Early life.

Eric Carle was born on June 25, 1929 to Johanna and Erich Carle in Syracuse, New York. When he was six years old, his mother, homesick in Germany, led the family back to Stuttgart. He was educated there and graduated from the local art school, the State Academy of Fine Arts Stuttgart. Eric's father was drafted into the German army at the beginning of World War II (1939) and taken prisoner by the Soviet forces when Germany capitulated early in 1945 (the end of the war). He returned home late in 1947 weighing 85 pounds. "When he came back, he was a broken man," Carle told "The Guardian" years later. He was a "dead man, psychologically, physically devastated."  Eric had been sent to the small town of Schwenningen to escape the bombings of Stuttgart. When he was 15 the German government conscripted boys of that age to dig trenches on the Siegfried line. He does not care to think about it deeply and says his wife thinks he suffers from post-traumatic stress.  Always homesick for America, Eric dreamed of returning home one day. He eventually made it to New York City in 1952 with only $40 in savings and landed a job as graphic designer in the promotion department of "The New York Times". He was drafted into the U.S. Army during the Korean War and stationed in Germany with the 2nd Armoured Division as a mail clerk. After discharge he returned to his old job with "The New York Times". Later he became the art director of an advertising agency.

Writing and illustrating career.

Educator and author Bill Martin, Jr. first noticed the illustration of a red lobster Carle had created for an advertisement and asked him to collaborate on a picture book.  "Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?" was published by Henry Holt & Co. in 1967 and became a best-seller. This began Carle's career as an illustrator and he was soon writing and illustrating his own stories. His first books as both author and illustrator were " to the Zoo" and "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969).  Eric Carle's art is distinctive and instantly recognizable. His artwork is created in collage technique, using hand-painted papers, which he cuts and layers to form bright and colourful images. Many of his books have an added dimension—die-cut pages, twinkling lights as in "The Very Lonely Firefly", even the lifelike sound of a cricket's song as in "The Very Quiet Cricket".  The themes of his stories are usually drawn from his extensive knowledge and love of nature— an interest shared by most small children. Carle attempts to make his books not only entertaining but also to offer his readers the opportunity to learn something about the world around them. When writing, Carle attempts to recognize children's feelings, inquisitiveness and creativity, as well as stimulate their intellectual growth; it is for these reasons (in addition to his unique artwork) that many feel his books have been such a success.  In his own words:

Later life.

For over 30 years, Carle and his second wife, Barbara Morrison, lived in Northampton, Massachusetts. As of 2019, he lives in Key West, Florida. Carle has a son and a daughter.  With his wife, he founded The Eric Carle Museum of Picture Book Art devoted to the art of children's books in Amherst adjacent to Hampshire College as part of the Hampshire College Cultural Village. The Museum has welcomed more than 500,000 visitors, including more than 30,000 school children, since it opened its doors in 2002.  Eric Carle has received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities including Williams College in 2016, Smith College in 2014, Appalachian State University in 2013 and from Bates College in 2007.  Google paid tribute to Carle and his book "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" by asking him to design the logo "Google doodle", introduced on its home page on March 20, 2009, celebrating the first day of spring. He also designed a "Google doodle" with autumnal theme for the use in Southern Hemisphere.  "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" was chosen by Jumpstart for Young Children as the book for Read For the Record 2009 on October 8 of that year. The program encourages educators, librarians and parents to try to have as many as possible read the same book on the same day all over the world.  Carle has won numerous awards for his work in children's literature, including the Japan Picture Book Award, the Regina Medal and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Society of Illustrators, and most for his collages, all from 1989 to 2008. In 2003, he received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Award (now called the Children's Literature Legacy Award),from the professional children's librarians, which recognizes an author or illustrator whose books, published in the United States, have made "a substantial and lasting contribution to literature for children". The committee cited his "visual observations of the natural world" and his innovative designs: "Taking the medium of collage to a new level, Carle creates books using luminous colors and playful designs often incorporating an interactive dimension, tactile or auditory discoveries, die-cut pages, foldouts, and other innovative uses of page space."  In a 2012 survey of "School Library Journal" readers, "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" was voted the number two children's picture book behind "Where the Wild Things Are".  In 2019, a jumping spider mimicking a caterpillar was named in Carle's honour, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the publication of "The Very Hungry Caterpillar", and to celebrate his 90th birthday.  The Frist Art Museum exhibition Eric Carle's Picture Books: Celebrating 50 Years of "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" will be on display October 18, 2019, through February 23, 2020. In November 2019, Carle sold his publishing rights to Penguin Random House.

Eric Carle (born June 25, 1929) is an American designer, illustrator, and writer of children's books. He is most noted for "The Very Hungry Caterpillar", a picture book that has been translated into more than 66 languages and sold more than 50 million copies, equivalent to 1.8 copies sold every minute since it was published in 1969. His career as an illustrator and children's book author took off after he collaborated on "Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?" He has illustrated more than 70 books, most of which he also wrote, and more than 145 million copies of his books have been sold around the world.


Biography.

After his Abitur, Pispers moved to Bonn and later Münster where he studied English, theology and pedagogy. From 1979 to 1980 he worked as a foreign language assistant in England, where he developed a liking for black comedy.  After returning to Germany, he worked as a member of several children's theatre and cabaret arrangements. His first solo programme, "Kabarette sich, wer kann" (a pun on ""rette sich, wer kann"" - "save yourself if you can"), first opened in 1983. In the same year he finished his education and started working as an English teacher. In 1990, he became a member of the ensemble of the Kom(m)ödchen in Düsseldorf and later on its artistic director. However, in 1991, he gave up this position to tour Germany with his solo programmes. Over the 1990s he received a number of awards and became a well-known figure in German political cabaret.  In 2002 he first went on tour with his programme "...bis neulich" ("...until recently"), which was originally conceived as a Best of his twenty years in cabaret. It was extremely successful and made him a lot more popular, especially due to his harsh criticism of the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War. Due to its huge success, Pispers continued to tour Germany with the programme, which he frequently updated according to recent developments, until 2015. He has also become a staunch critic of unregulated capitalism.  He currently lives in Düsseldorf-Oberkassel in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Volker Pispers (born January 18, 1958 in Mönchengladbach-Rheydt) is a German Kabarett artist, who is well known for his political satire. His comic style includes drastic and sometimes sarcastic commentary on current events, especially about the political situation in Germany but also about the politics of the United States since 9/11 and during the Iraq War.


History.

The first of the Julii Caesares to appear in history was Sextus Julius Caesar, praetor in Sicily in 208 BC. From the filiation of his son, Sextus, "Sex. f. L. n.", we know that his father was named "Lucius", but precisely who this Lucius was and whether he bore the surname "Caesar" is uncertain. On the assumption that the Caesares were descended from earlier notable families of the Julia gens, some scholars have suggested that he was the son of Lucius Julius Libo, consul in 267 BC.  The "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" says this of the cognomen "Caesar": Outside of the Imperial family, the last of the Julii known to have borne the surname of "Caesar" was Lucius Julius Caesar, who had been consul in 64 BC, and who was still living in 40 BC. Although other members of the family may have lived after this time, none seem to have achieved sufficient prominence to be recorded in subsequent generations.

Descendancy.

The genealogy of the Julii Caesares was studied by Wilhelm Drumann in his monumental history of Rome, and the following tables are based largely on his reconstruction of the family. In most respects, Drumann's genealogy forms the basis for modern scholarship on the family, with one important exception: Drumann believed that the Sextus Julius Caesar who was a military tribune in 181 BC and the Sextus who was consul in BC 157 were father and son. While chronology suggested that the tribune might be the son of the Sextus who had been praetor in 208 BC, the consul's filiation indicated that his grandfather's name was "Lucius". Accordingly, Drumann inferred the existence of an otherwise unknown Lucius Julius Caesar between the praetor and the military tribune, although in order to make sense chronologically, the praetor would have to have been rather elderly and the tribune very young when they held their respective offices. More recent scholarship has concluded that the military tribune and the consul were the same man, which means that his grandfather, Lucius, was the father of the praetor of 208 BC, rather than his son.  It is therefore Sextus, the praetor of 208 BC, rather than an otherwise unknown Lucius Julius Caesar, who was the father of Lucius Julius Caesar, praetor in 183 BC, and Sextus, the consul of 157 BC. These sons provide the first two branches of the family; but the third branch, representing the ancestors of Gaius Julius Caesar, the dictator, are less certain. We know that Caesar's grandfather was also named "Gaius", and that he married a woman of the Marcia gens. Drumann supposed that he might have been the son of a senator named Gaius Julius, who wrote a Roman history in Greek about 143 BC. This Gaius, he proposed, might have been a brother of Sextus Julius Caesar, the consul of 157, and therefore a son of the Sextus who was military tribune in 181. Since the two Sexti were in fact the same man, this would probably make the senator Gaius a third son of Sextus Julius Caesar, the praetor of 208 BC. If he was a senator in 143, and the great-grandfather of Caesar, who was born in BC 100, he was probably not the consul's son, as "his" eponymous and presumably eldest son, Sextus, was praetor in BC 123.  The rest of the genealogy is well-known. As Caesar left no legitimate sons to carry on his name and legacy, by his will he adopted his grand-nephew, Gaius Octavius, who thus became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, the future emperor better known as Augustus. Octavian had only a daughter, and therefore adopted two of his grandchildren by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who thus became Gaius and Lucius Julius Caesar; but when both died young, the emperor adopted their brother, who became Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus, and a stepson, Tiberius Claudius Nero, who became Tiberius Julius Caesar. Tiberius' son, Nero Claudius Drusus, became Drusus Julius Caesar, and he adopted a nephew, Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, who became Germanicus Julius Caesar; their children also became part of the Julia gens. The line draws to a close with the death of Germanicus' son, Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, better known simply as Gaius or Caligula, in AD 41; after this, the imperial authority passed to Gaius' uncle, Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, and out of the Julian line.

Genealogical tables.

The table below reflects known and probable relationships, with speculative descent indicated by a question mark "(?)".

Male lineage.

The male line of the family, showing both natural and adoptive lineage through the Julio-Claudian emperors.

The Julii Caesares were the most illustrious family of the patrician "gens Julia". The family first appears in history during the Second Punic War, when Sextus Julius Caesar was praetor in Sicily. His son, Sextus Julius Caesar, obtained the consulship in 157 BC; but the most famous descendant of this stirps is Gaius Julius Caesar, a general who conquered Gaul and became the undisputed master of Rome following the Civil War. Having been granted dictatorial power by the Roman Senate and instituting a number of political and social reforms, he was assassinated in 44 BC. After overcoming several rivals, Caesar's adopted son and heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was proclaimed Augustus by the senate, inaugurating what became the Julio-Claudian line of Roman emperors.


Background.

After Rafael Carrera returned from exile in 1849, the Salvadorean ruler, Doroteo Vasconcelos, granted asylum to the Guatemalan liberals, who harassed the Guatemalan government in several different forms: Don José Francisco Barrundia did it through a liberal newspaper that had been established with that specific goal; Vasconcelos gave support during a whole year to a rebel faction "La Montaña", in eastern Guatemala, providing and distributing money and weapons. By late 1850, Vasconcelos was getting impatient due to the slowness of the progress of the war with Guatemala and decided to plan an open attack. Under that circumstance, the Salvadorean head of state started a campaign against the conservative Guatemalan regime, inviting Honduras and Nicaragua to participate in the alliance; only the Honduran government led by Don Juan Lindo accepted.  Meanwhile, in Guatemala, where the invasion plans were perfectly well-known, President Don Mariano Paredes started taking precautions to face the situation, while the Guatemalan Archbishop, Don Francisco de Paula García Peláez, ordered peace prayers in the archdiocese.  On 4 January 1851, Vasconcelos and Lindo met in Ocotepeque, Honduras, where they signed an alliance against Guatemala. The Salvadorean army had 4,000 men, properly trained and armed and supported by artillery; the Honduran army numbered 2,000 men. The coalition army was stationed in Metapán, El Salvador, due to its proximity with both the Guatemalan and Honduran borders.

Declaration of war.

On 28 January 1851, the Salvadorean president sent a letter to the Guatemalan Ministry of Foreign Relations, in which he stated the following:  The Guatemalan government responded laconically in the following terms:

Battle.

The Allied army entered Guatemalan territory at three different places. On 29 January, a 500-man contingent entered through Piñuelas, Agua Blanca and Jutiapa, led by General Vicente Baquero, but the majority of the invading force marched from Metapán. The Allied army of 4,500 men was commanded by the following: Additional troops were led by the Salvadorean General Ciriaco Bran y Carrascosa and by the liberal Guatemalan Generals José Dolores Nufio and Doroteo Monterroso.  Guatemala was able to recruit 2,000 men, led by:  Carrera's strategy was to feign a retreat, forcing the enemy forces to follow the "retreating" troops to a place he had previously chosen; on February 1, 1851, both armies were facing each other with only the San José river between them. Carrera had fortified the foothills of La Arada, its summit about above the level of the river. A meadow deep lay between the hill and the river, and boarding the meadow was a sugar cane plantation. Carrera divided his army in three sections: the left wing was led by Cerna and Solares; the right wing led by Bolaños. He personally led the central battalion, where he placed his artillery. Five hundred men stayed in Chiquimula to defend the city and to aid in a possible retreat, leaving only 1,500 Guatemalans against an enemy of 4,500.

February 2nd, 1851.

The battle began at 8:30 AM, when Allied troops initiated an attack at three different points, with an intense fire opened by both armies. The first Allied attack was repelled by the defenders of the foothill; during the second attack, the Allied troops were able to take the first line of trenches. They were subsequently expelled. During the third attack, the Allied force advanced to a point where it was impossible to distinguish between Guatemalan and Allied troops. Then, the fight became a melee, while the Guatemalan artillery severely punished the invaders. At the height of the battle when the Guatemalans faced an uncertain fate, Carrera ordered that sugar cane plantation around the meadow to be set on fire. The invading army was now surrounded: to the front, they faced the furious Guatemalan fire, to the flanks, a huge fire and to the rear, the river, all of which made retreat very difficult. The central division of the Allied force panicked and started a disorderly retreat. General Saget ordered a retreat for the division of General Cabañas. The Honduran division which was fighting alongside the Salvadoreans in the center also retreated in panic. Soon, all of the Allied troops started retreating, but more than a retreat, it was a rout. Guatemalan historian Francis Polo Sifontes describes the scene after the battle: The 500 men of the rearguard under Colonel Navas were still fresh and pursued what was left of the Allied army, which desperately fled for the borders of their respective countries. The final count of the Allied losses were 528 dead, 200 prisoners, 1,000 rifles, 13,000 rounds of ammunition, many pack animals and baggage, 11 drums and seven artillery pieces. Polo Sifontes also noted: "...President Vasconcelos sought refuge in El Salvador, while two Generals mounted on the same horse were seen crossing the Honduran border." Carrera regrouped his army and crossed the Salvadorean border, occupying Santa Ana, before he received orders from the Guatemalan President, Mariano Paredes, to return to Guatemala, since the Allies were requesting a cease-fire and a peace treaty.

Consequences.

As an immediate result of the triumph of the Guatemalan Army at La Arada, a National Constituent Assembly enacted, on October 19, 1851, a Fundamental Letter of Government, called "Acta Constitutiva de la República" ("Constitutive Act of the Republic"). It was brief, with only 18 articles, but established the general principles of the Republic of Guatemala, which had been formed four years earlier. The battle of La Arada represented the dominance of Guatemala in Central America and ensured a period of restoration, security and economic progress. It also marked the beginning of Rafael Carrera's position as President for Life.

The Battle of La Arada () was fought on 2 February 1851 near the town of Chiquimula in Guatemala, between the forces of Guatemala and an Allied army from Honduras and El Salvador. As the most serious threat to Guatemala's liberty and sovereignty as a republic, it was the most important military victory in the country's history as an independent state.


Release.

The single made its radio airplay debut in the United Kingdom on 20 July 2009, on BBC Radio 2. It was made available for download on 14 August 2009 in Australia and later on 6 September 2009 in the United Kingdom. It was released physically on 7 September 2009 along with the limited edition 7" and 12" gramophone records. In the United States, "We Are Golden" became available exclusively from Apple's iTunes Store for one week starting 18 August 2009. The song was featured in many TeenNick promos in Fall 2009. It is also used in an ABC series, "Make It or Break It", while in Malaysia, it was used for the "kids@fgw" promo which is shown in January 2010 on ntv7 and in the first episode of the TV show "Hellcats".

Description.

In an interview with "Q" magazine, Mika says:

Critical reception.

The song has received mixed and generally positive reviews.

Music video.

The music video for "We Are Golden" was shot on 9 July 2009 and 10 July 2009 in Elstree Studios. It was directed by the Swedish film director Jonas Åkerlund. The video premiered on 4 August 2009 in the United Kingdom on Channel 4. The video features Mika dancing around a bedroom in his underwear as a "celebration of all the years Mika spent dancing around his bedroom as a teenager."

Charts.

The single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 4, on 13 September 2009, before dropping out the top ten on its second week, falling to number 11. Despite becoming Mika's second top five single, it was his shortest lasting single, spending only seven weeks in the top one-hundred. The single was released in August in the United States, but failed to make any impact on the charts. In Italy it was a huge success, it peaked at number 3 after 18 weeks on the charts and while his second single from "The Boy Who Knew Too Much", "Rain" was still at number 9. It was also certified Gold by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana.

"We Are Golden" is the first single from English singer Mika's second studio album, "The Boy Who Knew Too Much". The song was produced and mixed by Greg Wells and features the gospel choir of Andraé Crouch.


Plot.

On Christmas Eve, Guido “Gig” Panimba (Joseph Bologna) and Pandora “Panda” Gold (Renee Taylor) each morosely wander the streets of Manhattan and later join an emergency group therapy meeting designed to help the participants break self-destructive patterns. Each person lists his or her neuroses, ranging from bed-wetting to paranoia.  When it is Panda's turn, we learn she is there on her 4th emergency session. She declares herself a failure as an actress, singer, dancer and woman, and launches into a long description of her life and many disastrous love affairs. We learn about Panda's past, in which her mother repeatedly assures her that she will be famous while her father repeatedly abandons them for affair after affair. To escape her unhappy home life, young Panda immerses herself in Hollywood movies, often imitating movie stars such as Rita Hayworth. By the time she is nineteen, Panda tries to attract her father's attention by displeasing him, and to that end moves in with a married, Chinese boyfriend. When her father learns of this, he dies of a heart attack, and at the funeral, his many lovers hysterically blame Panda for his demise. Her next boyfriend ends up leaving her for another man. She works as a hostess of a television quiz show and a nightclub performer, but she gives up both professions to go live in England with her latest boyfriend, whom she caught sleeping with two other women. Panda then enthusiastically announces her "comeback" at an upcoming cabaret revue and invites everyone in the session to come and see her.  Gig, a newcomer to therapy, claims that he has no problems, and when the other participants goad him to be honest, he gets up to leave. Within minutes, however, he returns and announces that he caused his last girlfriend to attempt suicide. Gig recounts his past. He has little privacy from his parents and sisters and is made to feel guilty about his sexual urges. After his mother convinces him that love requires purity, and lust must be violently purged, Gig begins to treat women cruelly and eventually tries to join the seminary, but is soon caught in a tryst with a maid. Gig briefly joins the military, where he embraces an enemy soldier in joy upon learning that the man is not dead. Returning to America, Gig fails to prosper in his father's barbershop and instead goes back to college, where his African studies major horrifies his parents. He then embarks on relationship after relationship, leaving each woman in heartbreak until the latest, tried to kill herself.  At the meeting, some of the women berate him but Panda is sympathetic. After the session, Gig and Panda get to talking and end up having sex in his car. While having sex, Panda accidentally blurts out that she loves him, after the encounter, Gig responds coldly and dismisses her. After some encouragement from the doctor who ran the session, Panda calls Gig in an attempt to scold him for his treatment of her, but she ends up inviting him to dinner. There, he enjoys the food but then readies to leave, promising to return later to have sex after the party he's going to. As he walks out the door, Panda screams after him that she will no longer accept being treated poorly. After she collapses on her bed, he returns silently and asks what they should do next.  Gig reluctantly agrees to Panda's suggestion that they move in together, hoping to break his pattern of abusiveness. Gig finds he is able to really open up to Panda and he playfully helps Panda to overcome her inability to achieve orgasm. On New Year's Eve, Panda's mother appears, reminding Panda that she is late for her night club comeback. Ignoring her mother's disapproval of Gig, Panda rushes to prepare for her act and insists that Gig join them. He is appalled, however, by her act, a painfully amateurish song-and-dance number in which she asks the audience to create a new identity for her. Later, when she asks his opinion, he admits he did not understand it, prompting her mother to lash out at him. Panda asks her to leave, and later at a café asks Gig for more constructive criticism. Upon learning that she has worked on the show for five years, Gig explodes that the act is awful and states that she embarrassed herself and him. Panda runs out and Gig follows, but on the street they fight and ultimately go their separate ways. Panda goes home alone and realizes her act is actually awful and that Gig was right. Meanwhile, Gig tries to sleep with another woman only to find himself impotent with her.  The next day, Panda shows up at Gig's apartment and they make up. Learning that he is going to visit his parents, she insists on joining him, and on the way urges him to introduce her as his girl friend. Gig's large family seems welcoming to Panda until they ask how she met Gig and she responds with a long story about their encounter group and the necessity of escaping the psychological wounds inflicted by their parents. Soon, Gig's mother is screaming at her to leave and Gig shouts back that she must apologize to Panda. She concludes that she will not attend their wedding because Panda is Jewish and her views are so different from their own. Gig's father chastises her for overreacting and declares that they're just having fun, and clearly Gig would never marry Panda. To prove Panda is not Gig's type, he brings out a photo of Gig's first love, a slim Italian teenager. This visibly upsets Gig who decides to get up and leave with Panda, while his family screams after them.  In the car, Gig starts to pick apart his parents, and their comments about Panda. However, Panda tells him that some of their comments about her (particularly her physical features) were accurate. This causes Gig to fly into a rage, because she's agreeing with his parents after all the nasty things they said, so he begins to berate her as well, eventually breaking up with her and forcing her to get out of the car. Panda walks off, but Gig immediately follows her. Eventually, after a lot of arguing, the two break down crying and Gig admits he really loves Panda and the two decide to get engaged.

Made for Each Other is a 1971 romantic comedy film directed by Robert B. Bean. Both starring and written by the husband and wife team of Renée Taylor and Joseph Bologna, the film traces the relationship of Pandora and Giggy, a seemingly incompatible couple who meet in a group therapy session and fall in love.


History.

The first section of line, between St. Pierre-de-Quilbignon and Le Conquet opened on 12 July 1903. It replaced a three-horse omnibus known as "l'Hirondelle" ("The Swallow"), which had made just one return journey between Le Conquet and Brest daily. The engineer of the line was a M. Calvé. Over 12,000 passengers were carried in the first twenty days of operation. There were three main reasons the line was built. Firstly, to give the citizens of Brest access to the beaches at Ste. Anne-de-Portzic. Secondly, to enable the easy shipment of food to Brest. Thirdly, for military purposes in the event of an invasion.  The TEF was declared a Public Utility, and operated by the "Société Anonyme des Tramways Électriques du Finistère", which was a separate company from the "Compagnie des Tramways de Brest", which operated trams within the town of Brest itself. The head of both companies was M. Hérodote.The line was extended into Brest on August 5, 1908, the same year that a short branch opened to serve Ste. Anne-de-Portzic. The speed of the trams was limited to and a minimum of six return journeys was made each day. The line ran alongside public roads for its entire length. In 1922, operation of the line was taken over by the Chemins de Fer Départementaux du Finistère (CFDF).  The depot was at Pont Rohel, where the power station that supplied electricity for the line was also situated.  The branch to St. Anne-de-Portzic closed in September 1918, but reopened in 1925. The system closed on 5 October 1932.

Operation.

When the line opened, fares were seven centimes per km for first class passengers and five centimes per km for second class. On Sundays, many people from Brest would take the tram to the beaches. A total of 84,757 passengers were carried in 1903, rising to 194,501 in 1904, 198,751 in 1905 and 210,827 in 1907.  The First World War brought competition from motor buses, a situation described by the company as "very precarious" in 1919. In 1920, the line carried 157,040 passengers, but it was decided to liquidate the company, leading to the takeover by the CFDF.

Accidents.

No major accidents were recorded in the history of the line. In the early years, there were collisions with cattle and horses on the line. Protests had been raised by the communes along the route that the construction of the line would hinder the freedom of the cattle to roam. Another problem was drunks sleeping between the rails. Five accidents were recorded in 1905 and six in 1906.

The Tramways Électriques du Finistère (TEF) were a long, metre gauge, rural tramway connecting Brest with Le Conquet in Finistère. It was in operation between 1903 and 1932.


Youth and college.

Born in Atlanta, Georgia, Clark attended St. Pius X Catholic High School. He was a two-time state champion and state player of the year with the Golden Lions, winning GHSA titles as a sophomore and senior and State Player of the Year nods as a junior and senior. His senior season, St. Pius X went 22–1 while Clark was named as a Parade All-American. At club level, he won two state titles with AFC Lightning and was named as the MVP of the 2000 Adidas ESP Camp. Clark committed to play college soccer at Furman University, part of a recruiting class ranked fourth in the nation.  Clark played only two collegiate seasons at Furman, making 37 appearances and notching three goals for the Paladins. In just his second collegiate game, he provided an assist to John Barry Nusum as part of a 3–2 victory over Notre Dame. Clark suffered through a foot injury during the second half of his freshman season, finishing the year with 15 appearances. His first goal for Furman had to wait until his sophomore season, during a 4–3 victory in overtime against UNC Greensboro. That goal came on September 21, 2002; Clark also scored on September 27 against Fairfield and October 27 against South Carolina. He finished the season with three goals in 22 appearances, and was named as an NSCAA first team all-American. Clark was also named to the NSCAA all-South Region first team, the College Soccer News all-America first team, and as a Soccer America MVP to conclude the season.

Club career.

MetroStars.

Following his sophomore year at Furman, Clark signed a Project-40 contract with Major League Soccer and entered the 2003 MLS SuperDraft, where he was selected second overall by MetroStars. He stepped immediately into the starting lineup for the Metros, making his professional debut on April 12, 2003 against Columbus Crew. Clark would go on to set a club rookie record, starting the first 27 games of the season, and making 28 total appearances in MLS play. In the midst of that stretch, he had a run of three goals in four games: against Chicago Fire on June 28, D.C. United on July 5, and New England Revolution on July 12. Clark also played a large role for the club in their run to the 2003 U.S. Open Cup Final, where they were defeated 1–0 by Chicago. After appearing 35 times in all competitions with three goals, Clark was named a finalist for the MLS Rookie of the Year Award; he lost out to Damani Ralph of Chicago.  Clark started his second professional season slowly after suffering a preseason injury; he came off the bench in the season opener against Columbus, but had to wait until the end of April against New England to get his first turn in the starting lineup. He scored his only goal of the season in the regular season finale against D.C. United, a 50th minute rocket as part of a 3–2 defeat. For the second straight season, Clark started both playoff matches for the Metros as they were knocked out in the quarterfinals. He scored once in 28 total appearances on the year, bringing his total with the club to four goals in 63 games.

San Jose/Houston.

Clark was traded to San Jose Earthquakes on January 14, 2005 in exchange for allocation money and an international roster slot. The trade occurred on the same day as the 2005 MLS SuperDraft, meaning that Clark became one of eight players that joined the Earthquakes on the day.  He jumped immediately into the starting lineup in 2005, making his club debut with a start in the season opener against New England Revolution on April 2. Playing out of a defensive midfield role, Clark found the back of the net three times on the season: July 2 away to FC Dallas, August 13 against Colorado Rapids, and September 10 against Chivas USA. He was named as the MLS Player of the Month for July, also earning a nod as the club's player of the month that month. Clark scored his first career playoff goal on October 23, in the first leg of the conference semifinals against LA Galaxy; the Galaxy would win the match, 3–1, and took the series by a 4–2 aggregate scoreline. Clark finished the season with 32 appearances and four goals across all competitions.  Due to San Jose's failure to reach a stadium agreement with AEG, Clark, along with the rest of his Earthquakes teammates, moved to Houston for the 2006 season. He started in the inaugural match for Houston Dynamo, a 5–2 victory over Colorado on April 2. Clark went on to start 31 times during the regular season, scoring twice: the first goal in Texas Derby history on May 6 and the tying goal on June 10 against New York Red Bulls. However, the second half of his season was marred by a couple of bookings. On August 26, Clark received the first red card of his career, coming in a 3–2 defeat against Chivas USA. He then picked up a pair of yellow cards in the playoffs, meaning that he would be suspended for MLS Cup 2006. With Adrian Serioux starting in his place, Houston defeated New England Revolution on penalties to win the first trophy in club history. Clark made 36 appearances on the season, scoring twice, and was named to the MLS Best XI.  Clark began 2007 by making his continental debut in the 2007 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, appearing in three of Houston's four games against Puntarenas and Pachuca. He then missed more than a month of the 2007 season on national team duty, appearing in the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup and 2007 Copa América. His play through the first half of the season, including a goal against FC Dallas on June 3, earned him a spot in the 2007 MLS All-Star Game, the second consecutive season that Clark had been selected as an all-star. Following his return from the United States squad, he scored for the second time on the season on September 16, in a 3–1 victory over LA Galaxy. However, Clark's season ended at the end of September. He missed the final two regular season and all playoff matches due to a suspension resulting from a deliberate kick aimed at a prone Carlos Ruiz in a match with FC Dallas on September 30. Clark was sent off, received a nine-game suspension, and was fined $10,000, the most severe punishment in MLS history. In his absence, Houston went on to win MLS Cup 2007, repeating as MLS Cup champions. Clark finished the season with 23 appearances and two goals across all competitions.  Clark's suspension carried over for the first two games of the 2008 season, but he jumped immediately back into the Houston lineup afterwards. He notched two goals in 25 appearances in MLS play, scoring against Chicago Fire on May 17 and Real Salt Lake on August 16. Clark also played a large role in Houston's continental competitions, playing 16 times and scoring once across the three competitions. He played every minute of the Dynamo's four matches in the CONCACAF Champions' Cup, repeated the feat across five games in the North American SuperLiga, and played in seven games of Houston's 2008–09 CONCACAF Champions League campaign. In the group stage of the SuperLiga, Clark scored his first career goal in a continental competition, coming in a 3–1 victory over D.C. United. He also converted during the penalty shootout in the final of that competition against New England, although the Revolution took the title by a 6–5 mark. Clark made a career-high 43 appearances in all competitions in 2008, scoring three times. Clark missed time during the summer of 2009, earning a call up to the United States for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. He scored his only goal of the season following his return to from South Africa, a strike on August 9 in a 3–2 victory over Chicago. Thanks in part to his international duties, Clark only made 22 appearances in league play. He also saw his playing time in the CONCACAF Champions League decrease, appearing in two of the Dynamo's six games in the competition. Clark did play every minute in the MLS Cup Playoffs, including going 120 minutes against LA Galaxy in the conference finals on November 13. Houston was defeated 2–0 after extra time, and with Clark's contract expiring at the end of the season it would mark his final match of his first stint with the club. He announced following the season that he would pursue opportunities abroad, departing Houston with eight goals in 129 appearances across four seasons with the Dynamo.  During the summer of 2009, following his performance at the Confederations Cup, Clark had received interest from multiple European clubs. Stade Rennais of Ligue 1 and newly-promoted Serie A club Livorno both reported interest in the player, either to sign him during the summer window or once his contract with MLS expired in January. Both moves fell through, leaving Clark with Houston through the end of the season.

Eintracht Frankfurt.

Clark, whose contract with MLS expired at the end of the 2009 season, signed a deal with Bundesliga club Eintracht Frankfurt for the remainder of the 2009–10 season with an option to extend the contract at the end of the season. He made his club debut on April 24, 2010 against Mainz 05, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–3 draw. Clark started each of the last three matches on the season for Eintracht as the club finished 10th in the league. Prior to the season finale against VfL Wolfsburg, and despite the injury he had suffered after arriving in Germany, Clark inked a three-year contract with Frankfurt.  As Eintracht struggled towards relegation in 2010–11, Clark also struggled to become a mainstay in the starting lineup for the club. He made his season debut in a 4–0 victory over Borussia Mönchengladbach in early September, replacing Pirmin Schwegler in the 89th minute. Clark appeared in four of Eintracht's nine victories on the season, and six of their 16 total results, but could not prevent the club from slumping to 17th place and just the fourth relegation in club history. He did make his DFB-Pokal debut in late December, playing the full 120 minutes in a 5–3 penalty kick defeat against Alemannia Aachen that eliminated Eintracht from the competition. Clark finished the season having made just 12 appearances in all competitions for the club.  Clark made his debut appearance in the 2. Bundesliga on July 25, 2011 against FC St. Pauli, going the full 90 minutes and picking up a yellow card in a 1–1 draw. However, he was unable to build on that start and only managed to make the bench three more times through the first half of the season, never again appearing for the club. Clark would be sent on loan to Norwegian club Stabæk in February, on a deal running through the end of July. On July 18, 2012, before that loan had even expired, Eintracht confirmed that Clark's contract had been terminated by mutual consent, effective at the end of his loan spell in Norway. Clark officially departed Eintracht Frankfurt having appeared 16 times in all competitions for the club, and just once during his final season in Germany.

Loan to Stabæk.

On February 22, 2012, after struggling for playing time with Eintracht, Clark was sent on loan to Stabæk of the Tippeligaen. The Norwegian club confirmed that the loan ran through the end of July. He made his club debut a little more than a month later, playing the full 90 minutes in a scoreless draw against Aalesund on March 25. Clark was a fixture in the Stabæk lineup during his time at the club, finishing his time in Norway by appearing in both legs of a Europa League first qualifying round tie against JJK as Stabæk were defeated 4–3 on aggregate by the Finnish club. He went 79 minutes in the opening leg defeat, but had to be replaced by Adnan Haidar before halftime in the second leg in what would mark his final match for the club. Clark concluded the loan spell having made 15 appearances across all competitions for Stabæk.

Return to Houston.

Following his release from Eintracht, Clark returned to the United States and signed again with Houston Dynamo, who had retained his Major League Soccer rights when he moved to Germany, on August 2, 2012. He was officially added to the roster on August 8, after Geoff Cameron finalized a move to Premier League side Stoke City. Clark made his second debut for the Dynamo two days later, coming on as a second half substitute in a defeat against New York Red Bulls. His first goal since his return was scored on September 29, a 77th minute strike to hand Houston a 2–0 victory over New England Revolution. Clark started in MLS Cup 2012 against LA Galaxy, but conceded the game-winning penalty as Houston were defeated 3–1. He finished the campaign with one goal in 18 appearances in all competitions.  Clark jumped straight into the 2013 season, scoring in the season opener against D.C. United and earning a nod to the MLS Team of the Week for week one. He notched his second goal on July 6 against Philadelphia Union, providing the winner in a 1–0 game, but then missed almost a month across July and August due to an unspecified illness. Following his return to action, Clark jumped back onto the scoresheet: he snapped a four-match winless run for Houston with the winning goal against Philadelphia on September 14, then tallied the only goal of a victory over Montreal Impact on October 4. In the playoffs, Clark again played a starring role for the Dynamo, scoring his first playoff goal for the club and adding an assist although the Dynamo were denied a third-straight trip to MLS Cup. Clark finished the season with final stats of 36 appearances and five goals; for his efforts, he was named as the Dynamo Player's Player of the Year.  The 2014 season was a disappointing one for Houston, who failed to qualify for the playoffs for only the second time in club history, as well as for Clark, who appeared in only 25 games because of injury. He suffered a concussion on April 23 against New York Red Bulls, and wound up missing eleven matches before returning against Montreal on June 29. After scoring twice prior to his injury, Clark added two more goals following his return. He tallied strikes in back-to-back games against Sporting Kansas City and Montreal, sparking the Dynamo to a six-match unbeaten run. The late effort wasn't enough, however, for the Dynamo to qualify for the playoffs, as they missed out for the first time since 2010. Clark made 25 appearances on the season, scoring four times.  2015 would prove to be the most productive season of Clark's career, as he appeared in 33 matches and scored a career-high nine goals. Four of those goals came through the first half of the season, including a pair in back-to-back games against Montreal and D.C. United in mid-April. He also scored his first career U.S. Open Cup goal, coming two minutes into stoppage time of a fourth round victory over Austin Aztex. Clark continued his tear through the second half of the season, tallying match-winning goals against San Jose on July 10 and Vancouver Whitecaps FC on August 29. Although Houston won points in seven out of the eight games he scored in, the Dynamo fell nine points short of qualifying for the playoffs, missing out for the second straight season. Following the season, Clark was named as the club's Most Valuable Player, Player's Player of the Year, and Humanitarian of the Year. He also earned recognition from the fans as Midfielder of the Year. Clark became a free agent at the end of the season, but re-signed with Houston on December 8.  In his ninth season in Houston, Clark appeared in a career-high 32 league matches; that included his 275th regular season start (against Columbus in April) and his 300th career MLS appearance (against San Jose in August). Clark scored four times on the season, twice against San Jose and twice in the Texas Derby against FC Dallas. The goals against Dallas, in March and June, were his fifth and sixth in the Derby, tying Brian Ching for the most in the history of the series. Clark appeared 33 times in all competitions, augmenting his four goals with a career-high four assists.  Ahead of the 2017 season, Clark was named as the sixth club captain in Dynamo history, taking over from DaMarcus Beasley when Wilmer Cabrera was named as the head coach. Clark did not score a goal in any competition in 2017, the first time in his MLS career that he did not tally a league goal. He missed time early in the season because of tightness in his left adductor, sitting out two matches in late April due to the injury. On May 20, Clark made his professional debut in his hometown of Atlanta, entering the 4–1 defeat against Atlanta United as a substitute. The Dynamo returned to the playoffs for the first time in four seasons, with Clark appearing twice as part of the club's run to the Western Conference finals. He finished the season having appeared 30 times in all competitions. On December 5, Houston declined the option on Clark's contract, making him a free agent and ending his eleven-year affiliation with the organization. He departed the Dynamo after 175 appearances and 23 goals through his second stint with the club, bringing his all-time mark in Houston to 304 appearances and 31 goals.

Columbus Crew SC.

On February 2, 2018, Clark joined his fourth MLS club, signing as a free agent with Columbus Crew SC. At 34 years old at the time of his signing, he became the oldest player on the Columbus roster.  Prior to the season, Clark was named as part of the leadership council for Crew SC, joining Federico Higuaín, Hector Jiménez, Jonathan Mensah, Zack Steffen, and Josh Williams. The six collectively served as vice-captains behind captain Wil Trapp. Clark made his Columbus debut as a late substitute on March 10, replacing Lalas Abubakar six minutes into stoppage time of a 3–2 victory against Montreal Impact. He was on the field for less than a minute before the final whistle. On his second appearance, and first start, Clark scored his first goal for the club. From a Higuaín corner kick, he powered home the winning goal in a 3–1 victory over D.C. United. Clark played sparingly across the remainder of the season, finishing the season with one goal in 13 appearances. The club declined his contract option on November 26, but stated that they would "remain in contract dialogue" with Clark. On January 17, 2019, the two sides agreed to terms and he re-signed with Crew SC for the 2019 season.  Clark officially retired from playing professional soccer on February 12, 2020. He signed a ceremonial one day contract with Houston Dynamo for the announcement.

International career.

Clark received his first taste of international soccer with the United States U18 national team, earning six caps and scoring three goals during his two eligible years at that level. He was a key member of the squad that won the 2001 International Tournament of Lisbon, where he started all three matches.  Clark was bumped up to the United States U20 national team at the start of 2002, earning his first cap at that level on January 10 as part of a 1–0 victory over Canada. He was named in the squad for the 2002 C.O.T.I.F. XIX Torneig Internacional, helping the Americans to their best-ever finish; they were defeated by Brazil in the final. Clark closed out 2002 at the CONCACAF U20 qualifying tournament, helping the United States qualify for the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship. After appearing 28 times for the U20s in 2002, Clark went on to play 19 more games in 2003, including another appearance in L'Alcúdia. His final caps at U20 level came in the United Arab Emirates at the World Youth Championship, where Clark played all five games for the Americans. His 47th and final appearance for the U20s came in a quarterfinal defeat against Argentina on December 12.  While also playing for the U20s, Clark earned his first cap for the United States U23 national team in May 2003; he played the full 90 minutes against Mexico as part of a 3–1 American victory. He only appeared one other time for the U23s, in an Olympic qualifier against St. Kitts and Nevis on November 15.

Early international career and 2007 tournaments.

Clark received his first senior cap for the United States on October 12, 2005, in a World Cup qualifier against Panama. He replaced Kyle Martino in the 68th minute of a 2–0 American victory. Clark was not named to the squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and thus did not earn another cap for more than a year. He returned to the team after Bob Bradley was named as the new head coach, making his first start for the U.S. in a friendly victory over Denmark on January 20, 2007. That summer, Clark was named to two American squads: the 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup in the United States and the 2007 Copa América in Venezuela. He appeared four times in the Gold Cup, coming off the bench in all three knockout stage matches; in the final against Mexico, he replaced Pablo Mastroeni at halftime as part of the American comeback victory. At the Copa América, Clark appeared in all three matches as the United States was knocked out of the competition in the group stage. Against Paraguay on July 2, he scored his first international goal, a 40th minute strike that would turn out to be the only goal from open play scored by the United States on the tournament.

2009 Confederations Cup and World Cup qualifying.

More than three years after earning his first World Cup qualifying cap, Clark earned his second; he started against Trinidad and Tobago on September 10, 2008 in a qualifier for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He played in just two of the six Third Round qualifiers for the United States, but found a larger role in the Hexagonal, appearing in four of the ten American matches in the final round. On September 10, 2009, Clark scored his first World Cup qualifying goal, and just his second for the United States. Away to Trinidad and Tobago, Clark's 62nd minute strike was the only score of a 1–0 victory, and guaranteed that the United States could finish no worse than fourth in the Hexagonal. He then went the distance against Honduras on October 10, as the U.S. clinched a spot in the World Cup with a 3–2 victory.  In the midst of that World Cup qualifying campaign, Clark was selected to the American squad for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. He appeared in two group stage matches for the U.S., missing only the 3–0 defeat against Brazil. Clark went the distance in the semifinal victory over Spain, helping the United States to their first-ever Confederations Cup final. Against Brazil in the final, he played 88 minutes before being replaced by Conor Casey as the Americans chased the game; they finished as runners-up after a 3–2 defeat to the Seleção.

2010 World Cup and later career.

On May 11, 2010, Clark was named as part of the 30-man preliminary squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. On May 26, Bob Bradley named Clark as part of the 23-man squad that would take part in South Africa. He was one of nine midfielders selected to the team. After appearing in two tune-up matches prior to the tournament, Clark made his World Cup debut on June 12 with a start against England in the group stage. He also started in the Round of 16, a match that saw the United States defeated by Ghana after an extra time goal by Asamoah Gyan. Clark came in for criticism following the match, as he had committed the turnover that led to Ghana's opening goal in the fifth minute, picked up a yellow card in the seventh minute, and was substituted in the 31st minute.  Clark only appeared three more times for the United States following the World Cup. In Jürgen Klinsmann's debut as head coach, Clark was an 84th minute substitute against Mexico, replacing José Francisco Torres. He scored his third and final international goal on January 22, 2012, a header seven minutes into second-half stoppage time to beat Venezuela. Four days later, Clark made what would turn out to be his final appearance for the United States, playing 67 minutes in a 1–0 victory over Panama. Clark earned 34 caps for the United States, scoring three goals across his eight years with the national team.

Honors.

International.

United States

Club.

San Jose Earthquakes  Houston Dynamo

Ricardo Anthony Clark (born February 10, 1983) is an American retired soccer player who played as a midfielder. He appeared for MetroStars, San Jose Earthquakes, Houston Dynamo and Columbus Crew SC in the United States, Eintracht Frankfurt in Germany, and Stabæk in Norway. Clark also appeared for the United States national team.


Political career.

Career in national politics.

In 1983 at age 23, Dantin became a municipal councillor in Chambéry under Gaullist mayor Pierre Dumas. In 1985, he was elected to the General Council of Savoie for the Rally for the Republic, becoming the youngest councillor. He was Vice President of the General Council under the presidencies of Michel Barnier (1994–98). When seeking a third cantonal term in 1998, he was defeated by Socialist candidate Thierry Repentin. However, he was re-elected as municipal councillor on the RPR or UMP lists in 1989, 1995, 2001 and 2008.  Dantin served in the ministerial cabinets of Hervé Gaymard and Dominique Bussereau between 2002 and 2007, and since 2007 in the cabinet of Michel Barnier.

Member of the European Parliament, 2009–2019.

In the 2009 European elections, Dantin was the sixth candidate on the Union for a Popular Movement list in the South-East region, but he was not elected. However, the fifth UMP MEP, Nora Berra, eventually did not take her seat due to her appointment to the government, which is why Dantin succeeded her. In the 2014 European elections, he was re-elected.  At the time of his first election, Dantin was considered a protégé of Michel Barnier, sometime French agriculture minister, who served as European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services between 2010 and 2014. Throughout his time in parliament, he served on the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development. From 2010 to 2011, he was also a member of the Special Committee on the policy challenges and budgetary resources for a sustainable European Union after 2013. In addition to his committee assignments, he was a member of the parliament’s delegation with Switzerland and Norway and to the EU-Iceland Joint Parliamentary Committee and the European Economic Area (EEA) Joint Parliamentary Committee from 2014 until 2019.  Within the European People's Party, Dantin served as co-chair of the Ad Hoc Group on Agriculture from 2016 until 2017, alongside Germany’s Minister of Food and Agriculture Christian Schmidt.  In the Republicans’ 2017 leadership election, Dantin endorsed Laurent Wauquiez.

Michel Dantin (born 15 January 1960, Lyon) is a French politician who served as a Member of the European Parliament for the South-East France constituency from 2009 until 2019. In addition, he has been the mayor of Chambéry since 2014. He is a member of the Republicans.


Council of Jamnia.

The Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE put as abrupt an end to the disputes of the schools as it did to the contests between political parties. It was then that a disciple of Hillel the Elder, Johanan ben Zakai, founded a new home for Jewish Law in Yavne (Jamnia). The seat of the Sanhedrin at Yavne, which at once constituted itself the successor of the Great Sanhedrin of Jerusalem by putting into practice the ordinances of that body as far as was necessary and practicable, attracted all those who had escaped the national catastrophe and who had become prominent by their character and their learning.  Moreover, it reared a new generation of similarly gifted men, whose task it became to overcome the results of the Bar Kokhba revolt. During the interval between these two disasters (56-117), or, more accurately, until the Kitos War under Trajan, the school at Yavne was the recognized tribunal that gathered the traditions of the past and confirmed them; that ruled and regulated existing conditions; and that sowed the seeds for future development. Next to its founder, it owed its splendor and its undisputed supremacy especially to Gamaliel II, a great-grandson of Hillel. To him flocked the pupils of Johanan ben Zakkai and other masters and students of the Law and of Talmudical hermeneutics. Although some of them taught and labored in other places – Eliezer ben Hurcanus in Lod; Joshua ben Hananiah in Peki'in; Rabbi Ishmael in Kefar Aziz, Rabbi Akiva in Bnei Brak; Haninah ben Teradion in Siknin – Yavne remained the center; and in "the vineyard" of Yavne, as they called their place of meeting, they used to assemble for joint action.

Levantine Judaism restored.

In the fertile ground of the Yavne Academy the roots of the literature of tradition — Midrash and Mishnah, Talmud and Aggadah — were nourished and strengthened. There, too, the way was paved for a systematic treatment of Halakhah and exegesis. In Yavne were held the decisive debates upon the canonicity of certain Biblical books; there the Jewish liturgy received its permanent form; and there, probably, was edited the Targum on the Pentateuch, which became the foundation for the later Targum named after Onkelos. It was Yavne that inspired and sanctioned the new Greek language version of the Bible — that of Akylas (Aquila of Sinope). The events that preceded and followed the great civil revolution under Bar Kokhba (from the year 117 to about 140) resulted in the decay and death of the school at Yavne. According to tradition, the Sanhedrin was removed from Yavne to Usha, from Usha back to Yavne, and a second time from Yavne to Usha. This final settlement in Usha indicates the ultimate spiritual supremacy of Galilee over Judea, the latter having become depopulated by the war of Hadrian. Usha remained for a long time the seat of the academy; its importance being due to the pupils of Akiba, one of whom, Judah bar Ilai, had his home in Usha. Here was undertaken the great work of the restoration of Levantine Judaism after its disintegration under Hadrian. The study of the Law flourished anew; and Simeon ben Gamliel II, was invested with the rank that had been his father's in Yavne. With him the rank of nasi or patriarch became hereditary in the house of Hillel, and the seat of the academy was made identical with that of the patriarch.

Location of the Patriarchate.

In the time of Shimon ben Gamaliel II, the seat of the Patriarchate frequently shifted location; its first move being from Usha to Shefa-'Amr; thence, under Simeon's son and successor, Judah the Prince, to Beit She'arim; and finally to Sepphoris, where a celebrated disciple of Akiba, Jose ben Halafta, had been teaching. Only with great difficulty could Shimon ben Gamaliel establish his authority over this pupil of Akiba, who far outshone him in learning. Shimon's son, Judah I, however, was fortunate enough to unite with his inherited rank the indisputable reputation of a distinguished scholar, a combination of great importance under the circumstances. Judah, in whom "Torah and dignity" were combined, was the man appointed to close an important epoch and to lay the foundation of a new one. The academy at Sepphoris, to which eminent students from Babylonia also flocked, erected an indestructible monument to itself through Judah's activity in editing the Mishnah, which attained to canonical standing as the authentic collection of the legal traditions of religious practise. In the Mishnah, the completion of which was accomplished soon after the death of its author or editor (about 219), the schools both of the Land of Israel and of Babylonia received a recognized text-book, upon which the lectures and the debates of the students were thence-forward founded. The recognition of Rabbi Judah's Mishnah marks a strong dividing line in the history of the Academies and their teachers: it indicates the transition from the age of the Tannaim to that of the Amoraim.

Centers of learning.

After Judah's death Sepphoris did not long remain the seat of the patriarch and the Academy. Gamaliel III, the unpretentious son of a distinguished father, became patriarch; but Hanina bar Hama succeeded him as head of the school, and introduced the new order of things that commenced with the completion of the Mishnah. In Hanina's lifetime the last migration of the Sanhedrin occurred. His pupil, Johanan bar Nappaha, settled in Tiberias, and the patriarch Judah II (grandson of Judah I) soon found himself compelled to remove to that city. The imposing personality and unexampled learning of Johanan rendered Tiberias for a long period the undisputed center of Levantine Judaism, the magnet which attracted Babylonian students.  When Johanan died in 279—this is the only settled date in the whole chronology of the Amoraim—the renown of the Tiberias Academy was so firmly established that it suffered no deterioration under his successors, although none of them equaled him in learning. For a time, indeed, Caesarea came into prominence, owing solely to the influence of Hoshaya, who lived there in the first half of the third century, and exercised the duties of a teacher contemporaneously with the Church Father Origen, with whom he had personal intercourse. After Johanan's death the school at Cæsarea attained a new standing under his pupil Abbahu; and throughout the whole of the fourth century the opinions of the "sages of Caesarea" were taken into respectful account, even in Tiberias. Sepphoris also resumed its former importance as a seat of learning; and eminent men worked there in the fourth century, long after the disaster to the city wrought by the forces of the emperor Gallus. From the beginning of the third century there had been an academy at Lydda in Judea, or "the South," as Judea was then called. This academy now gained a new reputation as a school of traditional learning. From it came the teacher to whom Jerome owed his knowledge of Hebrew and his insight into the "Hebræa Veritas." But neither Caesarea, Sepphoris, nor Lydda could detract from the renown of Tiberias.  Tiberias accordingly remained the abode of the official head of Judaism in the Land of Israel and, in a certain sense, of the Judaism of the whole Roman Empire, as well as the seat of the Academy, which considered itself the successor of the ancient Sanhedrin. The right of ordination which, since Shimon ben Gamaliel II, the patriarch alone had exercised (either with or without the consent of the Council of Sages), was later on so regulated that the degree could only be conferred by the patriarch and council conjointly. The patriarchal dignity had meanwhile become worldly, as it were; for exceptional learning was by no means held to be an essential attribute of its possessor. The Academy of Tiberias, whose unordained members were called ḥaberim (associates), never lacked men, of more or less ability, who labored and taught in the manner of Johanan. Among these may be mentioned Eleazar ben Pedat, Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi, Hiyya bar Abba, Rav Zeira, Samuel ben Isaac, Jonah, Jose, Jeremiah, Mani, the son of Jonah, and Jose ben Abin, who constitute a series of brilliant names in the field of the Halakah. In the department of the Aggadah — always highly prized and popular in the Land of Israel - the renown of Tiberias was also greatly augmented by many prominent and productive workers, from the contemporaries and pupils of Johanan down to Tanhuma ben Abba, who was illustrious as a collector and an editor of aggadic literature.

The Jerusalem Talmud.

The imperishable monument to the school of Tiberias is the Jerusalem Talmud (Palestinian Talmud), of which Johanan ben Nappaha laid the foundation; for which reason he is generally styled, although erroneously, its redactor or author. In point of fact, however, this work was not completed until nearly a century and a half after Johanan's death; and its close is undoubtedly connected with the extinction of the patriarchal office (about 425). But Tiberias did not therefore cease to be a seat of learning, although very little of its subsequent activity is known.

The Tiberian punctuation.

Further importance was gained by Tiberias as the seat of the Masoretic traditions and innovations; for there in the seventh century was introduced that system of punctuation which was destined to aid so efficiently in the proper reading and understanding of the Biblical text. This system, which achieved universal recognition, is called the "Tiberian punctuation". At Tiberias flourished, about the middle of the eighth century, the Masorite Phinehas, called also "Rosh Yeshiva" ("Head of the Academy"), and Asher the Great, forefather of five generations of Masorites (Nehemiah ben Asher, Moses ben Nehemiah, Asher ben Moses, Moses ben Asher, and Aaron ben Moses), was to a certain extent his contemporary. The last-named Aaron ben Moses ben Asher (briefly called Ben Asher), a contemporary of Saadia Gaon, brought the Tiberian school of Masorites to a distinguished end. Tiberias thereafter ceased to play any part in Jewish learning, until, in the twelfth century, it emerged for a brief period, and again in the sixteenth century, when it became the object of the pious ambition of Don Joseph Nasi of Naxos.

The Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina were "yeshivot" that served as centers for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Syria Palaestina (and later Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda) between the destruction of the Second Temple "circa" 70 CE and the deposition of Raban Gamliel VI "circa" 425 CE. The academies had a great and lasting impact on the development of world Jewry, including the creation of the Jerusalem Talmud. The region designated as the Land of Israel / Eretz Yisrael in Jewish sources was during the Talmudic period also officially known as Syria Palaestina (under the Romans) and Palaestina Prima / Palaestina Secunda (under the Byzantines).


History.

In March 1812, a number of prominent Scotsmen gathered in the Royal Exchange Coffee Rooms in Edinburgh. They were there to discuss setting up 'a general fund for securing provisions to widows, sisters and other female relatives' of fundholders so that they would not be plunged into poverty on the death of the fundholder during and after the Napoleonic Wars. Scottish Widows' Fund and Life Assurance Society opened in 1815 as Scotland's first mutual life office.  Its most noteworthy leader was Very Rev James Grant who served as its Director for 50 years (1840-1890).  In 1999, Lloyds TSB agreed to buy the society for £7 billion. The society demutualised on 3 March 2000 as part of the acquisition. At the time of its takeover, Scottish Widows set up an "additional account" to hold £1.7 billion of the proceeds from the sale. This fund was to be used to enhance terminal bonuses across the company, but was eventually used to compensate guaranteed annuity rate options (GARs) holders.  In April 2009, Lloyds Banking Group announced that the sales team of Clerical Medical would be merged into that of Scottish Widows, and the Clerical Medical brand would eventually be phased out.  In November 2013, Lloyds Banking Group sold its asset management division, Scottish Widows Investment Partnership (SWIP) to Aberdeen Asset Management in a £660m deal.  In 2015, Scottish Widows sold Clerical Medical to international life assurance company RL360°.

Advertising.

The Scottish Widow first appeared in a television advert directed by David Bailey in 1986. Since then, Scottish Widows has made 10 adverts featuring the Scottish Widow.  Four models have portrayed the Scottish Widow, a hooded character featured in the company's advertising. The original Widow, chosen to portray the company's brand values in the 'Looking Good' commercial in 1986, was Deborah Moore, daughter of actor Roger Moore. In 1994, Amanda Lamb took over the role. Hayley Hunt became the third Scottish Widow in 2005. In 2014, the company announced that the fourth Scottish Widow would be Amber Martinez.

Sponsorships.

Scottish Widows was the Official Pensions and Investment Provider of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The company employs athletes Roger Black MBE and Sarah Storey OBE as their Olympic Ambassadors.

In popular culture.

The establishment of the fund is briefly mentioned in Yuval Harari's 2011 book "."

Scottish Widows is a life insurance and pensions company located in Edinburgh, Scotland, and is a subsidiary of Lloyds Banking Group. Its product range includes life assurance and pensions. The company has been providing financial services to the UK market since 1815. The company sells products through independent financial advisers, direct to customers and through Lloyds Banking Group bank branches. The well-known investment and asset management arm (Scottish Widows Investment Partnership) was sold in 2013 to Aberdeen Asset Management.


Life and career.

Fauchois was born in Rouen to a family of modest means. He was educated at the state schools of the city, the école maternelle, école communale and école primaire supérieure. He sang in the choir of a local church, where he developed a strong interest in ritual and religion. Determined on a theatrical career he moved to Paris as a young man, enrolling as a student at the Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation. He supported himself by selling newspapers and working as a prompter at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre.  While still a student Fauchois had his first play produced. This was "Le Roi des Juifs", a verse drama in five acts, which the Théâtre de l’Œuvre staged in 1899. The following year he successfully auditioned for a small role in Edmond Rostand's play "L'Aiglon", presented by and starring Sarah Bernhardt. From this beginning he made a successful career as an actor, appearing in several more productions with Bernhardt and with Mounet-Sully. He was a versatile actor, capable of playing tragic classical heroes or modern light comedy leads.  As a playwright Fauchois had a series of modest successes between 1902 and 1909. His first real triumph was in 1909, a three-act verse drama called "Beethoven", a portrayal of the composer's life and personality. It was translated into several languages and produced in many parts of the world. A succession of plays followed, none quite such great hits as "Beethoven", but successes nevertheless. A long-term project, begun in 1907 but not complete until 1913, was an opera, "Pénélope", with a libretto by Fauchois and music by Gabriel Fauré. The Fauré scholar Jean-Michel Nectoux comments on aspects of the libretto that he regards as flawed, but Fauré was much impressed by "the straightforwardness of the action and by the dignity of the characters". The work was a success when presented at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées in Paris, but its fame was short-lived: the furore of the premiere of "The Rite of Spring" in the same theatre less than a month later relegated the opera to the background. A few years later Fauchois wrote another libretto on a classical theme: "Nausicaa", to music by Reynaldo Hahn, which was premiered in 1919.  During the First World War Fauchois wrote and acted less, although three of his plays were presented at the Comédie-Française: "La Veillée des armes" (1915), "L'Augusta" and "Vitrail" (1916). Resuming his career as a playwright after the war he found himself typecast as the author of grand verse dramas. He struggled to establish himself as a writer of prose comedy. His "Boudu sauvé des eaux" (1919), in which he played a leading role, was a "succès de scandale", but it was not until Sacha Guitry produced Fauchois' "La Danseuse éperdue" in 1922 that the writer's gift for comedy was widely recognised.  In the view of the writer Clifford Parker, Fauchois' masterpiece is "Prenez garde à la peinture" (1932):  The play had a long run at the Théâtre des Mathurins in Paris, and was also played in the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Italy, the US and England. The American and English versions of the play are both called "The Late Christopher Bean". The American adaptation was filmed in 1933 with Marie Dressler and Lionel Barrymore in the leading roles. The French film version (1932), which retains the original title, follows the action of the stage play more closely than the American and English adaptations.  Fauchois' career continued for nearly three decades after the success of "Prenez garde à la peinture". He wrote more than twenty further stage works, and continued to act in plays and films. Among the works of his later years was a third libretto, an operatic adaptation of "Madame Bovary" (1951) to music by Emmanuel Bondeville. French Wikipedia has a complete list of Fauchois' plays.  Fauchois died in Paris on 10 February 1962 at the age of 79.

René Fauchois (31 August 1882 – 10 February 1962) was a French dramatist, librettist and actor. Stagestruck from his youth he moved from his native Rouen to Paris as a teenager to pursue a stage career. He had early success both as an actor and as a playwright. Among those with whom he collaborated as his career flourished were Sarah Bernhardt and Sacha Guitry. His career lasted for more than sixty years, and his output was prolific.


History.

The CJN was officially founded on February 27, 1931 by Brother Adrien Rivard of the Sainte-Croix congregation. In the beginning, the organization was supported by the Société Canadienne d'Histoire Naturelle. This society, established by Brother Marie-Victorin, in 1923, encouraged the popularization and study of natural sciences in Canada, the development of scientific research projects and the creation of connections between Canadian and international scholars.  At first, the organization was described by Marie-Victorin as a structure that would allow school kids to establish connections with the members of the SCHN. In 1946 the partnership between the CJN and the SCHN became official as certain rules of its constitution were modified. Among other things, it was specified that the CJN was connected to the SCHN and that its main goals were to: a) stimulate and promote the study of natural sciences b) encourage young people to show initiative and be observant c) encourage the protection of our natural resources and the embellishment of our properties. Even though the CJN were allowed the greatest latitude under the SCHN direction, on October 29, 1957 its members decided to separate from the Society. That same year, the CJN became a non-profit organization. During the first half of the 20th century, the CJN appears to have played an important part in the teaching of Natural Sciences in Quebec. In fact, until 1964, most specifically until a Public Education Network was created, each and every school board of the province was allowed to form its own programs and handbooks. In many cases, those did not include appropriate information or activities related to Natural Sciences. In fact, at the time, the educational system was starting to be severely criticized by the French Canadian Intelligentsia (among others, Brother Marie-Victorin and André Pouliot). In that sense, the formation of "circles" among religious schools across the province, appeared as a solution to improve the educational system's image without reforming it. Until the 1970s, the circles were, indeed, almost exclusively founded among religious schools and consisted, mostly, of young girls. The movement which had blossomed in Quebec during the 1960s (with more than 30 000 members) would lose momentum in the 1970s. In fact, after the Ministry of Education was created, a lot of circles disappeared. During the last three decades the CJN has been supporting around 100 circles a year (between 1000 and 2000 members). The corporate headquarters of the CJN is still located in the administrative building of the Montreal Botanical Garden.

Prominent members of the CJN.

Brother Adrien Rivard (1890–1969) : Founder and director of the CJN (1931–1947). Brother Marie-Victorin (1885–1944) : President of the SCHN (1925–1940), Founder and Director of the Montreal Botanical Garden (and its Institute) and author of the Laurentian Flora (1935). Marcelle Gauvreau (1907–1968) : Assistant secretary (1933–1936) and Head of secretary (1938–1950) of the CJN. Author of a master's thesis entitled "Les algues marines du Québec" (1939). Sister Marie Jean-Eudes (1897–1978) : Member of the CJN administration (1945–1963) and author of a master's thesis entitled "La flore de Rawdon" (1943). Dollard Sénécal (1912–2002) : Member of the CJN administration (1954–1976). Laure Bouchard : Director and member of the CJN administration (1997–2001, 2004–2009).

Services.

The many activities and services provided by the CJN include the following:

Les Cercles des jeunes naturalistes (CJN) is a Quebec-based non-profit organization which has been seeking to foster an interest in nature and natural sciences among young people for over 80 years.


History and Tourism.

The town was officially founded on 25 May 1906 and was settled by European colonists, many from central and eastern Europe. Communication with the rest of the province was originally by boat, principally boats to Campana and San Fernando in Buenos Aires and the occasional steamboat to Gualeguaychú. In 1937 "hopscotch" dirt roads arrived and in 1971 the town was connected to a supply of electricity. Amateur radio is still in use today. Formerly, the third section was populated by island cottages nestled amidst well-manicured gardened parks and by Travelers Rest Guesthouses (Inns) for recreation and lodging. Some still stand radiating the charm of a bygone era, well known where Lietuva, Sagastume and Carlos Jahn in Arroyo Martínez, once they were used by the sport fishermen who indulged themselves in this paradise where fish of all type, specially golden dorado, surubíes, chafalotes, tarariras and boga thrived.  Until recently it was possible to get here by commuter boats, the Galofré line had been doing it since the early 1930s, they would start from either Tigre and/or from the San Fernando channels in Buenos Aires, the journey took all of Saturday morning and the return trip most of Sunday afternoon, it crossed the majestic Paraná River and the most inhospitable sections of the delta until finally arriving at Villa Paranacito, sandwiches and refreshments in white-clad servers where served on board. Nowadays you may get there by bus or car, located at 182 km from Buenos Aires, through the Zárate-Brazo Largo Bridge, turning off the highway, the last stretch being unpaved pebbled road. Within the epicenter of Villa Paranacito, several guest accommodations are still available that are used mainly for recreational activities. The one furthest apart which conserves a remarkable nostalgic air and is accessed by water taxi is Hostería Rose Marie, name of the daughter of a Hungarian who was proprietor of so beautiful large house constructed in the first decade of the twentieth century, strategically located in an area well known for fishing, just a short distance from the mouth of Arroyo Martínez.  A very peculiar custom with folks that reside along the rivers is the delivery of mail, with a long cane which has a groove in the end where mail is attached, the boat without stopping by the pier delivers the mail to the hand of the islander (or vice versa) with no need to berth the ship on pier, this "marine mail delivery" has been a long tradition in the delta.  Villa Paranacito is a base to explore the Paraná Delta. A small tourist office is located in the town.

Villa Paranacito is a town in the southeast corner of the province of Entre Ríos, Argentina, head town of the Islas del Ibicuy Departament. It is located in the third section of the delta at the heart of the low-lying Ibicuy Islands in the Paraná Delta and is the administrative centre for the dispersed inhabitants of the islands and the delta's timber producers. Many of the town's inhabitants live on outlying islands, and several thousand more live across the whole group of islands.


The early years.

The first edition of The Party began at the MesseCenteret in Aars, Denmark, on December 26, 1991. Only Amiga demo groups were involved in organizing the party: Crystal (a cracking group which spun off Melon Dezign), The Silents, and Anarchy. Attendance was near double what was expected. The top three winners in the Amiga demo competition were "Hardwired", "Voyage", and "Odyssey".  In 1992, The Party 2, which was actually called "The Final" due to uncertainty of The Party's future, attracted an even more overwhelming number of demosceners. The Amiga organization remained the same, but PC and C64 sceners started to attend and create their own compos. The Amiga demo compo winner was "State of the Art". A 40k intro competition was held for the first time. "Facts of Life" won the PC demo competition in a ruling contested by Future Crew, the runners-up and compo organizers, because no voting actually took place. Jesper Kyd performed at The Party regularly.

Expansion.

Shift in platforms.

In 1993, The Party moved to the Herning Messecenter in Herning. Lemon. and Spaceballs took over Amiga organizing. The PC side had a full, separate set of competitions. There were many arguments between the Amiga and PC organizers, with the PC side threatening to secede and start their own party in 1994. The threat became empty as The Party remained multi-platform. The Party moved again in 1995 to Fredericia before returning to Aars from 1996 until its demise. The PC scene visitors gradually outnumbered the Amiga scene visitors who dominated the early years.

Shift in scenes.

With 3000 visitors and rising, The Party started attracting elements outside of the demo scene. In the early 1990s, rave culture exploded in Denmark, and kids found The Party to be a fun place to dance and blast music. They mostly coincided peacefully with the demo sceners, but in 1995, a rave in the sleeping hall sparked numerous complaints.  With the release of "Doom" just weeks before The Party 3 in 1993, network gaming became an overnight sensation, transforming part of the event into the first major LAN party. Through the 1990s, the gaming element of The Party steadily grew while the demoscene element remained stagnant.

The final years.

By 2000, much of the demo scene had abandoned The Party in favor of other demo parties taking place around the same time. Amiga sceners formed a smaller alternative called TRSAC ("The Real Scene After Christmas"), while C64 and PC sceners started tUM ("the Ultimate Meeting") in Germany. It was the winning 64k intro from Farbrausch, "FR-08:.the.product", that briefly drew demoscene attention back to The Party and gave the organizers enough hope to declare the next party's motto "Back To The Roots". But that promise fell flat as demosceners saw little effort to back it. Sceners complained about constant harassment by both the local security people (who would constantly search their bags for alcohol) and gamers (who would complain about the compos being too loud). The competitions in 2002 were abandoned to the point where all demos and intros were combined into one compo. The Party was cancelled the following year.

The Party (or "TP", for short) was an annual demoscene event held from 1991 to 2002 in Denmark. It was one of the first events of its kind and set the trend for many other demoscene parties in Europe. At its peak in the 2000 party it was joined by up to 5000 people.


Birth.

Serfoji was born on 24 September 1777 in the royal house of the Maratha king, Chattrapati Shivaji. Raja Thulajah, the king of Thanjavur adopted him as his son on 23 January 1787 by duly performing all of the religious rites. The boy was entrusted to the care of Rev. Christian Freidrich Schwartz, a Danish missionary.

Difficulties faced in early life.

But Thulajah died soon afterwards and his half-brother Amar Singh who had earlier been appointed regent to the boy-king usurped the throne in 1787. Amar Singh denied the young prince the benefits of basic education.  At this juncture, Rev. Schwartz intervened to save the young prince and sent him to Madras where he was educated by Rev. Wilhelm Gericke of the Lutheran Mission. Soon, he became proficient in Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Sanskrit, French, German, Danish, Greek, Dutch and Latin.

Restoration to the throne.

Meanwhile, the British interposed on his behalf and Serfoji ascended the throne of Thanjavur on 29 June 1798. In return for their assistance, Serfoji was forced to cede the administration of the Kingdom to the British and, in return, was granted an annual pension of 100,000 star pagodas and one-fifth of the state's land revenue. Serfoji's sovereignty was restricted to the Fort of Thanjavur and its surrounding areas. Therefore, Serfoji is remembered in history as the last sovereign ruler of Thanjavur.

Reign and administration.

During Serfoji's reign which lasted from 1798 until his death in 1832, for the first time, the proceedings of the Tanjore durbar were recorded in paper. The Delta region was divided into five districts each under a Subedar Administrative Heads. And created a strong Advisory Board with 6 Intelligent peoples, later who served as administration heads of five divided districts. Cultivable lands yielded good profits and the judiciary system was highly efficient and praiseworthy.  Serfoji is also credited with having built a lot of chathrams or rest houses for weary pilgrims. These pilgrims received free boarding and lodging and their needs were taken care of by the State. In all Serfoji built three important chathrams, including one at Orathanadu.

Contribution to the Sarasvati Mahal Library.

The Sarasvati Mahal Library was founded as a Palace Library by the Nayak kings of Thanjavur (1535–1675), it was however Serfoji who enriched it with priceless works, maps, dictionaries, coins and artwork.  The bibliophile that he was, he purchased around 4000 books from different parts of the world and enriched his library with his enormous book collection. Medical treatises, in the library collection contained his remarks alongside, in English. His library included treatises on Vedanta, grammar, music, dance and drama, architecture, astronomy, medicine, training of elephants and horses, etc. Serfoji set up the first Devanagari printing press in South India, using stone letters. He sent many Pundits including Aarur Swai ||ANIRUDRA|| Thyagarajar Iyer and puthukotai Adhi Nayagam Pillai far and wide and collected huge number of books and manuscripts for this Library. All the books in the library carry his personal autograph in English.  Apart from these, the Library contains a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Maratha court known as the Modi documents, French-Maratha correspondence of the 18th century.  The Encyclopædia Britannica in its survey of the libraries of the world mentions this as ""perhaps the most remarkable library in India"".  The Library is situated in the centre of Nayak palace and it was opened for public in 1918. There is also a small museum there for the visitors.

Educational reforms.

Serfoji founded a school called Navavidhya Kalanidhi Sala where languages, literature, the sciences and arts and crafts were taught in addition to the Vedas and shastras. Serfoji maintained close ties with the Danes at Tarangambadi and visited their schools quite often and appreciated their way of functioning. Impressed, he tried to implement European methods of teachings and education all over his Empire. He was a supporter of the emancipation of Indian women and revolutionized education by appointing women teachers.  Serfojis is also credited with installing a hand press with Devanagari type in 1805, the first of its kind in South India. He also established a stone type press called "Nava Vidhya Kalanidhi Varnayanthra Sala".

Civic amenities.

Serfoji constructed ten water tanks and a number of wells for civic use. He implemented an underground drainage system for the whole of Thanjavur city.

Medicine.

Serfoji established the Dhanavantari Mahal, a research institution that produced herbal (indigenous medicine) medicine for humans and animals. The institution also treated sick people and maintained case-sheets which have become famous of late. Here, physicians of modern medicine, ayurveda, unani and siddha schools have performed research upon drugs and herbs for medical cure and had produced eighteen volumes of research material. Serfoji also had the important herbs studied and catalogued in the form of exquisite hand paintings.  Based on the medical prescriptions stored at the Dhanvanthri Mahal, a set of poems were compiled detailing the procedures to cure various diseases. These poems were collected and published as a book, called Sarabhendra Vaidhya Muraigal.

Ophthalmology.

In September 2003, during a meeting between Dr. Badrinath and Babaji Rajah Bhonsle, the current Scion of the royal family of Thanjavur and sixth in line from King Serfoji II, the existence of 200-year-old manuscripts in the Saraswathi Mahal library, containing records of the ophthalmic surgical operations believed to have been performed by Prince Serfoji II, came to light Serfoji II regularly carried a surgical kit with him, wherever he went and performed even cataract surgeries. Seforji's "operations" have been recorded in detail in English with detailed case histories of the patients he operated. These manuscripts form a part of the collection at the Saraswathi Mahal Library.

Zoological garden.

Serfoji created the first Zoological Garden in Tamil Nadu in the Thanjavur palace premises.

Shipping.

Serfoji erected a shipyard at Manora, around fifty kilometers from Thanjavur. Serfoji also established a meteorological station to facilitate trade. He had a gun factory, a naval library and a naval store with all kinds of navigational instruments.  Serfoji was also keenly interested in painting, gardening, coin-collecting, martial arts and patronized chariot-racing, hunting and bull-fighting.

Contribution to arts and music.

Serfoji was a patron of traditional Indian arts like dance and music. He authored famous works like "Kumarasambhava Champu", "Mudrarakshaschaya" and "Devendra Kuruvanji" and introduced western musical instruments like clarinet and violin in Carnatic Music. Serfoji is also credited with inaugurating and popularising if not inventing the unique Thanjavur style of painting.

Construction and renovation activities.

The five story Sarjah Mahadi in the Thanjavur palace and the Manora Fort Tower at Saluvanayakanpattinam were constructed in Serfoji's reign. He installed lightning rods at the top of these monuments and had the history of the Bhonsle Dynasty inscribed on the south-western wall of the Brihadeeswara Temple. It is considered to be the lengthiest inscription in the world. Serfoji also renovated and reconstructed several existing temples like the Brihadeeswara Temple apart from building new ones. He was also an ardent philanthropist and a member of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Pilgrimage to Kasi.

In 1820-21, Serfoji embarked on a pilgrimage to Kasi along with a retinue of 3,000 disciples and camp-followers. He encamped at several places along the route, giving away alms to the needy and the poor and engaging himself in acts of charity. He was also involved in the renovation of several holy places. Memories of the pilgrimage have survived to the present day in the paintings of the bathing ghats on the Ganges and the different holy sites commissioned by him.

Religious tolerance.

Serfoji was open-minded and tolerant of other faiths. He liberally funded churches and schools run by Christian missionaries. He was also a patron of Thanjavur Bade Hussein Durgah.

Death.

Serfoji II died on 7 March 1832 after a reign of almost 40 years (His first reign was from 1787 to 1793 and his second reign was from 1798 to 1832). His death was mourned throughout the empire and his funeral procession was attended by over 90,000 people.

Legacy.

In the history of pre-Victorian India, Serfoji's name often pops up at the first instance. He was a great savant and humanist, a man who was far ahead of his times. During his time, Thanjavur was one of the most developed princely states in the Indian subcontinent. While many rajahs were engrossed in fighting and civil wars, Serfoji ushered in an era of peace, prosperity and scientific development and pioneered new administrative and educational reforms. His vision helped Thanjavur forge ahead of other princely states and advance into a new age and emerge as a fitting competitor to European nations. Above all, he was an enlightened and educated soul; the quintessential Indian maharajah of the British colonial era who was at home with both Latin as well as Sanskrit and could converse and compile literary works in both Tamil as well as English. At his funeral, a visiting missionary, Rev. Bishop Heber observed: I have seen many crowned heads, but not one whose deportment was more princely.

Serfoji II Bhonsle ( ராஜா போன்ஸ்லே, ) (24 September 1777 – 7 March 1832) also spelt as Sarabhoji II Bhonsle, was the last ruler of the Bhonsle dynasty of the Maratha principality of Tanjore to exercise absolute sovereignty over his dominions. His descendants, however, have managed to thrive as titular Maharajahs of Thanjavur to the present day. Serfoji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of Marathas and was descended from Shivaji's half-brother Venkoji. He ruled Thanjavur from 1798 until his death in 1832.