu (斡玉伦徒/斡玉倫徒), Taibuhua (泰不华/泰不華), Yu Wenzhuan (于文传/于文傳), Gong Shidao (贡师道/貢師道), Yu Que (余阙/餘闕), Jia Lu (贾鲁/賈魯) Wei Su (危素) and 23 others appointed as historiographers. Toktogan resigned in May 1344 to be replaced on the project by Prime Minister Alutu, even though the latter was not familiar with Chinese characters. The final book took only two and a half years to produce and was published in Zhejiang Province in 1346, the sixth year of the Zhizheng Era.

Content.

The "History of Song" with its 496 chapters is the largest of the 24 Dynastic Histories. It contains 47 chapters of Imperial biographies, 162 chapters covering Song dynasty records (志/誌 "Zhì"), 32 chapters of tables (showing genealogy etc.) and 255 chapters of historical biographies. A work of enormous breadth, the History of Song contains more than 2,000 individual historical biographies, more than twice as many as the Old Book of Tang that chronicles the history of the Early Tang dynasty. In the section of the book covering Song dynasty records there are fifteen separate categories "viz": astronomy, the system of five phases known as Wu Xing, the legal calendar (律历/律曆), geography, rivers and water ways, Confucian rites, music, ceremonial weaponry and bodyguards (仪卫/儀衛), military dress (舆服/輿服), elections, government positions, consumer goods, the army and punishment together with art and culture. Altogether these chapters make up one third of the work. The historical biographies section of the "History of Song" is unsurpassed by any of the other Dynastic Histories; there are detailed descriptions of Song government structures from the central down to the local level. Sections covering consumer goods and the army are also well written with much more detail than found in the other Dynastic Histories. The fourteen chapters on consumer goods contain seven times the amount of information as the corresponding chapters of the Book of Tang. A total of seven chapters contain biographies of traitors and rebels including Cai Jing, Huang Qianshan (黃潛善), Qin Hui, Zhang Bangchang (張邦昌) and Liu Yu (劉豫) whilst the four chapters on Confucian scholars feature individuals such as Zhou Dunyi, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Zhang Zai and Zhu Xi.  Chien includes a translation to English of the treatise on the salt monopoly contained in volumes 181–183. This treatise is the largest of the treatises in the Finance and Economics (食貨) section. Chien also includes maps in English corresponding to the main administrative regions described in volumes 85-90 comprising the Geography (地理) section.

Evaluation.

The ideology behind the "History of Song" is that of Neo-confucianism, with coverage of the Confucian doctrines of loyalty, righteousness and ethics regarding the well-known scholars Zhou Dunyi, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Zhang Zai and Zhu Xi amongst others. No less than 278 individuals feature in the section on loyalty and righteousness (忠義傳 "Zhōngyì Zhuàn"). Qing dynasty historian Qian Daxin (錢大昕) once said: "The "History of Song" esteems neo-confucianism, especially the school of Zhu Xi". Its compilation follows the principles of Confucian life. Fine logic and language is used to convey morality whilst eschewing utilitarianism. The book's style is also highly regarded and considered a model example. Wang Anshi's Xining Reforms (熙寧變法) are rejected by the "History of Song" whilst political reform campaigners including Lu Huiqing (呂惠卿), Zeng Bu (曾布) and Zhang Dun (章惇) feature in the section on traitors and rebels, Shi Miyuan (史彌遠) however, despite his involvement in the suicide of Emperor Ningzong of Song's eldest heir, does not feature in this section or indeed the entire "History of Song". Famous general Wang Jianzai (王堅在), regardless of his valiant combat record, is also omitted as are many other individuals involved in Mongol defeats by the Song.  Despite both the "History of Song" and the "History of Jin" being completed at the same time they are different in many ways. the "History of Song" records Yue Fei emerging victorious from every battle with the Jin dynasty, yet the "History of Jin" barely mentions Emperor Taizu of Jin's capture of Bozhou, Shunchangfu (顺昌府), Ruzhou and Songzhou (嵩州) when Yue Fei and other commanders withdrew from the battle. Information in the "History of Song" regarding Yue Fei all comes from a work by his descendant Yue Ke's (岳珂) "Eguo Jintuo Zuibian" (鄂國金佗<unk>编 "literally: Record of the Jin in Hubei"), the reliability of which is questioned by some sources, for example whether the Battle of Yancheng (郾城之戰) really was a great victory for the Song and if the claim regarding Yue Fei's twelve gold medals is true. Furthermore, there remains the issue of whether Yu Fei's troops left the people unharmed as is sometimes claimed. Qing dynasty poet and historian Zhao Yi (趙翼) covers this in his Twenty-two Historical Sketches (二十二史<unk>記) under a section regarding observations on the Song and Jin armies (宋金用兵需參觀二史).  Because the "History of Song" was prepared in a hurry and is the work of many editing it contains a number of unavoidable errors and contradictions; for example an individual with two biographical entries such as Li Xijing (李熙靖) who appears in chapter 116 of the historical biographies section then again in chapter 222. The work also covers the Northern and Early Southern Song Dynasties in detail with only an outline of the later Southern Song dynasty. There are more biographies of individuals from the Northern Song period, for example the "Wenyuan Zhuan" (文苑傳) covers a total of 96 people of which only 11 are from the Southern Song era. The "History of Song" is also considered the most disordered of the 24 Dynastic Histories. Zhao Yi comments: “When the Yuan dynasty wrote the history of the overthrown Song they probably just arranged preexisting Song texts.” The Qing dynasty "Siku Quanshu" (四庫全書總目) collection of books says that the “main purpose of the "History of Song" is as a tribute to the Song emperors and their Confucianism. Attention is not paid to other matters so there are a great number of errors”. In 1977, Zhonghua Publishing issued a new version of the "History of Song" with corrections to the punctuation.

Later influence.

Since the time of its publication, successive dynasties have produced commentaries on the "History of Song". In 1546, Ming dynasty author Wang Zhu (王洙) completed his 100 chapter "Supplement to the History of Song" to be followed in 1561 by Ke Weiqi's (柯維祺) 200 chapter "Songshi Xinbian" (宋史新編) and the 250 chapter "Songshi Ji" (宋史記) written by Wang Weijian (王惟儉). During the Qing dynasty, Chen Huangzhong (陳黃中) wrote the "Songshi Gao" (宋史稿) running to 219 chapters whilst Chen Xinyuan (陸心源) produced the 40 chapter"Songshi Yi" (宋史翼). In Korea Li Suan (李算) of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 CE) penned the Songshi Qian (宋史<unk>) with 148 chapters. All these works correct some of the shortcomings of the "History of Song" but are no substitute for the original.  During the final years of the Qing Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735-1796 CE), historian Shao Jinhan (邵晉涵) along with Qian Daxin (錢大昕) and Zhang Xuecheng (章學誠) worked hard to revamp the "History of Song". Shao produced his Biographical sketch of the Southern Song (南都事略) then went back to work on the "History of Song" but died before it was completed.

External links.

"This article is based on a translation of 宋史 in Chinese Wikipedia"

The History of Song or Song Shi (Sòng Shǐ) is one of the official Chinese historical works known as the Twenty-Four Histories of China that records the history of the Song dynasty (960–1279). It was commissioned in 1343 and compiled under the direction of First Minister Toqto'a and Prime Minister Alutu (阿鲁图/阿魯圖) during the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) at the same time as the "History of Liao" and the "History of Jin". Running to a total of 496 chapters, the "History of Song" includes biographies of the Song Emperors along with contemporary records and biographical sketches of Song dynasty politicians, soldiers and philosophers.


Architecture.

Saint-Ambroise Church was built between 1924 and 1925. It is part of an architectural ensemble that also includes the presbytery and École Anthelme-Verreau. All three buildings were designed by Montreal architect Ernest Cormier. Also located nearby is École Saint-Ambroise which was designed by Jean-Omer Marchand.  Saint-Ambroise Church was one of the first major works by Ernest Cormier. The Church's architecture was inspired by the Pre-Roman architecture of Northern Italy, notably for the layout and the simple form of the ensemble. The belltower is reminiscent of St Mark's Campanile in Venice. The facade and the walls of the church are covered in brown brick.

Art.

In the tympanum above the door there is an icon representing St. Ambrose of Milan dressed as a bishop with the pastoral staff and pen to write. An angel inspires with the breath in his ear what he has to write.  To understand this representation, we must know that St. Ambrose was born in Trier around 340 and died in 397, Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397, is one of the Fathers of the Latin Church. It was said of St. Ambrose it was more a theologian than a catechist, because everyone can understand what he wrote.  It is known as a writer and poet. He has written to protect the Church. It is one of the protagonists of debates against Arianism. It is to him that Augustine of Hippo converted to Christianity.  He is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church and celebrated on the December 7.

Saint-Ambroise Church () is a church in the borough of Rosemont–La Petite-Patrie in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is situated on Beaubien Street, between de La Roche Street et de Normanville Street.


Polish-Catholic Church of Republic of Poland

History.

The Polish-Catholic Church, known within Poland until 1951 as the Polski Narodowy Kościół Katolicki (PNKK), has its origins in the final decade of 19th century. During this time, Polish immigrants in the United States, referred to as "Polonia", participated in the protests of lay people in Roman Catholic parishes against the domination of clergy from German and Irish origins. The parishioners demanded insight into the financial matters of parishes, the use of vernacular in liturgy, and the appropriate care and treatment of clergy from their own ethnic group. After the unsuccessful presentation of their requests to the Vatican in 1897, the Polish National Catholic Church was formally founded in Scranton, Pennsylvania, out of a number of independent Polish parishes. After the consecration of the Reverend Franciszek Hodur as a bishop in 1907, the newly organized church community became a member of the Union of Utrecht of Old Catholic Churches.  After realizing the necessity of establishing and maintaining contact with Poland, Bishop Hodur worked to establish the PNCC in that country. According to the religious and social precepts of the PNCC, there was an obligation to serve their country of origin, Poland. They especially sought the independence of their native land. The church worked to maintain this tradition among Polish immigrants, along with defending Polish national interests. Independence in Poland was gained in 1918, although the missionary work of the church was impeded due to lack of legalization. The efforts of the church for legal recognition were unsuccessful until 1939. It was not until February 1946 that the church gained legal status on the basis of the decision of Polish Ministry of Public Administration.  After 1945, Polish Communist authorities were not supportive of legalising the Polish National Catholic Church because its leader, Bishop Hodur, was a United States citizen. In 1951, under pressure from the Communist regime, the Polish diocese of the original Polish National Catholic Church declared itself independent of its parent church in the United States. This was partially due to the arrests of Bishop Joseph Padewski and Father Edward Narbutt-Narbuttowicz. In the autumn of 1951, the church changed its name to the Polish Catholic Church. The new leader of the church was Father Józef Dobrochowski who, in close cooperation with Father Eugeniusz Krieglewicz, followed the orders of the Communist authorities. The Polish government now had complete control over the church in that state authorities appointed and removed bishops, managed church personnel and financed church operations.  The duties of the new church included organizing Masses for the celebration of the anniversary of the 1952 Polish Constitution which occurred on July 22, a Communist holiday not supported by the Roman Catholic Church, and sending letters of congratulation to the authorities concerning other anniversaries.  Full regulation of the church’s legal status occurred after the Polish Parliament, on June 30, 1995, passed the Bill on Mutual Relations Between the State and Polish Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 482). On May 26, 2000, the Polish Catholic Church and the Roman Catholic Church of Poland agreed upon mutual respect and cooperation.

Theology.

According to the church law which is currently in force, the Polish Catholic Church professes Catholic faith, morality and principles as set forth in the Bible, formulated in common symbols of faith and decisions of the First seven Ecumenical Councils. The Polish Catholic Church has many similarities to the Roman Catholic liturgy in that it expresses Trinitarian doctrine, Marian devotion and reverence for the saints. The church also employs the traditional Catholic liturgical calendar.  The central point of spiritual life within the church is the Eucharist, which is understood as the re-presentation of the redeeming sacrifice of Christ. The church also pays reverence to the angels, apostles, martyrs and saints, keeping among them a special place for the Virgin Mary.  According to the church, a sin is an intentional and voluntary breaking of God’s or the church’s commandments. The seven deadly sins are pride, envy, lust, anger, greed, sloth, and gluttony. Penitents gain the absolution of sins by participating in the sacrament confession, where sins are confessed in the presence of a priest in order to gain absolution. The conditions of a good confession are:  There are two forms of confession exercised in Polish Catholic Church: individual and corporate. Individual confession takes place privately with a priest, while corporate confession is exercised as a separate public ceremony in front of the altar, or as a part of Mass during the Act of Penitence. Individual confession is obligatory for children and youth under the age of 18; it is also recommended for adults any time they feel the need to participate. It is believed that proper and frequent reception of the sacrament of confession will allow an individual to grow in the spiritual life.

Clergy.

In 2009 the Polish Catholic Church consisted of 80 parishes with 111 priests. A priest must be male, a graduate of the Christian Academy of Theology in Warsaw specialising in Old-Catholic Theology, and a graduate of the Higher Clerical Seminary of the Polish Catholic Church in Warsaw. Candidates also need approval from Church authorities. Clergy of the Polish Catholic Church are not bound to celibacy.  All candidates for bishop must be episcopally consecrated by at least three bishops who are members of the International Conference of Old Catholic Bishops, known as the Utrecht Union. The presiding bishop of the church is selected by the national synod.

Church of Poland (The Polish Catholic Church) - () is a Polish-Catholic Church in Poland which is part of the Union of Utrecht. It is a member of the World Council of Churches and the Polish Ecumenical Council. It is not affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. Bishop Wiktor Wysoczański was chosen as the church's superior in 1995.


Location.

Sciences Po Aix is housed in a hôtel particulier, considered a Monument historique, designed by architect Georges Vallon in 1734. The building is located on the Place de l'université ("town square of the university"), opposite Cathédrale Saint-Sauveur on the rue Gaston de Saporta in Aix-en-Provence. This building previously housed the Faculty of Law of Aix-Marseille University.

Overview.

As a "grande école", its admissions process is highly selective. Entry to Sciences Po Aix is conditioned by selection tests. The main test is designed for students who would like to join the institute as freshmen. Each year, there are more than 10 000 candidates. The selection rates are inferior to 10%. Sciences Po Aix specializes in political sciences. Therefore, the institute offers courses in economics, history, law, international relations, social sciences and business.  The IEP provides students with a general training in law, economics, general knowledge and history. Its students are selected through a competitive entrance examination. Some of its students have become company directors or government officials. Many students move on to careers in journalism, finance, state administration, diplomacy or communications.  The academic course lasts five years. It is composed of a three-year undergraduate programme and a two-year graduate programme. The primary diploma is equivalent to a master's degree. The third year of the Sciences Po Aix curriculum is a year of mobility abroad. Students have the choice, they can spend two semesters in a foreign university, one semester in a university and one semester internship or they also have the opportunity to spend two semesters as a trainee.  Thereby, Sciences Po Aix have concluded more than 130 exchange partnerships with different universities around the globe so that Sciences Po students can study in many countries during their third year. All continents of the world are represented, there are some partnerships in the United States (Wellesley College, Loyola University Chicago, Arizona State University, Florida International University...), in Canada (University of Montreal, University of Ottawa) in South America (University of Buenos Aires, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Africa (Rhodes University), in Asia (Shanghai International Studies University, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies in Seoul, Waseda University in Tokyo), in Oceania (University of New South Wales in Sydney, University of Canterbury) and also in Europe (Free University of Berlin, LUISS University in Roma, Middlesex University in London...).

History.

Sciences Po Aix was established in 1956. It is the heir of the "École Libre des Sciences Politiques", created by Émile Boutmy in 1872, in response to a need for reform for the society and the republican state that has just been born, after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.  In September 2007, Philippe Séguin (1943–2010), then President of the Court of Audit (in French Cour des comptes), was elected President of the Administration Council, succeeding Jean-Paul Proust (1940–2010), Minister of the Principality of Monaco. In July 2010, the former French minister of economy and current managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Christine Lagarde, member of the Administration Council since 2008 and 1977 graduate, was elected President.

Directors.

The directors of Sciences Po Aix are elected for a five-year term by the executive board of the school. Some members of this board have been elected such students, teachers and staff representatives. The executive board votes the pedagogical and administrative orientations and reforms proposed by the director, the budget of the school as well as the conventions with the foreign universities.

Notable alumni.

Many top-tier politicians were students at Sciences Po Aix:  In addition to the politicians, there also some alumni of Sciences Po Aix that have occupied major positions in the culture, the state administration and also the business world.

Sciences Po Aix, also referred to as Institut d'Études Politiques (IEP) d'Aix-en-Provence, is a "Grande École" of political studies located in Aix-en-Provence, in the South of France. It is associated with Aix-Marseille University and is part of a network of ten Institut d'études politiques, known as IEP.


Design and description.

Originally designed as a sister ship to the broadside ironclad, the navy was dissatisfied with that ship as it believed that foreign developments had made her obsolete. So the ship was redesigned as a low-freeboard twin-turret ship with full rigging, much like the ill-fated British ship. Already launched when "Captain" capsized in a storm in 1870, "Minin" was reconstructed as an armored cruiser with her armament on the broadside and improved machinery.  The ship had an overall length of, a beam of and a draft of. She displaced at deep load. Her hull was sheathed with copper to reduced biofouling and her crew numbered approximately 545 officers and men.  "Minin" had a vertical compound steam engine that drove a single propeller, using steam provided by a dozen cylindrical boilers. The engine produced which gave her a maximum speed around. The ship carried a maximum of of coal which gave her an economical range of at a speed of. She was ship-rigged with three masts. To reduce drag while under sail, the single funnel could be lowered.  The ship had four, a dozen and four rifled breech-loading guns. She had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that ranged in thickness from amidships to 6 inches at the ends of the ships. The belt had a total height of, of which was below the waterline. "Minin" had a steel deck thick at the top of the belt, but her armament was entirely unprotected.

Construction and career.

"Minin", named after Kuzma Minin, was laid down by Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg on 24 November 1864 as a turret ship armed with four gun in two turrets and four 6-inch guns. The ship was launched on 3 November 1869 and began a complete reconstruction the following year. "Minin" was finally completed in 1878.  The ship was converted into a minelayer in 1909–11 and renamed "Ladoga". Her rigging was reduced to 2 pole masts, her armament was reduced to four guns, and she could carry 1000 mines. "Ladoga" helped to lay the mine barrier in the Gulf of Finland in 1914 and was sunk in the Baltic on 15 August 1915 by mines laid by SM UC-4.

The Russian cruiser "Minin () was an armored cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the 1860s and 1870s. She was renamed Ladoga" in 1909 when converted to a minelayer. The ship was sunk in 1915 when she struck a mine laid by a German submarine in the Baltic Sea.


Early life and family.

He was born on Vaucluse Plantation in Virginia, the eldest son of Albert Fairfax (April 15, 1802 – May 9, 1835) and Caroline Eliza Snowden (April 21, 1812 – December 28, 1899), who were married on April 7, 1828.. His younger brother was John Fairfax, 11th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (September 13, 1830 – September 28, 1900), who became the 11th Lord Fairfax of Cameron upon Charles' death in 1869. His paternal grandfather was Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (1762–1846). On May 1, 1838, his mother married William R. Saunders..

Lineage.

He was collaterally related to Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax, who was a Parliamentary general during the English Civil Wars. He was also related to Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who relinquished his English estates to his brother Robert Fairfax, 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and emigrated to America, where he settled on a plantation of more than five million acres (4,000 km2) in Virginia, which he inherited from his mother, Catherine Colepeper. Thomas Fairfax was the first person to employ George Washington as a surveyor.  The 7th Lord, Robert Fairfax, died without issue in 1793 and the title passed to an American second cousin, the Rev. Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (1736–1802), a priest of the Episcopal Church and rector of a parish in Alexandria, who was the son of William Fairfax (1691–1757) of Belvoir and Deborah Clarke (1707–1747). The clergyman then became the 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. Bryan Fairfax, whose wife was Elizabeth Cary (1730–1757), was succeeded in 1802 by his eldest son, Thomas Fairfax (1762–1846).  Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron married three times; his son by his third wife, Margaret Herbert (1783–1858), Albert, who had died during the lifetime of his father, left two sons, Charles and John. Therefore, Charles S. Fairfax, the grandson of Thomas, the 9th Lord, succeeded to the title of Lord Fairfax in 1846—a title, however, that he never claimed, preferring to live as an American citizen.

California.

Fairfax, still the potential 10th Lord Fairfax, Baron of Cameron, left Richmond with 74 other gold-seekers on the ship "Glenmore". After disembarking and crossing Panama, he boarded a second ship, the steamer "California", and arrived in San Francisco on June 23, 1850.  The life of a miner in the mother lode of California might have been somewhat of a shock to Fairfax, who grew up as a gentleman farmer, but he stuck with the endeavor for a while. He prospected extensively, only to lose whatever money he made as fast as he got hold of it. There were stories of him working for others, pushing a wheelbarrow, or tending a mule pulling a cart of gravel and sloshing about in the mud of the diggings.  In 1851, he abandoned the goldfields and turned to a new calling—politics—and became a delegate to the Democratic National Convention. Fairfax was a member of the California State Assembly, first representing Yuba and Sierra Counties from 1853 to '54, then Yuba County alone from 1854 to '55. He served as Speaker of the Assembly in 1854. He subsequently served as Clerk of the Supreme Court of California, 1856–'61. From 1865 to 1867, he was a Supervisor of Marin County.

Personal life.

In 1854, Fairfax met his wife, Ada Benham (1833–1888), in San Francisco. They were married on January 10, 1855, in Louisville, Kentucky, at the home of her stepsister, Henrietta Prentice. They had no children.

Estate in California.

After their return to San Francisco, Fairfax and his bride visited his boyhood friend Dr. Alfred Taliaferro at his country home in Marin County. When they expressed their great admiration of his estate, he gave them the property as a wedding gift. Thus, in 1855, the couple became residents of what would eventually become the town of Fairfax.  They made many improvements to their new property. Fairfax imported game birds to satisfy his zeal for hunting and improve his chances for success. Ada planted trees and flowers around the home and grounds and named the estate Bird's Nest Glen, which is now on the National Register of Historic Places as California Registered Historical Landmark No. 679.  They entertained lavishly and it became so customary for their friends to say, "Let's go to the Fairfax's," or "Let's go to Fairfax," that the area took on the identity of Fairfax, which continued long after their departure, up to the time of the town's incorporation in 1931.  The Fairfax estate was also the site of the last political duel fought in California, on the afternoon of May 25, 1861, between State Assemblymen Daniel Showalter and Charles W. Piercy. Though Fairfax served them lunch and tried to dissuade them, the two men walked to a grassy meadow and fired rifles at 40 paces; Piercy was killed by the second volley.

Death.

Charles S. Fairfax died suddenly, at age 40, at Barnum's City Hotel in Baltimore, Maryland, after having traveled east as a chairman of the California delegation to the Democratic National Convention, which was assembled in New York City. He is interred in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., as is his widow.  Fairfax was thoroughly identified with the state of his adoption, and was well known and respected on the Pacific coast. He stood high in the Masonic fraternity, the members of which arranged to send a large delegation at the time of his death.

Charles Snowdon Fairfax, 10th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (March 8, 1829 – April 4, 1869) was an American Democratic politician of California. He was of Scottish noble descent, and held a Scottish peerage. Fairfax was lured west as part of the gold rush. The town of Fairfax, California, is named for him.


Background.

Before writing "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" at the age of forty, Angelou had a long and varied career, holding jobs such as composer, singer, actor, civil rights worker, journalist, and educator. In the late 1950s, she joined the Harlem Writers Guild, where she met a number of important African-American authors, including her friend and mentor James Baldwin. After hearing civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. speak for the first time in 1960, she was inspired to join the Civil Rights Movement. She organized several benefits for him, and he named her Northern Coordinator of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. She worked for several years in Ghana, West Africa, as a journalist, actress, and educator. She was invited back to the US by Malcolm X to work for him shortly before his assassination in 1965. In 1968, King asked her to organize a march, but he too was assassinated on April 4, which also happened to be her birthday. For many years, Angelou responded to King's murder by not celebrating her birthday, instead choosing to meet with, call, or send flowers to his widow, Coretta Scott King.  Angelou was deeply depressed in the months following King's assassination, so to help lift her spirits, Baldwin brought her to a dinner party at the home of cartoonist Jules Feiffer and his wife Judy in late 1968. The guests began telling stories of their childhoods and Angelou's stories impressed Judy Feiffer. The next day she called Robert Loomis at Random House, who became Angelou's editor throughout her long writing career until he retired in 2011, and "told him that he ought to get this woman to write a book". At first, Angelou refused, since she thought of herself as a poet and playwright. According to Angelou, Baldwin had a "covert hand" in getting her to write the book, and advised Loomis to use "a little reverse psychology", and reported that Loomis tricked her into it by daring her: "It's just as well", he said, "because to write an autobiography as literature is just about impossible". Angelou was unable to resist a challenge, and she began writing "Caged Bird." After "closeting herself" in London, it took her two years to write it. She shared the manuscript with her friend, writer Jessica Mitford, before submitting it for publication.  Angelou subsequently wrote six additional autobiographies, covering a variety of her young adult experiences. They are distinct in style and narration, but unified in their themes and stretch from Arkansas to Africa, and back to the US, from the beginnings of World War II to King's assassination. Like "Caged Bird", the events in these books are episodic and crafted as a series of short stories, yet do not follow a strict chronology. Later books in the series include "Gather Together in My Name" (1974), "Singin' and Swingin' and Gettin' Merry Like Christmas" (1976), "The Heart of a Woman" (1981), "All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes" (1986), "A Song Flung Up to Heaven" (2002), and "Mom & Me & Mom" (2013, at the age of 85). Critics have often judged Angelou's later autobiographies "in light of the first", and "Caged Bird" generally receives the highest praise.  Beginning with "Caged Bird", Angelou used the same "writing ritual" for many years. She would get up at five in the morning and check into a hotel room, where the staff were instructed to remove any pictures from the walls. She wrote on yellow legal pads while lying on the bed, with a bottle of sherry, a deck of cards to play solitaire, "Roget's Thesaurus", and the Bible, and left by the early afternoon. She averaged 10–12 pages of material a day, which she edited down to three or four pages in the evening. Lupton stated that this ritual indicated "a firmness of purpose and an inflexible use of time". Angelou went through this process to give herself time to turn the events of her life into art, and to "enchant" herself; as she said in a 1989 interview with the BBC, to "relive the agony, the anguish, the "Sturm und Drang"". She placed herself back in the time she wrote about, even during traumatic experiences like her rape in "Caged Bird", to "tell the human truth" about her life. Critic Opal Moore says about "Caged Bird": "...Though easily read, [it] is no 'easy read'". Angelou stated that she played cards to reach that place of enchantment, to access her memories more effectively. She has stated, "It may take an hour to get into it, but once I'm in it—ha! It's so delicious!" She did not find the process cathartic; rather, she found relief in "telling the truth".

Plot summary.

"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" follows Marguerite's (called "My" or "Maya" by her brother) life from the age of three to seventeen and the struggles she faces – particularly with racism – in the Southern United States. Abandoned by their parents, Maya and her older brother Bailey are sent to live with their paternal grandmother (Momma) and disabled uncle (Uncle Willie) in Stamps, Arkansas. Maya and Bailey are haunted by their parents' abandonment throughout the book – they travel alone and are labeled like baggage. Many of the problems Maya encounters in her childhood stem from the overt racism of her white neighbors. Although Momma is relatively wealthy because she owns the general store at the heart of Stamps' Black community, the white children of their town hassle Maya's family relentlessly. One of these "powhitetrash" girls, for example, reveals her pubic hair to Momma in a humiliating incident. Early in the book, Momma hides Uncle Willie in a vegetable bin to protect him from Ku Klux Klan raiders. Maya has to endure the insult of her name being changed to Mary by a racist employer. A white speaker at her eighth grade graduation ceremony disparages the Black audience by suggesting that they have limited job opportunities. A white dentist refuses to treat Maya's rotting tooth, even when Momma reminds him that she had loaned him money during the Depression.

Style and genre.

Angelou's prose works, while presenting a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form, can be placed in the long tradition of African-American autobiography. Her use of fiction-writing techniques such as dialogue, characterization, and thematic development, however, often lead reviewers to categorize her books, including "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings", as autobiographical fiction. Other critics, like Lupton, insist that Angelou's books should be categorized as autobiographies because they conform to the genre's standard structure: they are written by a single author, they are chronological, and they contain elements of character, technique, and theme. In a 1983 interview with African-American literature critic Claudia Tate, Angelou calls her books autobiographies.  At first, Angelou intended to return to poetry and play-writing after completing "Caged Bird" and write no more autobiographies, but she chose the genre as her primary mode of expression because of its challenge and so that she could "change it, to make it bigger, richer, finer, and more inclusive in the twentieth century". In a 1989 interview, she stated, "I think I am the only serious writer who has chosen the autobiographical form to carry my work, my expression". As she told journalist George Plimpton during a 1990 interview, "Autobiography is awfully seductive; it’s wonderful". She also told Plimpton that like the tradition begun by Frederick Douglass in slave narratives, she used the literary technique of "speaking in the first-person singular talking about the first-person plural, always saying I meaning 'we'". As critic Susan Gilbert states, Angelou was reporting not one person's story, but the collective's. Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agrees, and sees Angelou as representative of the convention in African-American autobiography as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people.  Scholar Joanne M. Braxton sees "Caged Bird" as "the fully developed black

Form.

When Angelou wrote "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" at the end of the 1960s, one of the necessary and accepted features of literature, according to critic Pierre A. Walker, was thematic unity. One of Angelou's goals was to create a book that satisfied this criterion, in order to achieve her political purposes, which were to demonstrate how to resist racism in America. The structure of the text, which resembles a series of short stories, is not chronological but rather thematic. Walker, in his 1993 article about "Caged Bird", "Racial Protest, Identity, Words, and Form", focuses on the book's structure, and describes how it supports her presentation of racism. According to Walker, critics had neglected analyzing its structure, choosing to focus instead on its themes, which he feels neglects the political nature of the book. He states, "One serves Angelou and "Caged Bird" better by emphasizing how form and political content work together". Angelou structures her book so that it presents a series of lessons about how to resist racism

Themes.

Identity.

In the course of "Caged Bird", Maya, who has been described as "a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America", goes from being a victim of racism with an inferiority complex to a self-aware individual who responds to racism with dignity and a strong sense of her own identity. Feminist scholar Maria Lauret states that the "formation of female cultural identity" is woven into the book's narrative, setting Maya up as "a role model for Black women". Scholar Liliane Arensberg calls this presentation Angelou's "identity theme" and a major motif in Angelou's narrative. Maya's unsettled life in "Caged Bird" suggests her sense of self "as perpetually in the process of becoming, of dying and being reborn, in all its ramifications". African-American literature scholar Dolly McPherson agrees, stating that Angelou

Racism.

Stamps, Arkansas, as depicted in "Caged Bird", has very little "social ambiguity": it is a racist world divided between Black and white, male and female. Als characterizes the division as "good and evil", and notes how Angelou's witness of the evil in her society, which was directed at Black women, shaped Angelou's young life and informed her views into adulthood. Angelou uses the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage, described in Paul Laurence Dunbar's poem, as a prominent symbol

Rape.

Angelou's description of being raped as an eight-year-old child overwhelms the autobiography, although it is presented briefly in the text. Scholar Mary Vermillion compares Angelou's treatment of rape to that of Harriet Jacobs in her autobiography "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl". Jacobs and Angelou both use rape as a metaphor for the suffering of African Americans; Jacobs uses the metaphor to critique slaveholding culture, while Angelou uses it to first internalize, then challenge, twentieth-century racist conceptions of the Black female body (namely, that the Black female is physically unattractive). Rape, according to Vermillion, "represents the black girl's difficulties in controlling, understanding, and respecting both her body and her words".  Arensberg notes that Maya's rape is connected to the theme of death in "Caged Bird", as Mr. Freeman threatens to kill Maya's brother Bailey if she tells anyone about the rape. After Maya lies during Freeman's trial, stating that the rape was the

Literacy.

As Lupton points out, all of Angelou's autobiographies, especially "Caged Bird" and its immediate sequel "Gather Together in My Name", are "very much concerned with what [Angelou] knew and how she learned it". Lupton compares Angelou's informal education with the education of other Black writers of the twentieth century, who did not earn official degrees and depended upon the "direct instruction of African American cultural forms". Angelou's quest for learning and literacy parallels "the central myth of black culture in America": that freedom and literacy are connected. Angelou is influenced by writers introduced to her by Mrs. Flowers during her self-imposed muteness, including Edgar Allan Poe and William Shakespeare. Angelou

Reception and legacy.

Critical reception and sales.

"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" is the most highly acclaimed of Angelou's autobiographies. The other volumes in her series of seven autobiographies are judged and compared to "Caged Bird." It became a bestseller immediately after it was published. Angelou's friend and mentor, James Baldwin, maintained that her book "liberates the reader into life" and called it "a Biblical study of life in the midst of death". According to Angelou's biographers, "Readers, especially women, and in particular Black women, took the book to heart". By the end of 1969, critics had placed Angelou in the tradition of other Black autobiographers. Poet James Bertolino asserts that "Caged Bird" "is one of the essential books produced by our culture". He insists that "[w]e should all read it, especially our children". It was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970, has never been out of print, and has been published in many languages. It has been a Book of the Month Club selection and an Ebony Book Club selection. In 2011, "Time Magazine" placed the book in its list of 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923.  Critic Robert A. Gross called "Caged Bird" "a "tour de force" of language". Edmund Fuller insisted that Angelou's intellectual range and artistry were apparent in how she told her story. "Caged Bird" catapulted Angelou to international fame and critical acclaim, was

Influence.

When "Caged Bird" was published in 1969, Angelou was hailed as a new kind of memoirist, one of the first African-American women who was able to publicly discuss her personal life. Up to that point, Black women writers were marginalized to the point that they were unable to present themselves as central characters. Writer Julian Mayfield, who called "Caged Bird" "a work of art that eludes description", has insisted that Angelou's autobiographies set a precedent for African-American autobiography as a whole. Als insisted that "Caged Bird" marked one of the first times that a Black autobiographer could, as Als put it, "write about blackness from the inside, without apology or defense". Through the writing of her autobiography, Angelou became recognized as a respected spokesperson for blacks and women. "Caged Bird" made her "without a doubt... America's most visible black woman autobiographer". Although Als considers "Caged Bird" an important contribution to the increase of Black feminist writings in the 1970s, he attributes its success less to its originality than to "its resonance in the prevailing Zeitgeist" of its time, at the end of the American Civil Rights Movement. Angelou's writings,

Censorship.

"Caged Bird" has been criticized by many parents, causing it to be removed from school curricula and library shelves. The book was approved to be taught in public schools and was placed in public school libraries through the U.S. in the early-1980s, and was included in advanced placement and gifted student curricula, but attempts by parents to censor it began in 1983. It

Film version.

A made-for-TV movie version of "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" was filmed in Mississippi and aired on April 28, 1979, on CBS. Angelou and Leonora Thuna wrote the screenplay; the movie was directed by Fielder Cook. Constance Good played young Maya. Also appearing were actors Esther Rolle, Roger E. Mosley, Diahann Carroll, Ruby

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a 1969 autobiography describing the early years of American writer and poet Maya Angelou. The first in a seven-volume series, it is a coming-of-age story that illustrates how strength of character and a love of literature can help overcome racism and trauma. The book begins when three-year-old Maya and her older brother are sent to Stamps, Arkansas, to live with their grandmother and ends when Maya becomes a mother at the age of 16. In the course of "Caged Bird", Maya transforms from a victim of racism with an inferiority complex into a self-possessed, dignified young woman capable of responding to prejudice.