History.

Imperial Russian nationalism.

The Russian motto "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" was coined by Count Sergey Uvarov and adopted by Emperor Nicholas I as official ideology. Three components of Uvarov's triad were:  The Slavophile movement became popular in 19th-century Russia. Slavophiles opposed influences of Western Europe in Russia and were determined to protect Russian culture and traditions. Aleksey Khomyakov, Ivan Kireyevsky, and Konstantin Aksakov are credited with co-founding the movement. A notable folk revival in Russian art was loosely related to Slavophilia. Many works concerning Russian history, mythology and fairy tales appeared. Operas by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Mikhail Glinka and Alexander Borodin; paintings by Viktor Vasnetsov, Ivan Bilibin and Ilya Repin; and poems by Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, among others, are considered masterpieces of Russian romantic nationalism. According to Fyodor Tyutchev, a notable Russian poet of 19th century:  Pan-Slavism, an ideal of unity of all Slavic Orthodox Christian nations, gained popularity in the mid- to late 19th century. Among its major ideologists were Nikolay Danilevsky. Pan-Slavism was fueled by and was the fuel for Russia's numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire with the goal of liberating Orthodox nations, such as Bulgarians, Romanians, Serbs and Greeks, from Muslim rule. The final goal was Constantinople; the Russian Empire still considered itself the "Third Rome" and saw its duty as conquering the "Second Rome". Pan-Slavism also played a key role in Russia's entry into World War I, since the 1914 war against Serbia by Austria-Hungary triggered Russia's response.  In the beginning of 20th century, new nationalist and rightist organizations and parties emerged in Russia, such as the Russian Assembly, the Union of the Russian People, the Union of Archangel Michael and others. Their motto was "Russia for Russians". These parties remained monarchist and anti-Semitic; they were organized by wealthy, powerful aristocrats such as Vladimir Purishkevich and Nikolai Yevgenyevich Markov.

Soviet nationalism.

The Bolshevik revolutionaries who seized power in 1917 were nominally "antinationalists" and "antipatriots". The newborn Soviet republic under Vladimir Lenin proclaimed internationalism as its official ideology using the Russian language—which was also the language of their party and government. Since Russian patriotism served as a legitimizing prop of old order, Bolshevik leaders were anxious to suppress its manifestations and ensure its eventual extinction. They officially discouraged Russian nationalism and remnants of Imperial patriotism, such as the wearing of military awards received before Civil War. Some their followers were unlike minded; in non-Russian territories Bolshevik power was often regarded as renewed Russian imperialism during 1919 to 1921. After 1923 a policy of nativization, which provided government support for non-Russian culture and languages within the non-Russian republics, was adopted.  Romantic Russian nationalist themes appeared in art, such as the historical epic films by Sergei Eisenstein and Vsevolod Pudovkin, as well as Sergei Sergeyev-Tsensky's patriotic novels.  The creation of an international communist state under control of the workers was perceived by some as accomplishment of Russian nationalistic dreams. Poet Pavel Kogan described his feelings of the Soviet patriotism just before World War II:  According to Nikolai Berdyaev: The Soviet Union's war against Nazi Germany became known as the Great Patriotic War, recalling the previous use of the term in the Napoleonic Wars, the Patriotic War. The Soviet state called for its citizens to defend the "Motherland"; Stalin proclaimed the slogan "Not a step back!". At the same time, Nazi Germany organised collaborationist military units such as Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army and Pyotr Krasnov's Cossacks. During the Second World War, the strong patriotism of Vlasov's army presented Russians with an alternative to the state-centered nationalism promoted by the Stalin's government. In 1944, the Soviet Union abandoned its communist anthem The Internationale and adopted new national anthem.

Contemporary nationalism.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church restored much of its Tsarist-Russian influence on the society. The church became a common source of Russian pride and nationalism. The official ideology did not completely turn to Imperial monarchist sentiment but tried to maintain a balance between Tsarist and Soviet ideals. The ruling United Russia party said its view of Russia is that of a multi-national republic and calls for national tolerance one of its key platforms. Vladimir Putin's government is also using natalist policies by giving rewards and promoting more children in families.  Many nationalist movements, both radical and moderate, have arisen in modern Russia. One of the oldest and most popular is Vladimir Zhirinovsky's right-wing populist LDPR, which had been a member of the State Duma since its creation in 1993. Rodina was a popular moderate left-wing nationalist party under Dmitry Rogozin, which eventually abandoned its nationalist ideology and merged with the larger socialist party A Just Russia. One of the more radical, ultranationalist movements is Russian National Unity, a far-right group that organises paramilitary brigades of its younger members. Others include BORN (Militant Organization of Russian Nationalists) which was involved in the murder of Stanislav Markelov, the neo-monarchist Pamyat, the Union of Orthodox Banner-Bearers, and the Movement Against Illegal Immigration, which revived the slogan "Russia for Russians" and usually attract young skinheads. These parties organise an annual rally called the Russian March.  A rise of radical nationalism in modern Russia is considered to be a result of several factors; the humiliation felt after the fall of the Soviet Union; a response to the activity of ethnic criminal groups from the South Caucasus and Central Asia and ongoing illegal immigration from these regions; and a reaction to modern, Russian-enforced national tolerance. It is also alleged that the FSB is selectively using nationalist extremism to drive sentiments in the society in desired direction. In modern Russia, the term националист () or "nationalist" bears the negative connotation of far-right nationalists and neo-fascists, rather than in the word's original meaning. Some parties like United Russia use the word as a pejorative synonymous with chauvinism regarding their right-wing opponents.  The financial crisis starting 2008-2009 saw the anti-immigration sentiment become more accepted in Russia because of an increased concern that immigrants—particularly illegals—would compete for jobs with the domestic workforce, and if not getting jobs, would turn to crime.  Outside Russia, with the fall of Soviet ideology of enforced internationalism, national clashes among the ethnic groups within its former borders erupted. Because of repressive Soviet occupation politics and the privileged status of Russians in Soviet society, some post-Soviet states rejected all things Russian and Soviet as a symbols of occupation, and particularly in the Baltic states and Georgia, with some embracing anti-Russian sentiment.  Following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, United Russia has increasingly relied on Russian nationalism for support. Politicians like Vladimir Zhirinovsky started building their narrative on categorically denying Ukrainian ethnos. At the same time, the ruling party cultivated close ties with Eurosceptic, far-right and far-left political movements, supporting them financially and inviting them to Eurasian conferences in Crimea and Saint Petersburg.  In March 2015, the Russian nationalist party Rodina organized the International Russian Conservative Forum in Saint Petersburg, inviting a majority of its far-left and far-right (including openly neo-Nazi) supporters from abroad, many of whom had visited a similar event in Crimea in 2014: Udo Voigt, Jim Dowson, Nick Griffin, Jared Taylor, Roberto Fiore, Georgios Epitidios (Golden Dawn) and others.

Extremist nationalism.

"Extremist nationalism in Russia" refers to many far-right and a few far-left ultra-nationalist movements and organizations. Of note, the term "nationalism" in Russia often refers to extremist nationalism. However, it is often mixed up with "fascism" in Russia. While this terminology does not exactly match the formal definitions of fascism, the common denominator is chauvinism. In all other respects the positions vary over a wide spectrum. Some movements hold a political position that the state must be an instrument of nationalism (such as the National Bolshevik Party, headed by Eduard Limonov), while others (for example, Russian National Unity) resolve to vigilante tactics against the perceived "enemies of Russia" without going into politics.  Historically, the first prototype of such groups started with the Black Hundreds in Imperial Russia. More recent antisemitic, supremacist and neo-fascist organizations include Pamyat, Russian National Socialist Party and others.  In 1997, the Moscow Anti-Fascist Center estimated there were 40 (nationalist) extremist groups operating in Russia. The same source reported 35 extremist newspapers, the largest among these being "Zavtra". In spite of repression by governmental authorities, a far-right extremist movement has established itself in Russia.

Russian nationalism, the Russian version of nationalism, promotes the celebration and appreciation of Russian culture and history, as well as Russian cultural identity and unity. Russian nationalism first rose to prominence in the early 19th century, and became closely related to pan-Slavism, from its origin during the Russian Empire to the Soviet Union and beyond. Although often viewed in ethnic terms, this is not characteristic of Russian nationalism more generally.


Background.

Hungarian nobiliary historical tradition considered the Turkish peoples the closest relatives of Hungarians. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as Gesta Hungarorum and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, the Chronicon Pictum, and Chronica Hungarorum by Johannes de Thurocz) as early as the 13th century. According to Chronica Hungarorum, the Hungarians are descendants of the Huns, and came from the Asian parts of Scythia, and Turks share this Scythian origin with them. This tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the Uyghurs.  Before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians were semi-nomadic and their culture was similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists presume a Uralic homeland for the ancient Hungarian conquerors (mainly on genealogical linguistic grounds, and on the basis of genetic research carried out on a limited number of ancient skeletons found in graves from the age of the conquest). The proto-Hungarian tribes lived in the Eurasian forest steppe zone, and so these ancient ancestors of Hungarians and their relationship with other equestrian nomadic peoples has been and still is a topic for research.  As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned with research into Asian cultures in the context

Its roots, origins, and development.

The beginnings.

Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philologist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian languages in 1855. In his work "The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian." he called these languages "Turanian". Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the Southern Division, and the Northern Division. Hungarian language was classed by him as a member of this Northern Division, in the Finnic Class, in the Ugric Branch, with the Voguls and Ugro-Ostiakes as closest relatives. (In the long run, his evolutionist theory about languages' structural development, tying growing grammatical refinement to socio-economic development, and grouping languages into 'antediluvian', 'familial', 'nomadic', and 'political' developmental stages proved unsound, but his Northern Division was renamed and re-classed as the Ural-Altaic languages.) His theory was well known and widely discussed in international scientific circles, and was known to Hungarian scientists as well. He was invited to Budapest, the Hungarian capital, by Ármin Vámbéry, the Orientalist and Turkologist, in 1874, and become an associate member of the Hungarian Aceademy of Sciences. His public lectures received wide attention, and his terms (originally borrowed by him from Persian texts like the Shahnameh which used the

The role of the Habsburgs.

Hungary's constitution and her territorial integrity were abolished, and her territory was partitioned into crown lands. This signalled the start of a long era of absolutist rule. The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Press and theatrical/public performances were censored.  German became the official language of public administration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätze für die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesens in dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the education of national history was confined, and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint. Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners,

Ármin Vámbéry's work.

Vámbéry started his second journey into Asia in July 1861 with the approval and monetary help of the Akadémia and its president, Emil Dessewffy. After a long and perilous journey he arrived at Pest in May 1864. He went to London to arrange the English language publication of his book about the travels. "Travels in Central Asia" and its Hungarian counterpart "Közép-ázsiai utazás" were published in 1865. Thanks to his travels Vámbéry became an internationally renowned writer and celebrity. He became acquainted with members of British social elite. The

The "Ugric-Turkic War".

"The fight, which my fanatical opponents, regrettably, brought over also to the field of personal remarks, lasted quite a long time, but the old Latin proverb was proven once again: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis."  ""A küzdelem, melyet fanatikus ellenfeleim, sajnos, átvittek a személyeskedés terére is, eltartott jó sokáig, de ezúttal is bevált a régi diák közmondás: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis."" in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IX. p. 130.  Vámbéry's work was criticized by Finno-Ugrist József Budenz in "Jelentés Vámbéry Ármin magyar-török szóegyezéséről.", published in 1871. Budenz criticised Vámbéry and his work in an aggressive, derogatory style, and questioned Vámbéry's (scientific) honesty and credibility. (Budenz's work was investigated and analysed by a group of modern linguists, and they found it neither as scientific nor as conclusive in the question of the affiliation of Hungarian language, as the author stated.)  The historian Henrik Marczali, linguist Károly Pozder, linguist József Thúry, anthropologist Aurél Török, and others supported Vámbéry.  The Finn-Ugrist Pál Hunfalvy widened the front of the "Ugric-Turk War" with his book "Magyarország ethnographiája.", published in 1876. In this book he stresses the very strong connection between language and nation (p. 48.), tries to prove that the Huns were Finn-Ugric (p. 122.), questions the credibility and origin of the Gestas (p. 295.),

Political Turanism.

Hungarians and their ancestors lived amongst or in direct contact with Turanian/Turkic peoples from time immemorial to 1908. (A common Hungarian-Turkish border ceased to exist after 1908, in the wake of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the evacuation of the Sanjak of Novibazar.) These peoples played an eminent role in the birth and formation of Hungarian people, language, culture, state and nation. During the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people Kabar, Jász (Alan), Avar, Bulgar, Besenyő (Pecheneg), Kun (Cuman) tribes and population fragments merged and amalgamated into the Hungarian population.  Hungary warred with the Ottoman Empire for centuries. As a result of a discord of succession Hungary broke up into three parts in the 16th century: one was under Habsburg rule, one became part of the Ottoman Empire (1541.VIII.29.), and the third formed the “keleti Magyar Királyság” (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom)/ “Erdélyi Fejedelemség” (Principality of Transylvania). Erdély became an ally of the Ottomans (1528.II. 29.). The intensive everyday contacts in the one and a half centuries that followed resulted in pronounced Ottoman Turkish influence on Hungarian art and culture from music to jewellery and clothing, from agriculture to warfare. In the last third of the 17th century strife intensified between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. The main scene of these power struggles was the territory of Hungary. The Ottoman attempts at further territorial expansion failed in the end and the Habsburgs reconquered the Hungarian territories. But there was a conflict in the circles of Hungarian political elite: many members of it were unwilling to swap the Ottoman alliance for direct Habsburg rule. A large group aspired for full independence, but felt Turkish dependence more amenable than Habsburg reign. Thököly's liberation movement and Rákóczi's War of Independence meant the climax of this Turkism. So, as one can see, Turkish orientation had a long tradition in Hungary.  Turkism was reborn in the wake of the 1848-49 War of Independence. During the war Hungary was attacked by the Habsburgs, and many of her ethnic minorities turned against the country. Serious clashes occurred between the Hungarians and the Vlachs of Eastern Hungary and the Serbs of the South. There were serious atrocities against ethnic Hungarians; these events are remembered as "oláhjárások" and "rácjárások" ("Vlach rampages" and "Rascian rampages"). Hungary was defeated with the help of Russian military intervention.  These painful events and experiences changed Hungarians' attitudes profoundly: They began to feel themselves insecure and endangered in their own home. From this time on, Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism were seen as serious threats to the existence of Hungary and Hungarians. Hungarians looked for allies and friends to secure their position. They turned towards the rivals of the Habsburgs - to Turkey, to the Italians, even to the Prussians - for support and help. Hungarians were interested in a stable, strong and friendly Turkey, capable of preventing Russian and/or Habsburg expansion in the Balkans.  Hungarian political movements and attempts to regain independence proved unfruitful. At the same time, the Habsburgs were unable to acquire the leading position of the German union, and Germany became united

Turanism and Hungarian fascism.

According to Andrew C. János, while some Hungarian Turanists went as far as to argue they were racially healthier than and superior to other Europeans (including Germans, who were already corrupted by Judaism), others felt more modestly, that as Turanians living in Europe, they might provide an important bridge between East and West and thus play a role in world politics out of proportion of their numbers or the size of their country. This geopolitical argument was taken to absurd extremes by Ferenc Szálasi, head of the Arrow Cross-Hungarist movement, who believed that, owing to their unique historical and geographical

Turanism after 1945.

After the Second World War the Soviet Red Army occupied Hungary. The Hungarian government was placed under the direct control of the administration of the occupying forces. All Turanist organisations were disbanded by the government, and

Turanism after 1989.

Christian Turanists.

A Hungarian non-commissioned officer Ferenc Jós Badiny wrote his book ( Jézus Király, a pártus herceg) "King Jesus, the Parthian prince", where he invented the theory of Jesus the Parthian warrior prince. Many Christian Hungarian Turanists held the view that Jesus Christ was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”. The theory of “Jesus, the Parthian prince” are such, or the revivification of real

Great Kurultáj.

The Great Kurultáj is a tribal assembly based on the common heritage of the peoples of Central Asian nomadic origin. (Azerbaijani, Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Buryats, Chuvash, Gagauz, Hungarians, Karachays, Karakalpaks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Manchus, Mongols, Nogai, Tatars, Turks, Turkmen, Uighurs, Üzbeks, Yakuts etc.) It is also a popular tourist attraction in Hungary (from late 2000s) and Central Asia. The first Kurultáj was

Pseudoscientific theories.

Hungarian Turanism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories. According to these theories, Hungarians share supposed Ural-Altaic origins with Bulgarians, Estonians, Mongols, Finns, Turkic peoples, and even Japanese people and Koreans. Origins of the Hungarian people with the Huns, Scythians or even Sumerians have been suggested by proponents of these theories. Such beliefs gained widespread support in Hungary in the interwar period. Though since widely discredited, these theories have regained support among certain Hungarian political parties, in particular among Jobbik and certain factions of Fidesz.

Hungarian Turanism () is a diverse phenomenon that revolves around an identification or association of Hungarian history and people with the histories and peoples of Central Asia, Inner Asia or the Ural region. It includes many different conceptions and served as a guiding principle for many political movements. It was most lively in the second half of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. It is related to the concept of Turanism.


Early life.

Sajzor grew up in Šabac, a small western town of Serbia which is regarded as "conservative" towards LGBT rights. Sonja then moved in with a man in Belgrade, where she was constantly networking to join the LGBTIQ+ scene in Belgrade. After four months of stay in Serbia, she and her boyfriend were attacked. Hence, she returned home and re-enrolled in high-school, where she faced severe depression.

Professional career.

Sajzor became one of the first two drag queens in Serbia, while she was debuting on social media. She started to document her transition through photography and by exhibiting art in online platforms to demonstrate the power of networking on the internet. The photos present the process of gender searching of Sonja, from mid teens to early twenties.  In March 2014, Sonja was discovered by Croatian singer Ida Prester who hired her as a video vixen in her music video for ‘’U Tvojoj Glavi’’. After gaining more popularity Sonja settled down in Belgrade and worked as a bartender. In July 2015 she founded The Tronic Lab, an artistic collective which aims to promote queer performers and drag queen culture. They are usually held in Drugstore club in Belgrade.

Music.

She lists Siouxsie Sioux, Nina Hagen, Lydia Lunch, and Lene Lovich – "70s and 80s goth punk women" – as her influences. At the age of 13, Sonja watched the performance of Scissor Sisters, who were playing at Exit festival, on TV. Since then she felt the urge to start doing drag. As a singer, her lyricism is based upon heartbreak and unfulfilled love story.  Sonja has delved into electronic music since at a young age. She is a DJ and her sound bounds together different music genres like dark witch-house, electronic indie music and cyber pop culture. At the end of 2018 she released her debut album "Prudence". Sonja is the author of all the lyrics on the album while artpop duo Ensh participated in the music production.

Sonja Sajzor (born 26 January 1993) is a DJ, darkwave singer, songwriter, visual artist, and a queer icon in Serbia.


Background and recording.

The 1975 began writing "A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships" as early as 2015, drummer George Daniel having composed "Love It If We Made It" that year. The following year, the band released their sophomore album, "I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It", to positive reviews and commercial success, debuting atop the UK Albums Chart and the US "Billboard" 200. The album brought about seven singles, three of which received a certification from the British Phonographic Industry. The band subsequently began working on an EP titled "What A Shame" as well as a third studio album, originally to be called "Music For Cars" as a reference to their third EP. However, plans for the EP were dropped as the band's manager Jamie Oborne explained that "it’s become a much bigger idea." "Music For Cars" was described by lead singer Matty Healy as "the end of an era" and Healy also revealed that he had speculated on whether it would be the band's last venture, but decided against it, stating in an interview with "Dork" that "we’re not good enough to quit yet." In 2018, however, two albums, "A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships" and "Notes on a Conditional Form", were announced, while "Music For Cars" was revealed as an "era" for the band, comprising the two albums.  A month after the end of the I Like it When You Sleep Tour in July 2017, the band began recording the new album. Shortly after, Healy admitted himself into a drug rehabilitation center in Barbados for two months in November 2017 to treat his on-and-off four-year heroin and benzodiazepines addiction. He explained to "NME" that one of the reasons he admitted himself to rehab was because "I could just never let [drug addiction] be part of my identity because I think junkies are fucking losers." Many of the tracks from the album were written during his stay in rehab, the songwriting process described by Healy as "genuine catharsis." The album was wholly produced by Healy and Daniel, their first without Mike Crossey and recorded at Waldenfeld House, Montague Court and Abbey Road in London, Conway Sound, Capitol and Perfect Sound in Los Angeles, Angelic in Halse and The Beach House in Santa Monica between June 2017 and September 2018. "A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships" was released through Dirty Hit and Polydor Records on 30 November 2018.

Theme.

As expressed in the title, the overarching theme of the album is that of the internet. Lyrically, the album explores our modern relationship with the internet, as well as how it impacts and influences our interpersonal relationships and our relationship with politics, culture, and society as a whole. Healy noted that around this time, he came to the "profound-not-profound realisation" that "all of our communication, outside of face-to-face, is mediated through the internet," and subsequently became obsessed with this idea; he noted that for him, this idea "provokes questions...that just aren't asked now." Healy noted that across much of the album, rather than being particularly judgemental or opinionated, he is more so asking questions pertaining to the different issues he raises.

Release and promotion.

The band updated their website to display a timer counting down towards 1 June at the beginning of May 2018, becoming active again on social media. Within its first hours, it was revealed to contain a hidden zip file with four individual posters, each of the names leading to a hidden page on the website that displayed a conversation between a 'human' and a'machine'.  The album was originally slated to be released in October 2018, but was finalized as 30 November on 10 September.

Promotion and singles.

On 31 May 2018, the band released "Give Yourself a Try" as the lead single from the album, premiering as Annie Mac's "Hottest Record in the World" on BBC Radio 1 that same day. "Love It If We Made It" was released as the second single on 19 July. On 15 August, "TooTimeTooTimeTooTime" was released as the third single from the album. On 13 September, "Sincerity Is Scary" was released as the fourth single. The fifth single "It's Not Living (If It's Not with You)" was released on 18 October.

"Music for Cars".

At the end of April 2018, cryptic posters titled "Music for Cars" appeared in London and Manchester, containing taglines and a Dirty Hit catalogue number, DH00327, amongst a black background. Various billboards were also spotted in the United Kingdom, having used détournement to apply themselves over existing advertisements.  Over social media, the band frequently released different posters titled "A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships". Furthermore, the initialisation "MFC" appeared in small print across all further promotional graphics, sometimes accompanied by "2018 - 2019".  In an interview for Beats 1 on 31 May 2018, Healy stated that "Music for Cars" is an "era" rather than a single album, spanning 2018 and 2019. Though first reported to be the title of the band's 2018 album, Healy has stated that "Music for Cars" contains both "A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships" and a follow-up album, "Notes on a Conditional Form".

Tour.

At the Latitude Festival in July 2017, it was announced that the band would begin touring again in October 2018. In April 2018, Oborne commented that the band will deter from "surprise" or "pop-up" shows in order for the tour to be "the biggest live spectacle in the world". A 2019 tour was officially announced on 15 October 2018.

Artwork and title.

The artwork for the album was curated by Samuel Burgess-Johnson and Matty Healy. Eschewing the neon signs of previous albums, "A Brief Inquiry's" artwork is noticeably more stark and simple: it features the band name, album title and track list vertically on the cover. A minimalist graphic design based on pixilation accompanies the text. The "Music for Cars" initialisation "MFC" appears in the lower left corner of the cover and on the spine of the packaging.For the package, Healy decided on using a minimalist cover as he did not want something that was "full of interpretations." He also cited the work of Dutch artist Piet Mondrian as inspiration for the artwork, as he said his works "come more from the world of information than they do from the world of design." Healy also said that Modrian's work "was about utopian ideals", which related to the album as Healy said that it didn't say "utopia is this way and you're wrong" but rather had "no opinions" and is "not, like, a thesis, or it's not an opinion: it's a brief inquiry..."  The album is titled after an essay. Healy stated that while he was listening to the album's demos on a train a woman beside him was reading a book containing the essay which he then decided to use for the project. The essay Healy referenced is titled "The Context of the Digital: A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships" by Gene McHugh, which was included in the anthology of essays "You Are Here: Art After the Internet" edited by Omar Kholeif.

Critical reception.

The album garnered almost universal praise from critics. According to review aggregator Metacritic, the album has received a weighted score of 83 based on 29 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Dan Stubbs of "NME" awarded the album five stars out of five, likening the album to a millennial version of "OK Computer" and summarised: "Clever and profound, funny and light, serious and heartbreaking, painfully modern and classic-sounding all at the same time, 'A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships' is a game-changing album, one that challenges The 1975's peers – if, indeed, there are any – to raise their game." Ryan Dombal of "Pitchfork" gave the album a score of 8.5, earning it the Best New Music tag, and called it "outrageous and eclectic", as well as "similar to its predecessor in its boundless sense of style, swerving from Afrobeats to brushed-snare jazz balladry to one track that sounds like a trap remix of a Bon Iver ayahuasca trip", but "more purposeful" than "I Like It When You Sleep". "Time" considered it one of the Best Albums of 2018, placing it at number nine on their list.  In a mixed review, AllMusic reviewer Matt Collar stated "Taken as a whole, the album is often as disparate and difficult to wade through as the social-media landscape it hopes to comment on." Writing for "Under the Radar", Dom Gourlay labeled the album "over hyped", bland, "slightly passable background music" at best and a "self-indulgent mess" at worst. He further criticized frontman Healy's "narcissistic persona" and his prevalent use of Auto-Tune. However, Conrad Duncan writing for the same site gave the album a positive review, calling it "full of genuine heart, intelligence and wit". Chris Conaton of "PopMatters" criticized the album as bloated and inconsistent, stating "The band's reach exceeds their grasp here, and vocalist/band leader Matt Healy's indulgences are often more tiresome than charming", while still praising it as "fascinating".

Commercial performance.

The album debuted at number four on the "Billboard" 200, with the highest pure album sales of the week, selling 48,000 pure copies, selling 66,000 overall.

Personnel.

The 1975  Technical  Orchestral arrangements  Additional musicians  Art direction

A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships is the third studio album by English band the 1975, released on 30 November 2018 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. It was produced entirely by band members George Daniel and Matthew Healy, and is the band's first album not to be produced with regular collaborator Mike Crossey.


Early life and education.

Hidalgo was born in Santiago de Chile in 1979 to Cesar E. Hidalgo and Nuria Ramaciotti. His father was a publicist and journalist and his mother a K-12 school administrator. He has two siblings Caterina and Nuria.  Hidalgo attended The Grange School until the age of fourteen. He completed his high school education at The British High School. From 1998 to 2003 he studied physics at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile. From 2004 to 2008 he obtained a PhD in physics from The University of Notre Dame with Albert-László Barabási as his PhD advisor. From 2008 to 2010 he was a postdoctoral research fellow at Harvard University.

Economic complexity.

Starting in his PhD Hidalgo began using networks to study economic development. His main contributions include The Product Space, a network that can be used to predict a country's future patterns of diversification, and the economic complexity index, a formula that can be used to estimate the growth potential of economies. The economic complexity index is highly predictive of future economic growth and also is a strong explanatory factor of cross-national differences in income inequality. Hidalgo's work in Economic Complexity has been covered by important media outlets like The New York Times, The Economist, and "The Financial Times".

"Why Information Grows".

In "Why Information Grows" Hidalgo explains economic growth as a consequence of the growth of information and computation in the universe. The book starts by explaining the physical mechanisms that allow information to grow, and then unpacks these mechanisms in the context of social and economic systems. The main argument of the book is that the need for computation to be embodied, in cells, humans, or teams of humans, is what makes the growth of information in the economy both possible and difficult.  Soon after its release the book was highly praised by economists including Paul Romer, who went on to win the Nobel prize for endogenous growth theory, Eric Beinhoecker, the director of Oxford's Institute for New Economic Thinking, and Tim Harford, a popular economics author and regular columnist for "The Financial Times". "Why Information Grows" was also featured in "The Economist"'s books and arts section of the July 25, 2015 print edition, in Nature's May 28, 2015 print edition, and Kirkus Reviews, among others.

Data visualization and distribution platforms.

Hidalgo has co-authored a number of popular data visualization and distribution platforms. These are tools that make available vast volumes of data through visualizations. These platforms include:

The Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC).

The OEC is a tool that makes available international trade data through more than 20 million visualizations. The Observatory of Economic Complexity focuses on the mix of products that countries export because this product mix is predictive of a country's future patterns of diversification, G.D.P. growth, and income inequality. The OEC was co-authored with Alex Simões, who developed this platform as his master thesis in the Macro Connections group at the MIT Media Lab.

DataViva.

DataViva is a visualization engine that makes available regional development data for all of Brazil through more than 1 billion visualizations. These visualizations include trade data, employment data and education data, for each of Brazil's more than 5000 municipalities and its hundreds of products, industries and occupations. DataViva was developed in a collaboration between Hidalgo, Alex Simões and Dave Landry, and the government of Minas Gerais in Brazil, including Minas's government department of strategic priorities and FAPEMIG, Minas Science funding agency.

Pantheon.

Pantheon is a data visualization engine focused on historical cultural production and impact. Pantheon helps users explore metadata on globally famous biographies as a mean to understand the process of collective memory and of the role of languages and communication technologies in the production and diffusion of cultural information. Amy Yu, Kevin Hu, and Cesar Hidalgo developed pantheon at the Macro Connections group at MIT

Immersion.

Immersion is a data visualization engine for email metadata. Immersion helps uncover the networks people form while interacting through email. Immersion was co-authored by Hidalgo together with Daniel Smilkov and Deepak Jagsdish, while both Smilkov and Jagdish were working as students in Hidalgo's Macro Connection's group. Immersion was released in 2013, and quickly became popular as a way to demonstrate what people can learn by looking only at email metadata.

DataUSA.

DataUSA is an effort to visualize and distribute public data for the United States. It was launched on April 4, 2016 and acclaimed by The New York Times, The Atlantic's City Lab, and Fast Company. DataUSA received the Information is Beautiful Award in 2016 and a Webby Award in 2017 for best Civil and Government Innovation. DataUSA was built by Datawheel in collaboration with Deloitte.

DataAfrica.

DataAfrica makes available data on the health, poverty, agriculture, and climate, of thirteen African countries at the subnational level. DataAfrica won a 2018 webby award for best civil and government innovation.

DataChile.

DataChile integrates and distributes data from more than a dozen Chilean government departments. It won a 2018 Indigo Design Award.

Urban Perception.

Place Pulse, Streetscore, and Streetchange.

Place Pulse, Streetscore, and Streetchange are tools created to map people's perceptions of urban environments. Place Pulse has been featured in "The Guardian" and "Fast Company". Streetscore has been featured in "The Economist" and "New Scientist", among others.

Augmented Democracy.

In 2018, Hidalgo presented at TED's main event the idea of Augmented Democracy: a democracy in which people are represented directly by personalized digital twins powered by artificial intelligence.

Bibliography.

A full list of books and publications can be found in Cesar Hidalgo's professional page

César A. Hidalgo (born December 22, 1979) is a Chilean-Spanish-American physicist, author, and entrepreneur. He holds an ANITI Chair at the University of Toulouse, an Honorary Professorship at the University of Manchester, and is a visiting Professor at Harvard's School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Hidalgo is also a founder of Datawheel, a data visualization and distribution company. Prior to joining the University of Toulouse, Hidalgo was a professor at MIT where he directed the Collective Learning group.


Synthesis.

CrCl is produced by reducing chromium(III) chloride either with hydrogen at 500 °C: or by electrolysis.  Small scale preparations can use LiAlH, Zinc or related reagents, to reduce CrCl  CrCl can also be prepared by treating a solution of chromium(II) acetate with hydrogen chloride.

Structure and properties.

Anhydrous CrCl is white however commercial samples are often grey or green. It crystallizes in the "Pnnm" space group, which is an orthorhombically distorted variant of the rutile structure; making it isostructural to calcium chloride. The Cr centres are octahedral, being distorted by the Jahn-Teller Effect.  The hydrated derivative, CrCl(HO), forms monoclinic crystals with the P2/c space group. The molecular geometry is approximately octahedral consisting of four short Cr—O bonds (2.078 Å) arranged in a square planar configuration and two longer Cr—Cl bonds (2.758 Å) in a trans configuration.

Reactions.

The reduction potential for Cr + e ⇄ Cr is −0.41. Since the reduction potential of H to H in acidic conditions is +0.00, the chromous ion has sufficient potential to reduce acids to hydrogen, although this reaction does not occur without a catalyst.

Organic chemistry.

Chromium(II) chloride is used as precursor to other inorganic and organometallic chromium complexes. Alkyl halides and nitroaromatics are reduced by CrCl. The moderate electronegativity of chromium and the range of substrates that CrCl can accommodate make organochromium reagents very synthetically versatile. It is a reagent in the Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi reaction, a useful method for preparing medium-size rings. It is also used in the Takai olefination to form vinyl iodides from aldehydes in the presence of iodoform.

Chromium(II) chloride describes inorganic compounds with the formula CrCl(HO). The anhydrous solid is white when pure, however commercial samples are often grey or green; it is hygroscopic and readily dissolves in water to give bright blue air-sensitive solutions of the tetrahydrate Cr(HO)Cl. Chromium(II) chloride has no commercial uses but is used on a laboratory-scale for the synthesis of other chromium complexes.


History.

The journals were founded under the title "Journal of Gerontology" in 1946. In 1961, material dealing with social policy, program development, and service delivery was split into a new journal, "The Gerontologist". In 1988 "Journal of Gerontology" was renamed "Journals of Gerontology" to reflect the fact that it represented a composite of four journals with four separate editors, and in 1995 it was split into two separate publications: the "Journals of Gerontology: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences" and the "Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences".

Series A.

"Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences".

"Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences" publishes articles relating to the biology of aging. Topics include biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology, genetics, neuroscience, comparative and evolutionary biology, biodemography, and biological underpinnings of late life diseases.  The editors-in-chief are Rozalyn Anderson and David Le Couteur.

"Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences".

"Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences" publishes material on a range of medical sciences relating to aging. Topics include basic medical science, clinical epidemiology, clinical research, and health services research.  The editor-in-chief is Anne B. Newman.

Series B.

"Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences".

"Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences" publishes articles relating to the psychology of aging. Topics include attitudes, cognition, perception, sensation, emotion, personality, health psychology, neuropsychology, and physiological psychology.  The editor-in-chief is Derek M. Isaacowitz.

"Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences".

"Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences" publishes material relating to aging from the field of social sciences. Topics include public health, epidemiology, social work, demography, anthropology, social history, political science, and economics.  The editor-in-chief is Deborah S. Carr.

The Journals of Gerontology are the first scientific journals on aging published in the United States. The publication is separated into four separate peer-reviewed scientific journals, each with its own editor, and published in two series. The "Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences" and the "Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences" are housed within "The Journals of Gerontology, Series A"; the "Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences" and the "Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences" are housed within "The Journals of Gerontology, Series B". The journals are published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America.


Background.

Hastings was born in Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia, and is of British descent through his grandmother.  He played his junior football for the Western Suburbs Red Devils before being signed by the St. George Illawarra Dragons.

Playing career.

In 2012 and 2013, Hastings played for the New South Wales Under 16s and Under 18s teams respectively.  In 2013, Hastings played for the St. George Illawarra Dragons' NYC team, and was selected for the Australian Schoolboys.

Sydney Roosters.

On 27 August 2013, Hastings signed with the Sydney Roosters on a 3-year contract, rejecting offers from St. George Illawarra, North Queensland Cowboys and Newcastle Knights. He played for the Roosters' NYC team in 2014.  In Round 26 of the 2014 NRL season, Hastings made his NRL debut for the Roosters against the South Sydney Rabbitohs.  On 2 May 2015, Hastings played for the Junior Kangaroos against Junior Kiwis. On 8 July 2015, Hastings played for the New South Wales Under-20s team against the Queensland Under-20s team.

Manly Sea Eagles.

In December 2016, Hastings signed a 2-year contract with the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles starting in 2017. Hastings made his Debut for the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles in Round 3 of the 2017 NRL season against the North Queensland Cowboys coming off the bench and filling in at Fullback and Scoring a try as the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles defeated the North Queensland Cowboys 30-8.  At the start of the 2018 season, Hastings was involved in a well publicised falling out with fellow Manly player Daly Cherry-Evans and coach Trent Barrett. He was banished to reserve grade to play for Blacktown Workers and told he would be moved on by the club. On 26 June 2018, Hastings was released from the remainder of his contract with Manly. The club released a statement saying "Manly Warringah Sea Eagles have today released Jackson Hastings from the remainder of his contract, effective immediately, The Club and Jackson’s management have made the decision mutually".

Salford Red Devils.

On 12 July 2018, Hastings signed a two year deal to join British side the Salford Red Devils.  On 8 July 2019, Hastings was announced to have signed a 2-year deal with Super League side Wigan, effective from the start of the 2020 season.  On 6 October 2019, Hastings won the Man of Steel award after being voted as the Super League's best player during the Super League XXIV season. Hastings was part of the Salford side which reached the 2019 Super League Grand Final but were defeated 23-6 by St Helens at Old Trafford. Salford were looking to win their first championship since 1976.

Representative career.

He was selected in squad for the 2019 Great Britain Lions tour of the Southern Hemisphere. He made his Great Britain test début in the defeat by Tonga.

Personal life.

Hastings is the son of Megan Harrod and former Sydney Roosters player Kevin Hastings.

Jackson Hastings (born 4 January 1996) is a Great Britain international rugby league footballer who plays as a and for the Wigan Warriors in the Betfred Super League.


History.

The theater was designed in Art Nouveau by architect Axel Anderberg (1860–1937) and was inaugurated on December 6, 1906. It was named after King Oscar II. The salon accommodated 1175 seats and was decorated with white stucco and gilded ornaments. Between 1971-1974, the theater was closed for renovation and at the same time the salon was restored.  The opening production was "Frihetsbröderna (Les brigands)" by Jacques Offenbach, on 6 December the same year. The theatre has during the years been seen as the foremost stage for musical productions and operettas in Sweden. The theatre has 905 seats and for many years in the early 20th century was part of theatre empire of Albert Ranft (1858-1938).  Over the years it has boasted some great musical productions, including several successful stagings of "My Fair Lady" (the 1959–61 run reaching 766 performances) and the 1989–95 run of "The Phantom of the Opera" (performed 1173 times). Opera soprano singer Rosa Grünberg (1878–1960) made her play stage debut. The original Swedish (and European) staging of "Nine" in 1983 is also among the most successful – and critically acclaimed – productions in the theatre's history.  The theatre was managed from its inception until 1926 by Albert Ranft; from 1926 to 1947 by Gösta Ekman (1890–1938) and Pauline Brunius (1881–1954) among others. It was used in this period solely as a stage for spoken drama. From 1947 to 1998 it was managed by Sandrew Metronome, during a period often described as the theatre's "golden days" in terms of musical theatre shows. In 1998 it has been managed by Vicky von der Lancken and since 2004, by 2 Entertain production company.  In the autumn of 2006, the theatre celebrated its 100th jubilee with the musical production "Singin' in the Rain".

Oscarsteatern (English:Oscar Theatre), also known simply as Oscars, is one of Stockholm's private theatres and is the best-known musical theatre in Sweden. It is located at Kungsgatan 63 in central Stockholm.


Susceptibility to spoilage.

Sweet potatoes are a highly perishable crop and difficult to store for extended periods of time. This is mainly due to their high moisture content, metabolic activity following harvesting and thin, permeable skin. Following harvest, sweet potatoes are susceptible to spoilage by physical, physiological, pathological, pests and environmental means.

Physical.

Physical losses refer to sweet potatoes damaged by mechanical force during harvest, handling, and transportation of the tubers. This includes injury by way of cuts, bruising, and skinning. Delicate skin and poor harvesting and handling techniques are the main cause of these issues. Damage to tubers by physical means can be minimized careful handling and storing in boxes and cartons instead of cloth sacks.

Physiological.

Physiological processes within the plant can contribute highly to spoilage. Natural transpiration causes water loss and results in an unappealing pithy texture. Respiration also continues to occur after harvesting and a buildup of CO2 around the crop can cause early spoilage. Sprouting will also occur during long term storage, which is useful for planting but will utilize nutrients in the tuber. Sprouting can be inhibited by preharvest spraying with maleic hydrazide, treatment of tubers with methyl ester of napthalene acetic acid (MENA) in acetone on paper spread between tubers and 0.5–4.0% thiourea solution.

Pathological and pests.

Sweet potatoes are susceptible to a number of fungi, bacteria and viruses. Infection can cause the production of toxins, pathogenic bacteria, bitter flavours, tissue breakdown, and surface blemishes. Two common sources of infection are from "Rhizopus oryzae" (soft rot) and "Botryodiplodia" (Java black rot). These are responsible for 78% of sweet potato infections in Bangladesh. The pest of greatest concern for farmers is the sweet potato weevil ("Cylas spp."). This can enter the tuber prior to harvesting and proliferate in storage and has been known to cause up to 50% loss in yields. Simple techniques can be used to minimize the threat of the sweet potato weevil. It has been shown that storage of the potatoes in temperatures under can kill up to 89.5% of weevils in an infected crop. Dipping of tubers in hot water also been shown as an effective intervention to control infestations. Damage to tuber by physical and physiological means can increase chance of pathological infection and pests.

Environmental.

The length of time that sweet potatoes may be stored is highly dependent on temperature and relative humidity. Storage in temperatures less than will cause chill injury in sweet potatoes. This is characterized by discoloration of the insides of the tuber, which can range from brown to black instead of the usual orange. Formation of hard areas also occurs that remain even after cooking. Other signs of chill injury include production of off flavours, internal cell structure breakdown and increased rotting due to reduced skin formation, which allows fungal infection. On the other end of the scale, temperatures above will cause a rise in the rates of respiration and sprouting in tubers as well as increased activity by microorganisms. Relative humidity under 80% will cause excessive water loss while RH above 90% will cause condensation to form, which accelerates rotting.

Ideal storage conditions.

To minimize potential spoilage, precise storage conditions should be met. Sweet potatoes should be stored at between with a RH of 85-90%. Proper ventilation of the storage area is a key factor in maximizing potential storage time. Respiration causes the production of CO2, which will act to increase the rate of spoilage. Sweet potatoes can convert approximately 57dm3 of oxygen/ton/day to carbon dioxide and need ventilation to compensate for this. The O2 in the storage environment should not fall below 7% and CO2 must not exceed 10%. Due to lack of proper equipment, maintaining adequate temperature conditions are the largest hurdle that farmers in a developing nation will have to face.  Not all sweet potatoes are suitable for storage. Tubers that have been mechanically damaged, infected with pests or pathogens, or are rotten or sprouting should not be kept. These factors will increase rate of spoilage and can increase losses in the rest of the stored crop. Under these optimum conditions sweet potatoes have been shown to keep for 5 months up to a max of about a year.

Storage methods.

In developed countries proper refrigeration technology is used to keep sweet potatoes for long periods of time. Many poor farmers do not have access to refrigeration or even electricity so must rely on other storage methods. There are several methods of storage that only require simple and cheap building materials. The most commonly used are pit storage, clamp storage and indoor storage. These techniques are used only sporadically however as most farmers practice sequential harvesting in which tubers are left in-ground until needed.

In-ground.

In subsistence farming, sweet potatoes are commonly left in the ground and eaten or sold directly following harvest; this is called piece-meal or sequential harvesting. Sweet potatoes are delicate and easily damaged. In-ground storage is used to protect the tubers while reducing the work required to set up storage facilities. In areas with reliable rainfall patterns farmers are able to maintain a supply of fresh sweet potatoes for most of the year by continuous cultivation and harvesting. In drier places, however, such as northern Uganda, this is not a practical solution. This is not a long-term option and the plants will degrade after a short period of time. There are numerous disadvantages to this method as it takes up field space that could otherwise be used for growing more crops.

Pit storage.

This is a simple, cheap method that involves digging a hole in the ground for storing the potatoes. Pit storage differs from in-ground as tubers are collected and kept together and considerations are made to control the storage environment.  Construction of the pit can vary according to what materials are available but commonly used are; grass, soil, wood, lime, sawdust and ash. Grass is typically used to line the bottom and sides of the pit in order to insulate against temperature change and absorb moisture. Before usage, grass should be flamed in order to destroy any pests that may be hiding within. Soil is used to seal the roof of the pit and as filler. Wood and plant material can be used to strengthen walls as well as create a roof covering the pit. Roofs built over the pit structure are beneficial in that they can help keep rain out and provide shade to lower temperature. Lime may have some effectiveness in absorbing CO2 and removing it form the environment. Sawdust is used as a cushioning material and to help control condensation on the tubers. Wood ash can applied to potatoes prior to storage and has shown some effectiveness in protecting against insect attacks and mould.  In order to prevent rotting the pit should ideally be dug into a slope to promote drainage. It should also be situated at least above the water table during dry season and must remain above during wet/rainy season and be approximately below the surface.  There can be ventilation problems with this storage method. Commonly the pit will be sealed shut in order to maintain a good RH. The draw back to this is that CO2 will collect and cause spoilage. To help this, a sizable headspace should be maintained in the pit to help promote airflow.  Pits can be reused but they should be cleaned, the soil turned over and disinfected with fire or sulphur to rid the area of any microorganisms.  Losses are still fairly high for this technique, though it has been shown in some instances to keep roots for 2–4 months.

Clamp and mound storage.

Another simple and low-cost method, clamp storage consists of covered piles of sweet potatoes. After selecting the tubers in the best condition, they are stacked in a heap on a layer of grass and covered in layers of grass and soil. As with pit storage, ash, lime and sawdust can be used for added effect. The piles may be made at ground level or in shallow or deep trenches. Drainage should be considered and ruts may be made in the ground to lead off water. The clamps may be covered by a roof or kept in a building for added protection. To minimize losses due to respiration a ventilation shaft can be added. Results are fairly poor with this technique and estimated storage time is 2–3 months.

Indoor storage.

Sweet potatoes may be harvested and stored in building. This could include in the living area or in a granary built specifically to store produce. In home storage is typically done in straw woven baskets, cloth bags or wooden boxes. Baskets and boxes have been shown to be more effective at minimizing mechanical damage. If possible tubers should be kept off of the ground to keep them away from rodents and other pests. This is an effective technique for maintaining proper ventilation though depending on the type of building maintaining proper storage temperature and RH may be difficult.  Granaries or other storage buildings typically consist of a round hut with walls made of straw, mud, clay and wood and a conical straw roof. These are commonly supported above ground by a system of legs to keep the crop dry and away from animals, rodents and pests.

Pretreatment of sweet potatoes.

Typically sweet potatoes are stored and eaten fresh. However, there are some simple methods used to increase their storability that can be used in conjunction with other storage methods. Drying and curing of sweet potatoes are two common methods to prepare them prior to storage.  Drying of tubers is done on those that are too damaged to be stored fresh but still have edible material on them. This involves slicing tubers to a thickness of approximately 2–4 mm and then laying them out in the sun for four days or until they are rid of most of their moisture. During drying the potatoes can be covered in prickly bushes or thorns to ward off animals. Dried slices can be kept in-doors or in raised silos until eaten. Drying removes moisture, reduces bacterial growth, and inactivates metabolic processes and enzymatic decomposition.  Curing is a technique done to toughen up the outer layer of skin (periderm). It is a measure that prevents against excessive moisture loss, entry of microorganisms into the plant and even facilitates healing of mechanically damaged tubers. Curing is done by exposing the whole potatoes to a moderately high temperature for several days immediately following harvest.; and 80–95% RH for 4–10 days has been found to be adequate curing conditions A common method to cure without use of incubation equipment is to wrap tubers in black polythene sheets and leave out in the sun for 5 days. The black sheet keeps moisture in and collects heat to reach necessary conditions for curing. Immediately following curing the temperature must be dropped quickly in order to avoid sprouting damage.

The sweet potato ("Ipomoea batatas") is a very important crop for subsistence farmers in Africa and other developing countries. Due to its relatively short growing period, tolerance to drought and high yield from poor soils, it is used as a famine reserve for many of these households. However, it is a highly perishable food source that is susceptible to destruction by microorganisms, metabolic spoilage, physical destruction and pests. As such they are not generally stored for extended periods of time following harvest. This is a major barrier for the optimal use of the crop and causes a lot of waste.


History.

In 1945, former Royal Air Force pilot Captain T.W. "Sammy" Morton founded Morton Air Services. Prior to Morton's inception, "Sammy" Morton had flown scheduled services from London's old Croydon Airport to Paris Le Bourget with Amy Johnson in the 1930s  By the early 1950s, Captain Morton had built up a fleet of Airspeed Consul (see heading image) and De Havilland Dragon Rapide aircraft and these were soon supplemented by more modern de Havilland Dove piston airliners to operate regular charter flights. These included general charter work, air ambulance services and racecourse charters. The latter's regularity was such that it amounted to a "quasi-scheduled" operation. Morton subsequently won traffic rights to operate fully fledged scheduled services from Croydon to the Channel Islands, Deauville, Le Touquet and Rotterdam.  Morton sold a minority stake of about 20% to rival independent airline Skyways. When that airline was taken over by the Lancashire Aircraft Corporation (LAC), another contemporary independent airline, LAC acquired ownership of Skyways's minority holding in Morton Air Services as well.  In 1953, Morton Air Services gained control of its independent rival Olley Air Service. Following the takeover of Olley Air Service, that airline's operations were wholly integrated into Morton's but the Olley name would survive for certain services until 1963.  In 1958, Morton sold out to Airwork. The same year, Airwork started the process of merging with Hunting-Clan to form BUA.  On 30 September 1959, a Morton Air Services de Havilland Heron (G-AOXL) operated the last scheduled passenger flight to depart Croydon. The aircraft was headed for Rotterdam. Another Heron, repainted to represent that aircraft currently (2011) guards the entrance to Croydon's Aerodrome Hotel.) By the following morning, the airline's entire operation — including its headquarters — had been relocated to Gatwick.  Although Morton's scheduled services were integrated into BUA's regional operations following the creation of that airline in July 1960, the Morton name survived until the completion of the BUA group's 1967/8 reorganisation. It finally disappeared on 1 November 1968. This was the day Morton was absorbed into BUIA, BUA's new regional affiliate.

Olley Air Service.

In January 1934, Gordon Olley, a former pilot with Handley Page Transport and Imperial Airways, founded Olley Air Service.  Olley Air Service was primarily a charter airline. It headed a group of airlines that included Blackpool & West Coast Air Services, Channel Air Ferries and Isle of Man Air Services. These airlines were taken over in 1935 and 1936. Channel Air Ferries assumed Olley's scheduled air services to and from the Channel Islands, while Blackpool & West Coast Air Services operated scheduled flights between the UK and Ireland as well as to/from the Isle of Man. The former were jointly operated with Aer Lingus using the "Irish Sea Airways" brand name. The latter transferred to Isle of Man Air Services, following which Blackpool & West Coast Air Services shortened its name to West Coast Air Services.  In 1938, the Olley group formed a new joint venture airline with two contemporary railway companies under the name Great Western & Southern Air Lines.  In 1939, Great Western & Southern Air Lines took over the scheduled routes of Channel Air Ferries.  Following the end of World War II, Olley Air Service resumed operations as a charter airline. It subsequently re-entered the scheduled services market as well.  In 1953, Olley Air Service was sold to Morton Air Services, as a result of which the former was absorbed into the latter. Despite Olley's complete integration into Morton, the Olley name was still used for specific services until 1963.

Fleet details.

Morton Air Services and Olley Air Service operated the following aircraft types:

Fleet in 1958.

In April 1958, the combined fleet of Morton Air Services and Olley Air Service comprised 14 aircraft.

Accidents and incidents.

There are two recorded fatal accidents involving Morton Air Services aircraft.  The first accident occurred on 8 May 1950. It involved an Airspeed Consul (registration: G-AHJX). The aircraft was destroyed in a crash off Guernsey killing all four occupants.  On 14 June 1952, Consul "G-AHFT" on a charter from Croydon to Le Mans ditched off Brighton following engine problems, all 6 on board killed, including pilot Lawrence Page.

Morton Air Services was one of the earliest post-World War II private, independent British airlines formed in 1945. It mainly operated regional short-haul scheduled services within the British Isles and between the United Kingdom and Continental Europe. In 1953, Morton took over rival independent UK airline Olley Air Service. In 1958, Morton became part of the Airwork group. Morton retained its identity following the 1960 Airwork — Hunting-Clan merger that led to the creation of British United Airways (BUA). The reorganisation of the BUA group of companies during 1967/8 resulted in Morton being absorbed into British United Island Airways (BUIA) in 1968.


Location.

The Pentateuch gives two accounts of Aaron's death. The Book of Numbers (Chapter 20) gives a detailed statement to the effect that, soon after the incident at Meribah (Kadesh), when Moses and Aaron showed impatience by bringing water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people after God commanded them to speak to the rock, Aaron, his son Eleazar, and Moses ascended Mount Hor, on the edge of the borders of Edom. There, Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and gave them to Eleazar. Aaron died and was buried on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days.  Mount Hor is usually associated with the mountain near Petra in Jordan, known in Arabic as Jabal Hārūn (Aaron's Mountain), upon the summit of which a mosque was built in the 14th century. Indeed, Josephus and Eusebius both describe its location above the city of Petra.  The other account is found in the Book of Deuteronomy, where Moses is reported as saying that Aaron died at Moseroth (Mosera) and was buried there. Mosera has been identified with el-Tayibeh, a small fountain at the bottom of the pass leading to the ascent of Mount Hor. However others are of the opinion that the location of Mosera cannot be here, since the itinerary in Numbers 33:31-37 records seven stages between Mosera and Mount Hor. For similar reasons, others still doubt that Mount Hor can in reality be identified with Jabal Hārūn.  The site at Jabal Hārūn (Aaron's Mountain) is occasionally visited by Jewish pilgrims as well as Muslims.

Religious status.

Jordanian authorities regard the Tomb of Aaron as a mosque and forbid Jewish prayer services at the site. In August 2019, a group of Israeli tourists shared a video of themselves dancing with a Torah scroll at the site. Authorities then confiscated religious items from the group and closed the summit to foreign tour groups that do not have permission to visit from the Awqaf Ministry.

The Tomb of Aaron is the name of the supposed burial place of Aaron, the brother of Moses. There are two descriptions of its location in the Pentateuch, and different interpretations of its location. Although in Jewish tradition, the location of Aaron's grave, like that of Moses, is shrouded in mystery, the Islamic tradition places it on Mount Hor, near Petra in Jordan.


History.

In the 17th century Ulster ports began to rise in prominence. In 1625 William Pitt was appointed as Customer of the ports of Newcastle, Dundrum, Killough, Portaferry, Donaghadee, Bangor and Holywood.

Demography.

2001 Census.

Portaferry is classified as an intermediate settlement by the NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) (i.e. with population between 2,250 and 4,500 people). On Census day (29 April 2001) there were 2,467 people living in Portaferry. Of these:

Environment.

The Portaferry area is popular with local and foreign tourists for its beauty, history, wildlife and other visitor attractions. Strangford Lough is the largest sea inlet in the British Isles.  It is Northern Ireland's first Marine Nature Reserve and is renowned as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Special Scientific Interest, with six National Nature Reserves within its reaches. Over 2000 species of marine animals have been found in the Lough and internationally important flocks of wildfowl and wading birds converge there in winter. The Lough is also the most important site in Ireland for breeding common seals.

Sport.

GAA sports, particularly hurling are popular in the area and Portaferry GAC were Ulster Club Hurling Champions in 2014. There are two other GAA clubs nearby, Ballygalget and Ballycran, and there is intense rivalry between the three.  Other pursuits are sailing, coastal rowing, angling, wildfowling and birdwatching. The town has the Lough's longest established sailing club.

Industry.

Portaferry industrial activities include agriculture, fishing, tourism. 'Suki Tea' announced as of 2014 that experimental tea growing will commence in the area, utilizing the relatively warm and dry climate, with frost protection from Strangford lough. The Lough is a centre for experimental marine current turbine technology development. In 2008 a twin rotor 1.2 MW SeaGen was installed and successfully demonstrated this technology until its decommissioning which began in 2017. Tidal energy, unlike wind or wave, is a renewable energy resource which can be predicted.[www.marineturbines.com]. Swedish company Minesto are currently trialling their "sea kite" technology.  Portaferry played a part in the linen industry. Many of the women in the town were employed to embroider handkerchiefs for Thomas Somerset and Co. one of the major linen companies in Ireland. The company realised that the women were more productive in the summer due to the light, so installed the first electric light outside of Belfast in Ulster. Each house with a working woman was given one light fitting and bulb. There was also a bus service introduced to bring more women from the Ards Peninsula to Portaferry to work in the factory that Somersets built.

Portaferry () is a small town in County Down, Northern Ireland, at the southern end of the Ards Peninsula, near the Narrows at the entrance to Strangford Lough. It is home to the Exploris aquarium and is well known for the annual Gala Week Float Parade. It hosts its own small Marina, the Portaferry Marina. The Portaferry - Strangford Ferry service operates daily at 15-minute intervals (8am to 11pm) between the villages of Portaferry and Strangford, less than a mile apart, conveying about 500,000 passengers per annum. It had a population of 2,514 people in the 2011 Census.


Pre Hispanic copper working.

Copper working has been done in central Mexico since the pre Hispanic period. However, it is not the first area in the Americas to begin working with the metal. The first evidence of copper work is in what is now the Midwest of the United States as the metal was found here fairly easily on the surface without mining. The next location was in the west coastal areas of South America into some areas of Central America, where it wasn't often mixed with gold. Copper working developed later in Mesoamerica because of the lack of surface copper and little to no contact with the copper cultures to the north or south.  The one area in Mesoamerica which had developed copper work before the arrival of the Spanish was in west Mexico in what are now the states of Jalisco and Michoacán, mostly in the Purépecha Empire. Most pre Hispanic copper work occurred in what are now the municipalities of Churumuco, La Huacana, Nuevo Urecho, Tacámbaro and Turicato, with a percentage of this production paid as tribute to the capital at Tzintzuntzan. There is evidence that at least some of this copper and other minerals were extracted from shallow pits or tunnel mines. The Purépecha developed some techniques for extracting copper from rock as well as techniques for shaping it. The working of the metal had advanced enough that it was used for utilitarian objects as well as ornamental and religious ones. The Purépecha made a number of objects from the metal including axes, boxes, fish hooks, knives, small bells, necklaces, bracelets and earrings. Copper was first worked by cold hammering but as copper loses elasticity as it is worked this way, heating was soon discovered to recondition it. The creation of objects by casting was not common for copper but was used to make small delicate objects such as bells.

Colonial period.

During and after the Conquest, the working of the metal by the indigenous was disrupted. Many of the villages of the Pátzcuaro area were abandoned in large part due to the abuses by conquistador Nuño de Guzmán. The Spanish were soon aware of the copper deposits of this region and the indigenous’ ability to work it. Since they were necessary to exploit this wealth, the Spanish worked to bring them back into the area into settled communities under their control. Vasco de Quiroga brought various kinds of craftsmen from Spain to the Pátzcuaro area to develop the region’s economy. Santa Clara founded by friar Francisco de Villafuerte and put under the direct protection of the Spanish Crown. Its foundation would later be attributed to Vasco de Quiroga, probably due to his work establishing copper smithing. The Spanish introduced European smelting techniques and organized the work by family owned workshops, passed down from generation to generation, which remains in effect to this day. Uses for copper during the colonial period was mostly for arms and for cooking utensils. It is not known when Santa Clara began to specialize in copper work as much of its records have been lost due to various fires over its history. The earliest surviving record is from 1748 and notes the working of the metal to be well-developed.  During the colonial period, copper mining was most extensive in Michoacán, continuing the development of the metal started by the Purépecha. Main extraction areas included Tlalpujahua, Tzintzutzan, Charo, Santa Clara del Cobre and Ozumatlán. The copper which was worked in the early colonial period came from mine within a 50 km radius, in ore which was purified in the town. At first this was in Santa Clara itself but later records state that the copper being worked here was coming from Inguarán and Opopeo. The smelting of copper in the area ended by the mid 17th century as the mines gave out.  When mining in Mexico waned during and just after the Mexican War of Independence, copper working survived here. Its prominence ebbed and waned during Mexico’s tumultuous history in the 19th century, with the very last of copper mining ending at the end of this same century. Mexico still has large reserves of copper, mostly in the form of sulphides, which have not been mined because of cost.

Copper work in Santa Clara today.

Santa Clara del Cobre is where traditional copper working in Mexico survives. There are at least 2,000 copper smiths working in over 300 workshops in the municipality. Most of the workshops in the town operate much as they did in the past, receiving various exemption from federal labor laws and tax breaks designed to preserve the craft. The workshops are still independent and family owned with different members in charge of the various tasks such as finance, production and sales. Workshops are roofed areas with few or no walls. This allows protection from rain but allows for ventilation, especially around the forge. These workshops contain a wide variety of tools, many of which are created by the artisans themselves.  After the Mexican Revolution, all residual mining and smelting activities in the area ceased, leaving only the working of already-extracted copper or scrap copper. The copper comes from industrial scrap, including old electrical motors and cables from junkyards and telephone and electrical companies. The process begins by removing the impurities from the scrap metal then placing the pure copper pieces into the center of the forge to be melted together. The material is covered with pine briquettes to produce a fire of an intense and even temperature. The temperature of the fire is raised with the use of bellows, which may still be hand operated. The melted metal is not poured into molds but is molded by the bed of ash which is surrounded by rocks. The use of wood fired forges have diminished the surrounding forests by up to seventy percent.  The quantity of copper needed for any given piece is carefully calculated before any working begins. The basic process is hammering, thinning out, shaping, trimming, bleaching, polishing and decoration, especially by embossing. To begin work, the block or pieces is heated to red-hot. The first round of hammering is usually to flatten the piece into a circle which is usually done by a group of man wielding sledgehammers. Smaller hammers are used as the piece thins out and to make the sides curve up to form a vessel. The work needs to be precise as it is almost impossible to correct errors in the shaping without starting over. This is particularly true for very small pieces. Sometimes the basic shape includes animal heads or feet to function as handles or stabilizers for the pot. Many different types of tools are used, many of which are made in the same workshop as the copper pieces. They include chisels, pliers, tongs, scissors, shears, punches, mallets, various anvils and hammers which are used to shape and emboss the pieces. Modern techniques can diminish the efforts of thinning out the metal by seventy percent, but most workshops still do it the old fashioned way. After the basic shape is obtained, the decorative and finishing work begins. The embossing, also called repoussé, is a form of decorating the basic shape of a vessel or other piece. It consists of hammering the piece from the inside to push the shape outwards. After this shape is made, details are added by chiseling and engraving. Etching may be done with acid or with a chisel. To give pieces an added shine, they are treated with sulfuric acid, soap, water and steel wool.  Most of the work is the making casseroles, pots, plates, jars, vases, ashtrays, bells, mugs, stills, braziers and hearths. Some jewelry is made but it is not the main focus. Almost all of the objects are hammered into shape from a single piece or block of copper, including details like handles and decorative figures which are shaped along with the main body. This eliminates the need for soldering.

Noted copper artisans.

The Punzo Ángel family are well known in Santa Clara del Cobre for their copper work. Two of the most active smiths in the family, Abdón and Ignacio maintain large active workshops and have trained their children in the techniques that they have learned from their father. They create mostly large pieces with innovative designs with are often detailed. They also work in silver. Both have received a large number of acknowledgements and awards for their work.  Jesús Pérez Ornelas is considered to be the master of engraving and sgraffito in copper because of his designs and the quality of the finishes. He has worked abroad and spends much of his time teaching his techniques of hammering copper. His works are generally covered with engraved designs which include frets, animals, rhombus shapes, flowers and more.

Feria del Cobre.

The first Feria del Cobre was held in Santa Clara in 1946 held in August to coincide with the feast day of the patron saint of Saint Claire. The Feria del Cobre exhibits hundreds of pieces of hammered copper from about 250 artisans, demonstrations of copper working techniques and more. The main event is the Concurso Nacional de Cobre Martilado (National Hammered Copper Contest). The contest has four categories: Maestros (Masters), Jóvenes (Youth), Nuevos talentos (New talents) and Infantiles (Children) with over 84 prizes. The event drew over 6,000 people in 2010. The fair has been held each year since 1965.

Traditional copper work in Mexico has its origins in the pre Hispanic period, mostly limited to the former Purépecha Empire in what are now the states of Michoacán and Jalisco. The reason for this was that this was the only area where copper could be found on the surface. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Spanish took control of copper production, introducing European techniques but still needed indigenous labor. Copper work, like other crafts, was principally organized in Michoacán under Vasco de Quiroga. It is not known when the town of Santa Clara del Cobre came to specialize in the production of copper items, but it was well established by the mid 18th century. Copper extraction remained centered on Michoacán during the colonial period but most of the production gave out by the 19th century. After the Mexican Revolution, copper smiths of Santa Clara were limited to working with scrap metal making pots, plates, casseroles and other containers. Today, it remains home to hundreds of copper smiths which work in ways little changed from the colonial period and is home to the annual Feria del Cobre (Copper Fair) in August.


Personal.

De Rozario has transverse myelitis, a neurological disease which inflames the spinal cord resulting in her using a wheelchair.

Athletics.

At the age of 14, de Rozario competed at the 2008 Beijing Paralympics and won a silver medal in the Women's 4x100 m T53/54 event as part of the Australian team. She also competed in the individual women's T54 100 m and 400 m events. She was coached by former Paralympic athlete Frank Ponta and is currently coached by Louise Sauvage. She did not win a medal at the 2012 London Paralympics. In 2012 and 2013, she won the Oz Day 10K Wheelchair Road Race.  At the 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships, in Lyon, France, de Rozario won a bronze medal in the Women's 800 m T53.  At the 2015 IPC Athletics World Championships in Doha, de Rozario won the gold medal in the Women's 800m T54 in 1:53.86. It was her first gold medal at a major international competition. She also won a bronze medal in the Women's 1500m T54 in a time of 3:42.03.  At the 2016 Rio Paralympics, de Rozario won two silver medals. De Rozario won her first individual medal at the Paralympics by winning the silver medal in the Women's 800m T53. In addition, she was a member of the team that won the silver medal in the Women's 4×400 m Relay T53/54.  In November 2016, de Rozario was awarded the Wheelchair Sports WA Sport Star of the Year.  At the 2017 World Para Athletics Championships in London, de Rozario won the gold medal in the Women's 5000m T54, silver medal in the Women's 800m T54 and bronze medal in the Women's 1500m T54.  At the 2018 Commonwealth Games, Gold Coast, Queensland, she won gold medals in the Women's 1500m T54 and Women's Marathon T54.  On 22 April 2018, she made a dramatic last dash sprint and won the 2018 London Marathon women's wheelchair title in a time of 1:42.58. She became the first Australian to win the women's wheelchair title.  At the 2019 London Marathon which was also the 2019 World Para Athletics Championships marathon event, she won the bronze medal in the Women's T46. At the 2019 Championships track events held in Dubai, she won the gold medal in the Women's 800m T54 and two silver medals - Women's 1500m and 5000m T54.  De Rozario has won the Oz Day 10K Wheelchair Road Race six times – 2012, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020.

Madison de Rozario (born 24 November 1993) is an Australian Paralympic athlete. At the 2016 Rio Paralympics, she won two silver medals. She has won three gold medals at the World Para Athletics Championships.


Design and development.

The Norélic was a prototype two-seat, single rotor helicopter with an unusual anti-torque system, without a manual cyclic pitch control. Its two crew sat side by side with large, single curvature transparencies in front of them but with open cockpit sides. The Mathis G.7R seven-cylinder radial engine was immediately behind them, with its crankshaft vertical; the Norélic was the first French helicopter with its engine in this orientation. The driveshaft rose through the fuselage to the rotor hub, which was slightly offset forwards on a two side-by-side pillar, faired support. The Norélic had a two-blade articulated rotor with undamped flapping hinges; the blades had the same chord and aerofoil from hub to tip and were each built around a single solid spar with ribs and a thin metal skin, all clamped together. Blade pitch was automatically controlled by small servo or pilot airfoils mounted on rods at right-angles to the rotors. Though reminiscent of the servos on the Hiller 360, those on the Norélic were themselves flappable and were intended to control both cyclic pitch and the flapping amplitude of the main rotors. Thus the cockpit cyclic pitch control was absent, and instead roll was produced by sideways motion of the hub via its parallel support pillars, which separated the centres of lift and gravity. Effects due to variations in the position of the centre of gravity could be trimmed out by longitudinal movements of the hub. The servo blades also served as rotor speed governors; restrained by springs, they could slide outward as the rotor speed began to increase, increasing the pitch and the associated drag to decrease the speed. Collective pitch was thus primarily determined by throttle setting, though there was a collective pitch override lever.  Behind the engine the fuselage was conical, tapering to the tail. Instead of a side-mounted anti-torque tail rotor the Nord used a system patented by its designer where an axially driven pusher propeller, rotating within a circular shroud, forced air through four rotatable, vertical airfoils mounted on the shroud trailing edge. The shroud was intended to protect the propeller from the rotor downwash, to guard the propeller from objects on the ground and protect ground staff from the propeller. Air deflected from the blades balanced rotor torque automatically, using information from an hydraulic torque sensor, and also controlled yaw. Two horizontal surfaces controlled fore and aft motion (pitch). In addition the propeller provided thrust for forward propulsion.  Its landing gear had mainwheels on cantilever legs and a tailheel mounted on the propeller shroud.  The Norélic made its first flight on 17 November 1947. "Flight" suggests the helicopter continued to be tested through 1949 and that its control system worked well, though it was damaged in two accidents, after which development ended. Thus the intended production machines, with more refined cockpit glazing, faired rotor gear and incorporating lessons learned from the prototype, never appeared. Instead Bruel designed a smaller, lighter, less powerful, single seat machine, the Nord 1710 which shared a similar control system, though horizontal surfaces were added within the shroud for pitch control. This first flew in July 1950 but just a year later was itself abandoned after accidents.

The Nord 1700 Norélic or SNCAN N.1700 Norélic was a French helicopter with several novel control features. Only one prototype was built, though it was intended to lead to series production.


Early life.

Coventry was the son of Walter Coventry and his wife Anne (née Holcombe), daughter of Humphrey Holcombe, merchant, of St. Andrew's Holborn. He succeeded his father in 1692. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge on 13 April 1693, aged 16. His grandfather Walter Coventry was the youngest brother of Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry.

Career.

Coventry was returned unopposed as Whig [[Member of Parliament for [[Bridport (UK Parliament constituency)|Bridport]] at the [[1708 British general election]]. He voted for naturalizing the Palatines in 1709 and for the impeachment of Dr Sacheverell in 1710. At the [[1710 British general election]] he was again returned unopposed. He voted for the amendment to the South Sea bill on 25 May 1711 and for the motion for ‘No Peace without Spain’ on 7 December. He also voted against the French commerce bill on 18 June 13. At the [[1713 British general election]] he was returned again unopposed for Bridport. He voted against the expulsion of Richard Steele on 18 March 1713.  Coventry was returned again as MP for Bridport at the [[1715 British general election]]. He voted for the Administration in all recorded divisions. Early in the parliament, he applied for the office of clerk of the Parliaments, but Sir Robert Walpole kept upping the price to him until he angrily refused. He was appointed Keeper, bailiwick of Frisham, New Forest by 1717 and was appointed Joint [[Clerk of the Green Cloth|Clerk Comptroller of the Board of Green Cloth]] in 1717. His only known speech was in December 1717, when he supported a motion to maintain. In 1719, he accompanied the King to Hanover and he succeeded his second cousin once removed as fifth Earl of Coventry on 27 October 1719. He vacated his seat in the [[House of Commons]] and entered the [[House of Lords]] where he became a ‘malcontent’, and signed many protests. He was appointed to the [[Privy Council]] on 22 March 1720 and was appointed [[Lord Lieutenant of Worcestershire]] in the same year. In the House of Lords.

Later life and legacy.

Lord Coventry married Elizabeth Allen, daughter of John Allen of Westminster, in 1720. In 1724 he was successfully sued by [[Anne Coventry, Countess of Coventry (1691–1788)|Anne Coventry]], the widow of Gilbert Coventry who was the previous earl, for her inheritance. He became High Steward of Bridport in 1727.  Coventry's wife died in 1738. He survived her by thirteen years and died in March 1751. He had three sons and as his eldest son [[Thomas Henry Coventry, Viscount Deerhurst]], predeceased him so he was succeeded by his second son [[George Coventry, 6th Earl of Coventry|George]], who extensively redeveloped Croome Court. His third son was [[John Bulkeley Coventry]], who succeeded George as MP for [[Worcestershire (UK Parliament constituency)|Worcestershire]].

References.

[[Category:1670s births]] [[Category:1751 deaths]] [[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Worcestershire]] [[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies]] [[Category:British MPs 1708–1710]] [[Category:British MPs 1710–1713]] [[Category:British MPs 1713–1715]] [[Category:British MPs 1715–1722]] [[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain]] [[Category:Earls of Coventry]]

William Coventry, 5th Earl of Coventry (c.1676 – 18 March 1751), of London and later Croome Court, Worcestershire, was a British Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1708 to 1719.


Mathematical definition.

The definition depends on whether one is working in discrete or continuous time. We will see that for CRRA utility, the two approaches yield the same answer. The below functional forms assume that utility from consumption is time additively separable.

Discrete time.

Total lifetime utility is given by In this setting, the real interest rate will be given by the following condition: A quantity of money formula_3 invested today costs formula_4 units of utility, and so must yield exactly that number of units of utility in the future when saved at the prevailing gross interest rate formula_5. (If it yielded more, then the agent could make himself better off by saving more.)  Solving for the real interest rate, we see that In logs, we have Logs are very close to percentage changes, so we can interpret formula_8 as a net interest rate like 5%, whereas formula_5 is the corresponding gross interest rate like 1.05.  The elasticity of intertemporal substitution is defined as the percent change in consumption growth per percent increase in the net interest rate: By substituting in our log equation above, we can see that this definition is equivalent to the elasticity of consumption growth with respect to marginal utility growth: Either definition is correct, however, assuming that the agent is optimizing and has time separable utility.

Example.

Let utility of consumption in period formula_12 be given by Since this utility function belongs to the family of CRRA utility functions we have formula_14 Thus, This can be rewritten as Hence, applying the above derived formula

Continuous time.

Let total lifetime utility be given by  formula_18  where formula_19 is shorthand for formula_20, formula_21 is the utility of consumption in (instant) time t, and formula_22 is the time discount rate. First define the measure of relative risk aversion (this is useful even if the model has no uncertainty or risk) as, then the elasticity of intertemporal substitution is defined as  formula_24  If the utility function formula_25 is of the CRRA type:  formula_26 (with special case of formula_27 being formula_28)  then the intertemporal elasticity of substitution is given by formula_29. In general, a low value of theta (high intertemporal elasticity) means that consumption growth is very sensitive to changes in the real interest rate. For theta equal to 1, the growth rate of consumption responds one for one to changes in the real interest rate. A high theta implies an insensitive consumption growth.

Ramsey Growth model.

In the Ramsey growth model, the elasticity of intertemporal substitution determines the speed of adjustment to the steady state and the behavior of the saving rate during the transition. If the elasticity is high then large changes in consumption are not very costly to consumers and as a result if the real interest rate is high they will save a large portion of their income. If the elasticity is low the consumption smoothing motive is very strong and because of this consumers will save a little and consume a lot if the real interest rate is high.

Estimates.

Empirical estimates of the elasticity vary. Part of the difficulty stems from the fact that microeconomic studies come to different conclusions than macroeconomic studies which use aggregate data. A meta-analysis of 169 published studies reports a mean elasticity of 0.5, but also substantial differences across countries.

Elasticity of intertemporal substitution (or intertemporal elasticity of substitution) is a measure of responsiveness of the growth rate of consumption to the real interest rate. If the real rate rises, current consumption may decrease due to increased return on savings; but current consumption may also increase as the household decides to consume more immediately, as it is feeling richer. The net effect on current consumption is the elasticity of intertemporal substitution.