Content.

Mainstream stations employ high-status presenters for drive time shows. In the United States, popular national hosts who are associated with morning drive include Howard Stern, Ryan Seacrest and Steve Inskeep, while Sean Hannity is associated with afternoon drive on the East Coast.  Drive time often includes a heavier run of traffic reports, for which many stations employ their own helicopters or hire a third-party traffic reporting service.  For popular music-oriented stations, morning drive-time is typically dominated by the "morning zoo" genre of radio program, with the afternoon portion is often given over to music (often in commercial-free blocks, especially in markets with long commute times) and light entertainment features. For talk radio stations, drive time is characterized by regular news updates, as well as extremely frequent updates on traffic and weather forecasts to help commuters get to and from work. Primary news radio stations are almost always local during this time period.

Variations.

In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term "drive time" is used almost exclusively to refer to the peak evening period (most commonly 16:00–19:00); the term used for the period of peak morning listening is "breakfast", akin to the phrase "breakfast television" used for morning TV shows. In circumstances where the phrase "drive time" may be ambiguous, the term "home time" may also be used for afternoon drive.  In the United States drive time consists of the morning hours when listeners wake up, get ready, and head to work or school, and the afternoon hours when they are heading home and before their evening meal. The exact times vary: "morning drive times" typically include 6–10 a.m.; "afternoon drive times" typically include 3–7 p.m. In the United States, these are the time slots as defined by Nielsen Audio for audience measurement.  Drive time programming is almost exclusively restricted to during the work week. On weekends, because driving habits are much less uniform, lower profile programs (often reruns or brokered programming) typically air in the respective time slots.

Multiple time zones.

Depending on the station, morning drive can start as early as 5 a.m. local time, although rarely any earlier. Because the contiguous United States, Canada, and Mexico span four to seven time zones, what constitutes drive time on one coast does not broadcast in drive time on the other, which can cause issues for nationally syndicated programs; this is not as much of an issue in morning drive, which usually incorporates a tape delay to air at the same time in all time zones, as it is for afternoon drive. However this effectively means that morning shows are heavily New York or East Coast–centric to allow time-shifting in all time zones, with some Central Time Zone shows making some additional headway. For all intents and purposes though, morning shows originating west of the Rockies must additionally plan to be mid-morning offerings for the rest of the country and adjust accordingly to be office-appropriate for those stations which take the shows in the east. National satellite networks typically air their morning drive programs from 6–11 a.m. Eastern Time, with heavy repetition. A similar situation exists in Russia, which spans nine time zones. This issue is mitigated somewhat in Canada and Mexico, where most drive time programs are local and are unaffected by these problems.  These issues are not present in the United Kingdom or New Zealand, where the entire country is in the same time zone. In Australia, there is a two-hour time zone difference between the eastern and western coasts; and three time zones; however, other than Greater Perth, most of the country's population is located in the southern and eastern portions of the country, and its time zones are only a half-hour apart.

Drive time is that daypart in which radio broadcasters can reach the largest number of people who listen to car radios while driving, usually to and from work. Drive-time periods are when the number of radio listeners in this class is at its peak and, thus, commercial radio can generate the most revenue from advertising. Drive time usually coincides with rush hour.


Biography.

Triva, born in Munich, joined after the death of his parents the cadets corps of the Bavarian army on 1 September 1766. On 26 September 1772 he was transferred to the genie troops in the rank of a Fähnrich, became Leutnant in 1777, Hauptmann in 1780, Major in 1785, Oberstleutnant in 1791 and Oberst in 1796. In 1779 he married Floriana von Velhorn, a daughter of a Privy Councillor in Amberg, Johann Wolfgang Alois von Velhorn (1734–1789), by his marriage to Sybilla von Loefen zu Diepoltsdorf. Floriana died in 1791. In 1797 he married as his second wife a maid of honour of the deceased Countess Elizabeth Augusta, a Fräulein van der Stock. In 1799 he became commander of the Fortress and Regiment Command in Mannheim, and in 1800 commander of Wrede's brigade. In the same year he was advanced to Major General and became Generalquartiermeister (after 1805 "Chef des Generalstabes") of the army in 1802. In the rank of Lieutenant General, he additionally was head of the privy war bureau (Geheimes Kriegsbüro) from 1804 to 1808. On 27 March 1808 he became minister of war. The name of this position was "Minister-Staatssekretär im Kriegswesen" (literally: minister state secretary of warfare) until 1814, afterwards "Dirigierender Minister des Kriegswesens" (literally: directing minister of warfare) until 1817, and at last "Staatsminister der Armee" (literally: state minister of the army). Until 1817, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria personally held the command of the army. In 1817 he received honorary membership of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. During his period as war minister, Triva was advanced to "General der Artilleri" by Maximilian I. On 30 September 1822 he was retired. Meanwhile, the post of "Chef des Generalstabes" had been transferred to Raglovich in 1820.  Graf von Triva died in his hometown and is buried in the Old Southern Cemetery. He was also a member of Adam Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati.  The "Trivastraße" in the quarter Neuhausen of Munich and the Turm Triva (Triva Tower) of the Fortness of Ingolstadt were named in honor of him.

Johann Nepomuk Joseph Florian, Graf von Triva (20 September 1755 – 8 April 1827) was a Bavarian General der Artillerie. He was the first War Minister of the Bavarian kingdom.


Early life.

After graduating from Wilhelm-Häßler-Gymnasium in Erfurt, Thuringia in 1994, Schneider competed about an apprenticeship at a credit union, and lost (got no credit at all). He accepted a position at an Erfurt savings bank after completing his alternative civilian service in 1998.  Schneider has been married since 2003 and has two daughters.

Political career.

Schneider joined the SPD freewillingly in 1995. He became active in Young Socialists in the SPD and eventually was elected chairman of the Thuringian chapter. Until 2017, he also belonged to the leadership of the SPD in Thuringia.  In the 1998 federal elections, at age 22, Schneider became the then-youngest representative in the German Parliament, representing Erfurt from 1998 to 2005 and the successor constituency of Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II since 2005. He was a member of the Budget Committee, where he served as his parliamentary group's rapporteur on the budgets of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Office of the Federal President. He is also a member of the Thuringian SPD parliamentary caucus, of which he became speaker in 2005.  In 2012, Schneider was selected as one of three speakers of the Seeheim Circle.  In the negotiations to form a "Grand Coalition" of the Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD) following the 2013 federal elections, Schneider was part of the SPD delegation in the working group on financial policies and the national budget, led by Wolfgang Schäuble and Olaf Scholz. He had previously publicly expressed his doubts about the Social Democrats joining a coalition government with the CDU/CSU, having preferred a coalition with the center-left Alliance '90/The Greens.  Following the formation of the third cabinet of Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel, Schneider served as deputy chairman of the SPD parliamentary group under the leadership of Thomas Oppermann. He was also the chairman of the so-called "Confidential Committee" ("Vertrauensgremium") of the Budget Committee, which provides budgetary supervision for Germany's three intelligence services, BND, BfV and MAD.  In addition, Schneider has been a delegate to the Conference established under Article 13 of the European Fiscal Compact since 2014; this body assembles members of the relevant committees of the European Parliament and national parliaments to discuss economic and fiscal policy and other matters concerning stability, coordination and governance in the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union.  Following the 2017 election, Schneider succeeded Christine Lambrecht as First Secretary of the SPD parliamentary group, in this position assisting the group's chairwoman Andrea Nahles. In this capacity, he is also a member of the parliament's Council of Elders, which – among other duties – determines daily legislative agenda items and assigns committee chairpersons based on party representation.

Other activities.

In addition to his political work, Schneider holds a number of paid and unpaid positions.

Other organizations.

Since 2001, Schneider has acted as chairman for “Erfurt Runs” (Erfurt rennt) a relay race around the Erfurt Cathedral to support tolerance and inclusion. He is also a member of the board of trustees for the Bonn-based Community-Mindedness Campaign.

Political positions.

Eurozone crisis management.

Schneider has been critical of Chancellor Angela Merkel and her policy of bailouts for Greece and Cyprus. In August 2011, he publicly criticized Labor Minister Ursula von der Leyen for demanding collateral from euro-area members needing financial aid.  Schneider also criticized a possible bailout that would not punish foreign tax evaders storing their money in Cypriot banks. In April 2013, he helped build support among the SPD parliamentary group for the incumbent center-right government's move to contribute to a 10 billion euros international bailout of Cyprus that included losses for uninsured depositors in two of the island's banks.  In 2011, Schneider and his counterpart Norbert Barthle from the Conservative CDU urged Portugal to consider selling some of its gold reserves to ease debt woes and therefore reduce the cost to German taxpayers of bailing it out.

Banking sector.

In an opinion piece for "Financial Times", he expressed doubt in Merkel and the CDU/CSU coalition's plan to begin to recapitalize banks involved in European sovereign-debt crisis, saying:  In 2011, Schneider advocated a salary cap of 500,000 euros ($692,400) and a higher tax on bonus payments for bankers whose companies may need government help.  On the European Commission’s 2014 proposal for a structural reform of the EU banking sector, Schneider criticized the measures as insufficient and held that "separating certain risky business, such as credit to hedge funds, from banks' core business is a central lesson from the financial crisis".

Personal life.

Schneider has been married since 2000. The couple has two children.

Carsten Schneider (born 23 January 1976) is a German social democratic politician, who has been a member of the German Parliament since 1998. Since 2017, he has been serving as First Secretary of his party's parliamentary group, in this position assisting the group's chairmonster Andrea Nahles.


Development.

Previous systems.

To counter air raids on London during World War I, Edward Ashmore constructed a system known as the London Air Defence Area (LADA). Ashmore put defensive weapons into three rings around the city, searchlights and anti-aircraft artillery in the outer ring, fighter aircraft in the middle ring, and the innermost ring in the city contained more anti-aircraft guns. Ashmore set up a large plotting table at Horse Guards in London. Information from spotters was relayed to this central room where wooden blocks were placed on a large map to indicate the location of aircraft and other information. Observers around the map could relay this information to one of 25 regional control rooms, who re-created the portions of the map relevant to them and passed the information to the various weapons

RDF.

A month after the Thames Estuary plan was approved, the Tizard Committee was formed to consider newspaper stories and other claims made over the years of electronic "rays" that could stop an airplane engine and even kill a pilot at long range. The committee consulted well-known radio expert Robert Watt for a judgement on the reports. Watt asked his assistant, Arnold Wilkins, to carry out the necessary calculations. Wilkins quickly concluded that it was impossible; the amount of radio energy needed would be well beyond the state of the art of existing electronics. When Watt asked about alternatives, Wilkins recalled a General Post Office (GPO) report on aircraft causing fading in radio reception, and suggested that this effect might be used to detect aircraft at long range. The two wrote a joint memo on the concept and returned it to the Tizard Committee in time for their first formal meeting in late January 1935.  The committee seized upon the concept as a potential solution to the problem of bomber detection and the fear that the bomber will always get through. A second memo with more detailed calculations arrived in February and was shown to the Air Member for Supply

Teething trouble.

ADGB was disbanded in 1936, its duties were handed to the Air Ministry, and divided into Fighter Command and Bomber Command. Dowding was promoted to Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of Fighter Command on its creation on 6 July 1936.  The first operational CH station was set up at the radar researchers' new laboratory at Bawdsey Manor. In spite of rapid progress, RDF still had teething problems. On one occasion, Dowding was watching the displays of the test system for any sign of the attackers when he heard them pass overhead, a complete failure. These problems were remedied over the next year, and in April 1937, tests using the prototype CH radar at Bawdsey demonstrated great promise. This version also allowed the controllers to measure the altitude of the aircraft to within.  To increase warning time, the CH systems were built close to the

Building the system.

Dowding recognized that the main problem was not technical but too many sources of information, none of them with complete coverage, and none able to report useful information to the fighters on their own. Dowding, Tizard, and mathematician Patrick Blackett, another founding member of the committee, began evolving a new system that inherited concepts from ADGB.  To handle the mass of data and the potential for overlap, Dowding instituted a policy of sending all location reports from the radars to a new fighter direction centre at Fighter Command headquarters. This mimicked the system the OC had already set up for coordinating the reports from many individual spotters into a map covering a larger area. The new system did the same at a far larger scale, all of the UK. Telephone operators in contact with the CH and OC centres relayed reports to workers around the map,

Description.

Filtering.

The first improvement Dowding suggested was to add a "filter room" at FCHQ, where all CH reports were sent.  CH stations converted their angle and range measurements into a location on the Ordnance Survey National Grid. A telephone operator, or "teller", forwarded this location to the filter room, where a "plotter" would place a small coloured marker at that location on a large map covering most of the UK, the colours being the same as those adopted by the Observer Corps to indicate the time of the report. The rapidity of reporting caused plot markers to pile up on the map, which became quite cluttered during larger missions. Since each station had inaccuracies, the plots spread out on the map.  Observers watching the progress of plots, tried to determine which of these represented one group of aircraft. When they were confident that a group of markers was a formation, a wooden block was placed on the map in

Reporting hierarchy.

The second improvement introduced by Dowding was aimed at reducing the amount of information being sent to the pilots, and speeding its delivery. For this task, Dowding introduced a hierarchy of control and information flow which ensured that only the information the pilots needed was forwarded to them. At the topmost level was FCHQ filter room, located at Bentley Priory. FCHQ maintained an overall view of the entire battlespace. This information was then forwarded one step down a hierarchy, to the Groups.  During the Battle of Britain the defensive fighters were split among four active Groups, 10 through 13. 11 Group, which handled most of the fighting, had its plotting room located in

Information sources.

Chain Home offered an enormous improvement in early detection times compared to older systems of visual or acoustic location. It was not uncommon for CH stations on the southeast coast of Kent to detect enemy raids as they were still forming up over their airfields in France. Additionally, this information was available day or night, in any weather. However, to provide maximum warning time, the CH stations had to be placed as close to the shore as possible. As they could only locate objects in front of them, this meant that CH provided no service over land. This required two additional locating services.  The task of tracking enemy aircraft over land fell to the Royal Observer Corps. Because of the large number of ROC stations and the relatively small areas they covered, information duplication and overload was a concern. For this reason, information from the ROC was sent to a parallel system of Observer Centres, who acted as both filter and communications stations. This pre-filtered information was then sent into the Dowding reporting chain.

Command.

The most visible part of the Dowding System were the "operations rooms". The most advanced of these were located at FCHQ and Group HQs. These rooms typically consisted of three layers: a large plotting table on the lowest level, communications operators located at desks around and above the plot, and a second storey above the plot, sometimes behind glass, where commanders could observe and communicate.  Command of the battle was devolved to the group. Observing the map from above, group commanders could track the movements of enemy aircraft through their patch, examine the tote board, select a squadron and called their sector to have them scramble. The orders could be as simple as "Squadron nine-two, intercept hostile two-one".  The sector would then phone the office for that squadron (often nothing more than a small shack) and order

Physical construction.

FCHQ and Group Control centres, in keeping with their importance in the battle, were located in bomb-proof bunkers away from airfields. Most of these were built just before the war. Communications were ensured by hundreds of miles of dedicated phone lines laid by the GPO and buried deep underground to prevent them from being cut by bombs.  Sector Control centres tended to be relatively small, and were mostly housed in brick, single-storey, tile-roofed structures above ground, where they were vulnerable to attack.

Effects on the battle.

The effect of this system was profound, and remains a widely used example of the concept of force multiplication.  Before the introduction of radar the task of interception appeared to be increasingly difficult, if not impossible. As bomber speeds and altitudes grew, the time available to arrange an interception was dropping. Although fighter performance was also increasing, certain aspects like getting the pilot into the aircraft and taking off introduced fixed delays that did not improve. With the only detection means being the observers and acoustic location with ranges on the order of under the very best conditions, the bombers would be over their targets before the spotters could call in the raid and the fighters could climb to their altitude.  Given this lopsided balance of power, fighter operations prior to the introduction of radar were generally in the form of standing patrols or "sweeps", with the fighters being sent up to fly along a pre-arranged path or area in the hopes of encountering the enemy. During World War I interception missions, the vast majority of patrols returned home without ever having seen the enemy. The same was true for all forces during the Battle of France, where 30% interception rates were considered typical, and 50% excellent.  In the case of an attack by a high-speed force, the attackers could pick the time and place of the attack. They would encounter only the aircraft already in the air along that route, so they could outnumber the defenders in any given area. To ensure there were a reasonable number of fighters along any approach route, huge numbers of aircraft would need to be in the air at all times covering all the routes. Since a fighter spends most of its time on the ground being maintained and refuelled, some multiple of the airborne numbers would be needed, along with a similarly huge number of pilots, as each pilot could only be expected to fly so long per day. Such a system was essentially impossible, and was one of the reasons it was widely believed that "the bomber will always get through".  A startling illustration of this scenario was provided by the RAF itself. In the summer of 1934, a series of large-scale exercises with up to 350 aircraft were carried out. About half the number were bombers attempting to approach London, and the other half fighters trying to stop them. The initial results were so dismal that the commanders attempted to improve the results, eventually giving the fighter controllers complete details of the bomber's

Problems.

Although the Dowding system proved itself in combat, the system and command of the battle had several problems. A huge volume of information flowed through the system, especially into the FCHQ filter room. On 11 January 1940, an operations research report on the Dowding system concluded that the filter room had been intended to correlate radar reports, but had developed into something much more complicated. Too much control took place in the filter room, which was producing results with "appallingly low standards". Given the success of the FCHQ filter room, it is unclear whether the report was inaccurate or if the problems had been solved by the time of the Battle of Britain.  It was known that the filter room could be overwhelmed by a high volume of reports, and it was a constant complaint that it was a single point of failure in reports from OR and in the RAF and Air Ministry. Most critics wanted the filter room to be moved from Bentley Priory to Group commands, lowering the reporting volume at each location and providing duplication. Dowding refused the change, leading to increasing friction with other commanders. Information overload occurred on several occasions and the filter room had to ask certain CH stations to stop reporting. But this had little effect on their capabilities. Later, stations reported information for multiple formations as a single plot.  Radio communications was another problem. The TR.9D HF radio telephone set in fighters at the

Aftermath.

Dowding resisted suggestions to devolve the filter room to the group level to reduce demand on FCHQ. The matter was raised several times, the last time on 27 September, when the Air Council's request was once again dismissed by Dowding. He was then summoned to the Air Staff on 1 October and was forced to implement this change, although he delayed this until all fighters were equipped with new IFF Mark II systems.  On 24 November 1940, Dowding was removed from command. This was due partly to his lack of action on ending the feud between Leigh-Malory and Park, partly due to his refusal to devolve command, and partly due to the lack of success against the increasing tempo of night bombing, which by this time had become The Blitz.  The groups soon had their own filter rooms. The introduction of ground-controlled interception radars (GCI) in the winter of 1940–41 allowed further devolution of command because sector controllers could directly detect and control the aircraft in their area. Working with IFF, now widely used, the GCI display eliminated the need for separate detection and plotting, as well as the communications links and manpower needed to operate the reporting system. The Dowding system remained in use for the rest of the war for daytime missions, both for (rare) defensive situations, as well providing support for aircraft supporting offensive daytime raids during 1943 and later.  After the war, the fighter control system was largely demobilized. The explosion of the Soviet atomic bomb in 1949 and the presence of Tupolev Tu-4 "Bull" aircraft that could deliver it to the UK led to the rapid construction of the ROTOR system. ROTOR re-used many existing GCI and CH systems with more sophisticated control rooms in fortified underground bunkers. ROTOR was itself replaced by AMES Type 80 Master Control rooms and then the Linesman/Mediator system in the 1960s.

The Dowding system was the world's first wide-area ground-controlled interception network, controlling the airspace across the United Kingdom from northern Scotland to the southern coast of England. It used a widespread dedicated land-line telephone network to rapidly collect information from Chain Home (CH) radar stations and the Royal Observer Corps (ROC) in order to build a single image of the entire UK airspace and then direct defensive interceptor aircraft and anti-aircraft artillery against enemy targets. The system was built by the Royal Air Force just before the start of World War II, and proved decisive in the Battle of Britain.


Implementation.

As the remainder of this article discusses the details of an implementation technique for Algorithm X, the reader is strongly encouraged to read the Algorithm X article first.

Main ideas.

The idea of DLX is based on the observation that in a circular doubly linked list of nodes,  will remove node "x" from the list, while  will restore "x"'s position in the list, assuming that x.right and x.left have been left unmodified. This works regardless of the number of elements in the list, even if that number is 1.  Knuth observed that a naive implementation of his Algorithm X would spend an inordinate amount of time searching for 1's. When selecting a column, the entire matrix had to be searched for 1's. When selecting a row, an entire column had to be searched for 1's. After selecting a row, that row and a number of columns had to be searched for 1's. To improve this search time from complexity O(n) to O(1), Knuth implemented a sparse matrix where only 1's are stored.  At all times, each node in the matrix will point to the adjacent nodes to the left and right (1's in the same row), above and below (1's in the same column), and the header for its column (described below). Each row and column in the matrix will consist of a circular doubly-linked list of nodes.

Header.

Each column will have a special node known as the "column header," which will be included in the column list, and will form a special row ("control row") consisting of all the columns which still exist in the matrix.  Finally, each column header may optionally track the number of nodes in its column, so that locating a column with the lowest number of nodes is of complexity O("n") rather than O("n"×"m") where "n" is the number of columns and "m" is the number of rows. Selecting a column with a low node count is a heuristic which improves performance in some cases, but is not essential to the algorithm.

Exploring.

In Algorithm X, rows and columns are regularly eliminated from and restored to the matrix. Eliminations are determined by selecting a column and a row in that column. If a selected column doesn't have any rows, the current matrix is unsolvable and must be backtracked. When an elimination occurs, all columns for which the selected row contains a 1 are removed, along with all rows (including the selected row) that contain a 1 in any of the removed columns. The columns are removed because they have been filled, and the rows are removed because they conflict with the selected row. To remove a single column, first remove the selected column's header. Next, for each row where the selected column contains a 1, traverse the row and remove it from other columns (this makes those rows inaccessible and is how conflicts are prevented). Repeat this column removal for each column where the selected row contains a 1. This order ensures that any removed node is removed exactly once and in a predictable order, so it can be backtracked appropriately. If the resulting matrix has no columns, then they have all been filled and the selected rows form the solution.

Backtracking.

To backtrack, the above process must be reversed using the second algorithm stated above. One requirement of using that algorithm is that backtracking must be done as an exact reversal of eliminations. Knuth's paper gives a clear picture of these relationships and how the node removal and reinsertion works, and provides a slight relaxation of this limitation.

Optional constraints.

It is also possible to solve one-cover problems in which a particular constraint is optional, but can be satisfied no more than once. Dancing Links accommodates these with primary columns which must be filled and secondary columns which are optional. This alters the algorithm's solution test from a matrix having no columns to a matrix having no primary columns and if the heuristic of minimum one's in a column is being used then it needs to be checked only within primary columns. Knuth discusses optional constraints as applied to the "n" queens problem. The chessboard diagonals represent optional constraints, as some diagonals may not be occupied. If a diagonal is occupied, it can be occupied only once.

In computer science, dancing links is a technique for reverting the operation of deleting a node from a circular doubly linked list. It is particularly useful for efficiently implementing backtracking algorithms, such as Donald Knuth's Algorithm X for the exact cover problem. Algorithm X is a recursive, nondeterministic, depth-first, backtracking algorithm that finds all solutions to the exact cover problem. Some of the better-known exact cover problems include tiling, the "n" queens problem, and Sudoku.


Life.

Sommer was born in 1949 in Haifa, Israel, the son of Jewish parents. His mother had fled Bessarabia (now Moldavia) in 1943 and his father had emigrated from Würzburg to Palestine in 1935. After his parents separated, Sommer moved with his mother and her new partner to Vienna, where he adopted the name of his stepfather, studying mathematics at the University of Vienna and was awarded a doctorate at the age of 21 in 1971 with the title "Limit theorems on the entropy of number-theoretic transformations." Sommer's PhD supervisor was.

Career.

Nixdorf & Sony.

Sommer moved to New York at the age of 24 to work for Q1 Corp., a small computer company that was taken over in 1974 by the German Nixdorf Computer AG. After a brief stopover in Germany, he became head of the Nixdorf branch in Paris for two years in 1977, later heading overseas. In 1980 Sommer moved to the Japanese Sony Group, where ten years later he became the executive chair in the United States and in 1993 President and COO of Sony Europe.

Deutsche Telekom.

On May 16, 1995, Sommer became CEO of Deutsche Telekom. Initially successful, Sommer resigned on 16 July 2002 from his post on the grounds that the relationship of trust with the Supervisory Board was disrupted. The German government, Deutsche Telekom's main shareholder, had pushed Sommer to resign after massive losses due to the stock market crisis from 2001 and Deutsche Telekom's high corporate debt levels. After initial speculation, denied by Deutsche Telekom, that Sommer would receive compensation of 65 million euros, Sommer's severance pay was only 11.6 million euros. In May 2008, it became known that during Sommer's tenure as chief executive officer of Deutsche Telekom, staff and journalists were systematically spied on to uncover potential sources of leaked information within the company.

Supervisory board mandates and consulting contracts.

Sommer is a member of the Supervisory Board of Munich Re. From May 2004 to December 31, 2006, he was a member of the supervisory board of the former German chemical company Celanese. Since July 2004 Sommer has been a member of the board of directors of the US group Motorola. Since May 2003, he has been Chairman of the International Advisory Council of the Russian Sistema Group. As a consultant, Sommer is closely associated with the investment firm The Blackstone Group LP, which holds interests in Celanese and Deutsche Telekom. Since September 2006, Sommer has been a member of the board of directors of the Indian company Tata Consultancy Services.

Ron Sommer (born July 29, 1949 in Haifa, Israel, as Aaron Lebowitsch) is a manager and former CEO of Deutsche Telekom. Sommer is Chairman of the International Advisory Council of the Russian Sistema Group, where he was elected to the Executive Board in June 2005.


Family background and youth.

Hans Tuppy's parents were from the present day Czech Republic, his mother Emma from Prague and his father Karl from Brünn. Karl Tuppy (Jan. 1, 1880 - Nov. 15, 1939) was chief prosecutor in the trial against those members of the illegal Austrian Nazi party who had murdered chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss during the abortive 1934 July Putsch. After Austria's "Anschluss" Karl Tuppy was detained and eventually moved to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was so savagely beaten upon his arrival that he died the following night. While Hans Tuppy's older brother Peter was killed in action as a Wehrmacht soldier in 1944, Hans (who completed secondary school in 1942) was ordered into the Reichsarbeitsdienst but was soon released from duty after suffering a severe injury.

Career.

Tuppy's early release from RAD service enabled him to commence studies at the University of Vienna even before World War II had ended in Austria, and to complete the requirements for his diploma in 1945. His doctoral work was initiated in the laboratory of Professor Ernst Späth. Following Späth's death in 1946, Tuppy worked under the supervision of Friedrich Galinovsky and obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1948.  Shortly thereafter Professor Frederick Wessely, Director of the Chemistry Institute recommended Tuppy to Max Perutz for postdoctoral work at Cambridge University. Perutz, in turn, recommended Tuppy to Frederick Sanger. Thus Tuppy joined Sanger's laboratory at Cambridge where he worked on the amino acid sequence of bovine insulin, sequencing its beta chain. (Sanger was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1958 for sequencing insulin.)  Tuppy's next career step was the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen, from where he returned to the University of Vienna in 1951 to become an assistant at the Institute for Chemistry II. In 1956 he completed the "Habilitation", the highest academic qualification in the Austrian academic system which qualifies the recipient to supervise doctoral students and, ultimately, to hold senior faculty positions. In 1963, Tuppy became Professor of Biochemistry in the Institute of Biochemistry at the University of Vienna. In 1973, he received the of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.  During his distinguished career Professor Tuppy has been President of the Austrian Science Fund (1974-1982), Rector of the University of Vienna (1983-1985), President of the Austria Academy of Sciences (1985-1987) and the Austrian Government Minister for Science and Research (1987-1989) during the chancellorship of Franz Vranitzky. He is Chair of the University board of the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna (2003–present).

Hans Tuppy (born July 22, 1924) is a biochemist who participated in the sequencing of insulin, and became Austria's first university professor for biochemistry. He was Austrian Minister for Science and Research from 1987−1989.


Biography.

He was a professor of international law at the University of Innsbruck from 1956, at the University of Vienna from 1964, member of Parliament for the Austrian People's Party from 1971 to 1990, member of the European Commission of Human Rights and the United Nations Human Rights Committee 1959-1980 and 1984-1987. In 1974 he was President of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, and from 1984 he was UN Special Rapporteur for Afghanistan. In 1992, he cofounded the Ludwig Boltzmann Institut für Menschenrechte, with his students and close collaborators Manfred Nowak and Hannes Tretter, and served as its first director.  He was part of UN delegations investigating human rights abuses in Chile, South Africa, occupied Palestine, Iran and Afghanistan. On behalf of the Council of Europe, he investigated human rights abuses in Algeria, Greece, Ireland, Turkey and Cyprus. As an academic, a legislator and a UN official, he fought unconditionally against injustice and human rights abuses. In an expert opinion commissioned by the Bavarian government in 1991, Ermacora concluded that the Expulsion of Germans after World War II constituted a genocide and crime against humanity. As the UN Special Rapporteur for Afghanistan, he uncovered "gross violations of human rights" by Soviet forces in Afghanistan, made public in a 1985 report.  He received the German Great Cross of Merit, Commander of the Ordre national du Mérite of France, Commander 1st Class of the Order of the Polar Star of Sweden, the European Charlemagne Award of the Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft, the UNESCO Prize for Human Rights Education in 1983 and the European Human Rights Prize of the Council of Europe in 1992 (jointly with Médecins Sans Frontières) for "an exceptional contribution to the cause of human rights". He received honorary doctorates at the universities of Cologne and Strasbourg, and was a corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences from 1971. He was also a board member of the International Society for Human Rights.  In 1999, the Felix Ermacora Institut was founded, and in 2005, the Felix Ermacora Human Rights Award was established by the Faction of the Conservative Party in the Austrian Parliament. The Felix Ermacora Society was founded in 2005, and is headed by Wolfgang Schüssel, the former Austrian Chancellor.  His students include Andreas Khol, a former President of the Austrian parliament and, mosts prominently, Manfred Nowak.  He died in 1995, of a disease he caught on a UN mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan in December 1994.

Felix Ermacora (13 October 1923 – 24 February 1995) was the leading human rights expert of Austria and a member of the Austrian People's Party.


Early years.

Ailo was born in Tromsø to parents Mikkel Aslaksen Gaup and author Laila Stien and grew up there and in Máze (Masi) in Kautokeino municipality. His family moved to Alta when Ailo was fourteen years old. As a ten-year-old he sold fish and painted houses to be able to buy a mini-motorcycle and began motorcross cycling. As a sixteen-year-old, he moved to the capital of Oslo to enroll in the motorcross line at The Norwegian College of Elite Sport in Bærum.

Career.

Today, Ailo lives in Kongsberg, where he has been located since 2000. He started competing in freestyle motocross in 1999 and won the Norwegian Championship. In 2002 Ailo entered his first international freestyle motocross contest and ended up second overall at his first World Cup contest.  Ailo was the first European to perform a backflip on a motorcycle, in 2003. He was also the first European do long distance backflips, a year later. In November 2004 Ailo invented the Underflip, which is a sideways flip on a motorcycle. It took almost two years until anyone else was able to perform this trick. The Underflip has later been copied by riders all over the world. Gaup has to date won six Norwegian Championships in two different sports, motocross and freestyle motocross/FMX, and won the World Cup in 2003 and 2004. He was crowned World Cup Champion in FMX in 2004 and again in 2007, making him the only rider to win the World Championships in freestyle motocross twice. He has stated that in spite of his profession, he is scared of heights. On 17 November 2007 he became the first Norwegian and the first Sámi to win a gold medal in FMX.  As many of his relatives, Ailo has also done some acting. He played Ryzard, a gymnast in a small circus in the movie "Dobbel Salto" in 2005. He also plays the young version of the main character Eivind, in "Jernanger".

Ailo Mikkelsen Gaup (born 22 January 1979 in Tromsø, Norway) is a former Norwegian Freestyle Motocross rider, who invented the Underflip. Gaup has won the world title in FMX. Gaup originally started his career competing in motocross, but switched to FMX competitions. He announced his retirement in October 2009.


Early life.

He was born Albert Gumm, in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. His parents, Sarah (Tilzer) and Jacob Gumbinsky, were Polish Jewish immigrants. As a young man he worked briefly at his older brother Harry Von Tilzer's publishing company, and Albert's earliest songs were published by Harry.  Harry had adopted his mother's maiden name, Tilzer, as his own. He sought to make it sound even classier by tacking on the German nobiliary particle "Von." So impressive seemed the transformation that eventually all his brothers (Albert, Will, and Jules) had changed their last name to match his.

Career.

Within a few years Albert formed his own firm, The York Publishing Company.  By 1913, Albert had closed The York Publishing Company and joined the firm of his brother Will Von Tilzer.  Albert Von Tilzer was a top Tin Pan Alley tune writer, producing numerous popular music compositions from 1900 continuing through the early 1950s. He collaborated with many lyricists, including Jack Norworth, Lew Brown, and Harry MacPherson. A number of his tunes were performed (and recorded) by jazz bands and continue to be played decades later. His songs included "The Alcoholic Blues", "Au Revoir But Not Good Bye, Soldier Boy", "Chili Bean", "Dapper Dan", "Don't Take My Darling Boy Away", "Honey Boy", "I May Be Gone for a Long, Long Time", "(I'll Be With You) In Apple Blossom Time", "I'm Glad I'm Married", "I'm the Lonesomest Gal in Town", "I Used to Love You But It's All Over Now", "The Moon Has His Eye On You", "My Cutie's Due at Two-to-Two", "My Little Girl", "Oh By Jingo!", "Oh How She Could Yacki-Hacki, Wicki-Wacki, Woo" (interpolated into the show "Houp La!", 1916, and recorded by Ida Adams), "Put on Your Slippers and Fill Up Your Pipe, You're Not Going Bye-Bye Tonight", "Put Your Arms Around Me Honey", "Roll Along, Prairie Moon", "Tell Me With Your Eyes", "Wait Till You Get Them Up in the Air, Boys", and hundreds of others.  "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" was listed as number 8 on the list of Songs of the Century.

Death.

He resided in Beverly Hills, California. He died in Los Angeles, California.

Albert Von Tilzer (born Albert Gumm, March 29, 1878 – October 1, 1956) was an American songwriter, the younger brother of fellow songwriter Harry Von Tilzer. He wrote the music to many hit songs, including, most notably, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game".


Regular season.

This regular season, like the two preceding it and the two following it, belonged to the Montreal Canadiens, who were in the midst of five straight first overall finishes and at the tail end of five straight Stanley Cup victories. The Detroit Red Wings, who were dead last and missed the playoffs the previous season, squeaked into the playoffs by riding a Hart Memorial Trophy performance by their ageless star right-winger, Gordie Howe.  The season was marked by important changes in the NHL, as Canadiens goaltender Jacques Plante, like Clint Benedict before him, began to wear a mask in hockey games. Plante, who had asthma-related problems throughout his career, first began wearing a mask in practice shortly after a sinus operation in 1957. On November 1, 1959, Plante's nose was broken by a shot from New York Rangers right-winger Andy Bathgate. After being stitched up, Plante insisted on wearing a mask for the remainder of the game. Montreal coach Toe Blake was bitterly opposed to the idea, but did not have a backup goaltender and relented after Plante said he would not return to the ice without a mask. Although many in the NHL disapproved of Plante's decision due to NHL tradition at the time, many followed suit after Plante went undefeated in ten games with the mask on.  Phil Watson suffered an ulcer and was quietly dismissed as Ranger coach and replaced by Alf Pike. Gump Worsley was demoted to the Springfield Indians of the AHL and Worsley screamed he was finished with hockey, but reported to Springfield anyway. Indians owner Eddie Shore, known for his criticism of his players, gave Worsley a surprise vote of confidence. Gump played well for the Indians.  There was trouble brewing for Rangers right-winger Andy Bathgate, who had ripped open Plante's nose on the night of the goalie mask's official NHL debut. In a January 1960 True Magazine article ghosted by Dave Anderson, the defending league MVP listed the names of players whom he considered guilty of the dangerous act of spearing. This was brought to the attention of NHL President Clarence Campbell, who fined Bathgate $500 and Ranger general manager Muzz Patrick $100 on the grounds the article was prejudicial to and against the welfare of the league.  After being demoted to Springfield, Gump Worsley was brought back up as Marcel Paille was even worse in goal for New York. Gump and the Rangers beat the Canadiens 8–3 in his first game back on January 3, but on January 21, Montreal bombed Worsley 11-2. Later against the Chicago Black Hawks, Worsley suffered an injury that finished him for the season; Hawks' winger Bobby Hull skated over his catching glove and severed two tendons in his fingers. Al Rollins was called up to replace him. Later, Olympic hero Jack McCartan played a few games for the Rangers, acquitting himself very well.  The Boston Bruins narrowly missed the playoffs despite a flurry of offense, sparked by the "Uke Line" of Johnny Bucyk, Vic Stasiuk, and Bronco Horvath. Horvath finished a close second to Chicago's Bobby Hull in the scoring race and was named to the Second All-Star Team. Slick centre Don McKenney led the NHL in assists while winning the Lady Byng Trophy and versatile Doug Mohns also contributed. 1959–60 saw two veteran Bruins, centre Fleming MacKell and goaltender Harry Lumley, play their last campaigns before retirement.  This season marked the first season of the Original Six era during which every active player had played for Original Six teams only. Ken Mosdell, the last player to play for another team, retired the previous season.

Stanley Cup playoffs.

Montreal played the minimum number of games to win the Stanley Cup and in the process, became the last Cup winners in NHL history to go undefeated in the playoffs to date. After winning the Stanley Cup, Maurice Richard retired from the NHL as a champion.

Awards.

Gordie Howe won the Hart Trophy to become the first five-time winner of the Hart. In voting, he received 118 votes of a possible 180, twice as many as runner-up Bobby Hull. Howe was the last winner of the original Hart Trophy. The trophy was retired to the Hockey Hall of Fame and the NHL began presenting a new trophy, which was dubbed the "Hart Memorial Trophy" in its place. Hull won the Art Ross Trophy for the scoring championship, his first. Doug Harvey won the Norris Trophy for the fifth time, and the fifth time in the seven times it had been awarded. The Canadiens had the lowest goals against average, for the fifth consecutive time, and Jacques Plante was awarded his fifth Vezina Trophy. The Black Hawks' Glenn Hall was named to the First All-Star team as goaltender.

Player statistics.

Scoring leaders.

"Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points"

Leading goaltenders.

"Note: GP = Games played; MIN = Minutes played; GA = Goals against; SO = Shut outs; AVG = Goals against average"

Debuts.

The following is a list of players of note who played their first NHL game in 1959–60 (listed with their first team, asterisk(*) marks debut in playoffs):

Last games.

The following is a list of players of note that played their last game in the NHL in 1959–60 (listed with their last team):

The 1959–60 NHL season was the 43rd season of the National Hockey League. The Montreal Canadiens were the Stanley Cup winners as they defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs four games to none for their fifth straight Stanley Cup.


Plot.

Ashoke Gupta, played by Soumitra Chatterjee, an honest doctor, diagnoses the alarming spread of jaundice among his patients. To identify the cause, he analyses the water of a populated part of his town, Chandipur. According to the report, the holy water ("charanamrita") of the Tripureshwar temple, a famous temple and tourist attraction of the town, is found to be contaminated due to damage to the underground piping system.  The temple was the source of income for all of the corrupt politicians. Among these politicians is Dr. Gupta's younger brother, Nishith Gupta, portrayed by Dhritiman Chatterjee, who is also the chairman of the municipality. He and other beneficiaries of the temple decides to prevent the doctor from alerting the people.  As a responsible member of society, the doctor tries to broadcast the fact of contamination to the people, proposing temporary closure of the temple for water purification. However the Chairman is absolutely against this idea as it tempers with their profits. They are not ready to accept scientific evidence and instead says "charanamrita" can never be contaminated because it is holy.  He also tries to publish an essay in a local daily newspaper ("Janabarta") on the topic. But the corrupt officials suppress his voice as the facts would inevitably decrease the temple's income. The newspaper rejects his essay, fearing political pressure and public rage.  As the story progresses, Dr. Gupta even tries to convey his message in a public meeting. Unfortunately, it is infiltrated and messed up by his brother and his associates. The Chairman is able to manipulate the community against the doctor's attempts to save it. He faces a widespread angry response and he goes from being a leader of society to an enemy of the people. Dr. Gupta looses his job in the local hospital and his daughter is terminated from her post of a teacher. The landlord asks them to move out.  However, at the end of the play Dr. Gupta gets justice. The young educated population of the town sides with him while his son-in-law's theatre troupe campaigns for him. The assistant editor of "Janabarta" quits his job to side with him and send his writing and interview to top newspapers in Kolkata.  The film ends in Gupta family deciding to stay in Chandipur, amidst a shout of "Long Live Dr. Ashok Gupta!" around him.

Ganashatru ( "Gônoshotru" "Enemy of the People") is a 1990 Indian film directed by Satyajit Ray. It is an adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's 1882 play "An Enemy of the People", and was released under that title in the UK. The cast includes Ray's favourite actor Soumitra Chatterjee, and veteran actors such as Dhritiman Chatterjee, Shubhendu Chatterjee, Manoj Mitra and Ruma Guhathakurta. Ray adapts the play to an Indian setting: a flourishing township in which a temple attracts devotees as well as tourists. When a health problem is discovered Dr Ashok Gupta, played by Soumitra Chatterjee, finds his popularity flagging.


Life.

After graduating with honors from Stanford University, Frankfurt moved to New York to work in the research department of the advertising agency Young & Rubicam in 1955. Here, she met her husband, Stephen Frankfurt, who was the company’s art director. Stephen also worked as a film title designer, whose most famous project was doing the titles for the film "To Kill a Mockingbird". The two wed the next year and conceived two boys, later divorcing in 1968.

Work.

While at Young & Rubicam, Frankfurt was moved from the research department to the responsibility of redecorating the Young & Rubicam’s lobby and executive conference rooms. She became well known for decorating, and thirty years later she became one of the world’s most admired interior decorators. Frankfurt popularized 18th and 19th-century Russian furniture among corporate raiders of the '70s and '80s. Her client list included Robert Redford, Robert Mapplethorpe, and David L. Paul, a Florida bank chairman convicted of paying Frankfurt some $389,000 in bank funds to decorate his home. She was known for her use of Biedermeier and Russian antiques and styles, and she claims to have “made Russian chic.” Frankfurt was also known for hosting celebrity-filled cocktail parties inside her five-story, 16-room Manhattan townhouse and whose interior designs appeared frequently in Architectural Digest and the New York Times.

House.

According to Frankfurt, her own five-story Georgian town house on Seventy-third Street off Park Avenue, was her greatest creation. Decorated with 19th-century Russian pieces, her living room included early 19th-century Austrian chairs, an 18th-century Russian sewing table, a stark needlepoint rug, and Brunschwig and Fils sofa silk. Her house was sold to Edgar Bronfman Jr. after Frankfurt came to believe that her time in New York was up. She then relocated to Massachusetts where she bought a 1780s farmhouse. The farmhouse had original pine floors, a wooden paneled living room, five bedrooms, and six fireplaces. Her style is shown throughout the interior with warm colors, large furniture pieces, and unique elements such as her self-portrait displayed above the fireplace along with a bulky hand statue placed on her coffee table, while the exterior depicts a white, southern style house with stone walls surrounding the property.

Andy Warhol.

In addition for being known for her decorating, Frankfurt is known for her friendship and collaboration Andy Warhol. Their friendship illustrated that not all of Warhol's circle of friends were decidedly avant-garde. The two met in 1959 at the New York Plaza Hotel after one of Warhol’s art expositions in the restaurant Serendipity. They were friends for life and even collaborated in writing the book “Wild Raspberries." It was a hand-written, brightly colored cookbook spoof accompanied with abstracted watercolor illustrations by Warhol.

Death.

Suzie Frankfurt died on January 7, 2005, after arising complications from a brain tumor. Frankfurt is remembered for her Russian-inspired designs paired with her sophisticated and chic flair, and she will also be remembered, through her relationship with Warhorl, as an important individual of American history.

Suzie Frankfurt (August 21, 1931 – January 7, 2005) was a prominent American interior decorator. Her popularity began in the 1950s when she designed the Young & Rubicam's lobby and when she became part of Andy Warhol's inner circle. Together she and Warhol produced a spoof of a haute cuisine cookbook. Her own decorating style, in contrast to Warhol's pop art, was traditional. Her connection with Warhol brought about client types that were both wealthy and well known in society.


History.

The "Reichsfilmarchiv" was opened on 4 February 1935 in Harnack House, Dahlem, Berlin, in the presence of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels, with an enormous flurry of propaganda. It soon gained a high international reputation. When the "Fédération Internationale des Archives du Film" (FIAF) was established as an international joint film archive in Paris in 1938, the "Reichsfilmarchiv" was one of the four founding members. The Independent State of Croatia kept copies of its films at the archive, due to the lack of a sufficient archive of its own.  After their arrival in Berlin in April 1945, Soviet troops seized the "Reichsfilmarchiv" and took possession of all its surviving film material. In 1947 its place was filled in West Germany by the "Archiv für Filmwissenschaft" ("Archive of Film Science"), set up in Marburg by Hanns Wilhelm Lavies, while in East Germany it was succeeded by the "Staatliches Filmarchiv der DDR" ("State Film Archive of the DDR"), established in 1955.

Collections.

At the time of its opening the film archive already held more than 1,200 films, some transferred from their previous place of deposit in the "Reichsarchiv Potsdam" ("Imperial Archives, Potsdam"), others provided by the film industry. By the end of the war in 1945, not only through the normal channels of acquisition, but also very largely through seizure and confiscation in the occupied territories, the collection had grown to 17,352 films.  After the end of the war most of these films, many of which had been stored in the bell tower of the Berlin Olympic Stadium, were lost. 6,400 selected films eventually found their way into the Soviet film archive in Krasnogorsk near Moscow and from there into Soviet cinemas, where some of them were still showing up to 1956. When in 1955 the State Film Archive of the DDR was founded, it was permitted to take over a proportion of the collection.

The Reichsfilmarchiv ("Reich Film Archive") was the state film archive of the Germany of the Third Reich. The first German national film archive, it was opened in 1935, and based in Berlin. It ceased to exist in 1945, when its film stock was either destroyed or seized by the Soviet army.


Life and work.

Gerold von Braunmühl came from a noble family of Swabian origin. Born in the then-German city of Breslau, he grew up in Mainz and attended the Rabanus-Maurus-Gymnasium. Braunmühl studied law at the University of Mainz and earned a doctorate in 1963. In 1964, he married Hilde, daughter of a professor of medicine at Alice Hospital in Mainz. Subsequently, he studied International Relations at the School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University in Bologna (1964-1965) as well as at their main campus in Washington, DC (1965-1966), and graduated with a Master's degree.

Activity in the Foreign Office.

In 1966, Braunmühl joined the Foreign Service and worked as an attaché at the West German Embassy in Washington in 1967. In 1971, he joined the Unit for Germany and Berlin in the Bonn headquarters, where he eventually became Secretary to the closest advisors of Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher. In 1985, he became the Head of Political Division II in charge of European Political Cooperation, the Western European Union, and NATO, as well as for relations with the Soviet bloc, so that he had become one of the most influential officials in the Foreign Office. Braunmühl was instrumental in improving relations with the Soviet Union and Poland, which had cooled since the ban of the Polish trade union movement. He was considered a likely candidate for the post of Secretary of State in the Foreign Office.

Murder.

On the evening of 10 October, 1986, Braunmühl was shot by two people outside his residence in Bonn as he was arriving home from work. As he got out of his taxi, an unknown masked gunman came up to him and shot him twice in the upper body. As Braunmühl tried to escape behind a parked car, there appeared a second masked gunman who shot him at close range in the head, and disappeared together with the first gunman. The perpetrators fled to Bonn Endenich, where four days later their getaway car was discovered. Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher, who had recently been released from hospital, wrote in his memoirs that he received a phone call from Mrs. Hilde Braunmühl, who said to him: "My husband has been shot." Then Genscher went to Ippendorf to the house of his former office manager. In the words of FM Genscher: "I will never forget the image of Gerold Braunmühl lying dead on the road in front of me."

Tomb of Gerold Braunmühl in Poppelsdorf Cemetery.

The main suspects in his murder are RAF members Barbara and Horst Ludwig Meyer but there is no evidence. In the forensic examination of the projectiles, a revolver of the Smith & Wesson type was identified, most likely the same type of gun with which West German business leader Hanns Martin Schleyer had been executed (also by the RAF). Braunmühl left behind a wife three children. His funeral took place in the Bonn Beethoven Hall and he was buried in Poppelsdorf Cemetery in Bonn. Near his residence in Bonn, Buchholzstraße 39, a commemorative plate was mounted in 1987 with the following text: "Here died on 10.10.1986 Dr. Gerold Braunmühl, Political Director of the Foreign Office. He was murdered by terrorists." Soon thereafter, Gerold Braunmühl Auditorium was dedicated in the (now defunct) training and education center of the Foreign Ministry (diplomatic academy) in Bonn. The Federal Foreign Office commemorates him through a memorial wall in the old building of the construction on the Werder market in Berlin for members who were killed in the line of duty.

Open letter by the Braunmühl brothers to the RAF.

In November 1986, the five brothers of Gerold Braunmühl wrote an open letter to the RAF, on the one hand to get an answer to the meaning and motives for his murder, and on the other hand to enter into a kind of "dialogue", to prevent further such acts.

Gerold von Braunmühl (15 September 1935 - 10 October, 1986) was a senior West German diplomat who was assassinated in 1986 by the German far-left guerrilla group, the Red Army Faction (RAF).


Overview.

The façade is characterized by the use of tarsia and polychrome marble decorations in white, red and black lozenges. Over the main portal is a rose window, flanked by two medallions portraying Julius Caesar and Trajan.  The upper part of the basement has nine plaques with reliefs of Biblical stories, and four bas-reliefs with Hercules's deeds. The four pilasters of the windows flanking the portal are surmounted by statues of the Virtues. The upper part of the façade has a loggia in Romanesque style.  The interior includes a square hall and a smaller room housing the high altar. The tomb of Bartolomeo Colleoni (who died on November 2, 1475) is on the wall facing the entrance. It is decorated with reliefs of "Episodes from the Life of Christ", statues, heads of lions and an equestrian statue of the condottiere in gilded wood, finished by German masters from Nuremberg in 1501. The whole complex is surrounded by a triumphal arch.  Amadeo himself executed the funerary monument of Medea Colleoni (died March 6, 1470). Located on the left wall, it has a statue of the "Deposition from the Cross" in high relief. The tomb was transferred here in 1892 from Basella di Urgnano.  The presbytery has a high altar sculpted by Bartolomeo Manni in 1676, housing statues of the three saints to whom the chapel is dedicated, John, Mark and Bartholomew, by Pietro Lombardo. The upswept cornice is supported by Solomonic columns. The altar table, to a design by Leopoldo Pollack, is supported by angels carved by Grazioso Rusca.  Notable are the frescoes of the dome, depicting "Episodes of the Lives of St. Mark, John the Baptist and Bartholomew", executed by Giambattista Tiepolo in 1732–1733.

Bartolomeo Colleoni's remains.

For centuries it was believed that the condottiere's remains had been buried elsewhere, as the sarcophagus appeared empty. On November 21, 1969, however, they were discovered in Colleoni's tomb in a wooden coffin, hidden under a plaster cover.

References.

Kohl, Jeanette (2004): Fama und Virtus. Bartolomeo Colleonis Grabkapelle. Akademie-Verlag Berlin https://arthistory.ucr.edu/fama-and-virtus/

The Cappella Colleoni (Italian: "Colleoni Chapel") is a church and mausoleum in Bergamo in northern Italy. Dedicated to the saints Bartholomew, Mark and John the Baptist, it was built between 1472 and 1476 as the personal shrine for the condottiere Bartolomeo Colleoni, a member of one of the most outstanding families of the city, and his beloved daughter Medea. The site chosen was that of the sacristy of the nearby church of Santa Maria Maggiore, which was demolished by Colleoni's soldiers.


Early life.

Hunt was born at 8 Old Belton Street, now 7 Endell Street, near Covent Garden on 23 March 1790. His father, John Hunt, was a tin-plate worker, making and selling small containers, such as canisters and boxes, which he also decorated. Hunt's uncle, a butcher, is recorded as having said of the artist, "He was always a poor cripple, and as he was fit for nothing, they made an artist of him." This is at least partially true, as Hunt had deformed legs that hampered his movement and may well have contributed to his eventual abandonment of landscape work in favor of still life and figures.  In 1806 Hunt persuaded his father to allow him to train as an artist, becoming apprenticed for a term of seven years to John Varley, the watercolorist, drawing master, astrologer, and a close friend of William Blake. Apparently Hunt made good progress under Varley's tutelage, as he exhibited three oil paintings at the Royal Academy in 1807 and continued to exhibit there for several years following. In 1808 he was admitted as a student to the Royal Academy Schools.  Through Varley, Hunt was introduced into the circle of the collector, amateur, and patron of artists Dr. Thomas Monro, Principal Physician of Bethlem Hospital, whose informal drawing academy attracted many gifted young artists. Artists met at the doctor's home in Adelphi Terrace on winter evenings and also at his country home at Bushey, Hertfordshire The doctor often invited Hunt to Bushey for extended periods, to paint from nature under the doctor's instruction. According to Martin Hardie, "Some of [Hunt's] most charming outdoor drawings were made round about Bushey, 'where he was trundled on a sort of barrow with a hood over it...while he made sketches'.". Dr. Munro's patronage proved critical to Hunt's progress as an artist.

Society of Painters in Water Colours.

By 1822 Hunt was living independently of his family. From 1822 to 1825 he again exhibited at the Royal Academy, after which he ceased entirely. This may be because on 9 April 1824 he was elected an associate member of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours, becoming a full member two years later, in June 1826. From his earliest contributions until 1864, the year he died, Hunt was a prolific exhibitor at the society's annual exhibitions, contributing a total of 765 works in all.

Painting style.

Hunt's early work shows the influence of his teacher, John Varley, as well as his patron, Dr. Thomas Munro and Henry Edridge, a close associate of Munro. Architectural subjects and country landscapes dominated his early work. Loose drawing in pencil or pen and fluid, clear color washes are the hallmarks. His subjects, especially those of his later life, are often simple; but, considered technically, his works exhibit all the resources of the watercolour painter's craft, from the purest transparent tinting to the boldest use of gouache, stippling on prepared opaque grounds, use of rough paper, and scraping for highlights and texture. His sense of colour is perhaps as true as that of any English artist. He was, says John Ruskin, all in all, the finest ever painter of still life. Several characteristic examples of Hunt's work, as the "Boy with a Goat," "A Brown Study, Plums," "and Primroses and Birds' Nests" are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.  According to the Redgraves, "The works of Hunt differ widely from his contemporaries: they have a character of their own, and many qualities which place him as an artist, in his somewhat narrow range, on a level with the highest.". </ref>

Death.

Hunt died of apoplexy on 10 February 1864. He was buried in Highgate Cemetery on 15 February 1864, attended to the grave by a number of artist colleagues. "The Reader" (27 February 1864) opined "we were but faintly beginning to appreciate and understand his genius when he was taken from us--one the greatest artists of the Century."

Collections.

Examples of Hunt's work are held in a number of public collections, including the Victoria and Albert Museum, Tate Gallery, The British Museum, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Yale Center for British Art, Cummer Museum of Art and Gardens, The Huntington Library, Whitworth Art Gallery, Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, Lady Lever Art Gallery, National Portrait Gallery (London), Art Gallery of New South Wales, Williamson Art Gallery and Museum (Birkenhead), Harris Museum and Art Gallery (Preston, Lancashire), Ashmolean Museum, Courtauld Institute of Art, Fitzwilliam Museum, High Museum of Art, Atlanta, The Higgins Art Gallery and Museum, Blackburn Museum and Art Gallery, Towneley Hall. (Burnley), New Walk Museum & Art Gallery (Leicester), Hastings Museum and Art Gallery, Aberdeen Art Gallery, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Morgan Library and Museum, Royal Watercolour Society, among others.

William Henry Hunt (London 28 March 1790 – 10 February 1864), was an English watercolourist. Hunt was "one of the key figures in nineteenth-century English watercolour painting. His work was extensively collected in his lifetime, particularly his genre pictures of children, often in humorous situations, and his detailed, naturalistic still lifes of fruit, flowers, and birds' nests that earned him the nickname ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt."


Overview.

Phonological awareness involves the detection and manipulation of sounds at three levels of sound structure: (1) syllables, (2) onsets and rimes, and (3) phonemes. Awareness of these sounds is demonstrated through a variety of tasks (see below). Available published tests of phonological awareness (for example PhAB2) are often used by teachers, psychologists and speech therapists to help understand difficulties in this aspect of language and literacy. Although the tasks vary, they share the basic requirement that some operation (e.g., identifying, comparing, separating, combining, generating) be performed on the sounds. It is assumed that the individual performing these tasks must have awareness of the units of sound in order to perform the operation.  Phonological awareness is one component of a larger phonological processing system used for speaking and listening. Phonological awareness is different from other phonological abilities in that it is a metalinguistic skill, requiring conscious awareness and reflection on the structure of language. Other phonological abilities: such as attending to speech, discriminating between sounds, holding sounds in memory: can be performed without conscious reflection. However, these other phonological abilities are prerequisite to the development of phonological awareness. Therefore, general listening skills are often among those included in phonological awareness instruction.  The terms "phonemic awareness" and "phonics" are often used interchangeably with phonological awareness. However, these terms have different meanings. Phonemic awareness is a subset of phonological awareness that focuses specifically on recognizing and manipulating phonemes, the smallest units of sound. Phonics requires students to know and match letters or letter patterns with sounds, learn the rules of spelling, and use this information to decode (read) and encode (write) words. Phonemic awareness relates only to speech sounds, not to alphabet letters or sound-spellings, so it is not necessary for students to have alphabet knowledge in order to develop a basic phonemic awareness of language.  Phonological awareness tasks (adapted from Virginia Department of Education (1998): and Gillon (2004)  The ability to attend to and distinguish environmental and speech sounds from one another

Development.

Although some two-year-old children demonstrate phonological awareness, for most children, phonological awareness appears in the third year, with accelerating growth through the fourth and fifth years. Phonological awareness skills develop in a predictable pattern similar across languages progressing from larger to smaller units of sound (that is, from words to syllables to onsets and syllable rimes to phonemes). Tasks used to demonstrate awareness of these sounds have their own developmental sequence. For example, tasks involving the detection of similar or dissimilar sounds (e.g., oddity tasks) are mastered before tasks requiring the manipulation of sounds (e.g., deletion tasks), and blending tasks are mastered before segmenting tasks. The acquisition of phonological awareness skills does not progress in a linear sequence; rather, children continue to refine skills they have acquired while they learn new skills.  The development of phonological awareness is closely tied to overall language and speech development. Vocabulary size, as well as other measures of receptive and expressive semantics, syntax, and morphology, are consistent concurrent and longitudinal predictors of phonological awareness. Consistent with this finding, children with communication disorders often have poor phonological awareness.  Phonological development and articulatory accuracy is often correlated to phonological awareness skills, both for children with typical speech and those with disordered speech. In addition to milestones of speech and language development, speech and language processing abilities are also related to phonological awareness: both speech perception and verbal short-term memory have been concurrently and predicatively correlated with phonological awareness abilities.

Phonological awareness and reading.

Phonological awareness is an important determiner of success in learning to read and spell. For most children, strong readers have strong phonological awareness, and poor readers have poor phonological awareness skills. Phonological awareness skills in the preschool and kindergarten years also strongly predict how well a child will read in the school years. In addition, interventions to improve phonological awareness abilities lead to significantly improved reading abilities. Phonological awareness instruction improves reading and spelling skills, but the reverse is also true: literacy instruction improves phonological awareness skills. The relationship between phonological awareness and reading abilities changes over time. All levels of phonological awareness ability (syllable, onset-rhyme, and phoneme) contribute to reading abilities in the Kindergarten through second grade. However, beyond the second grade, phoneme-level abilities play a stronger role.  Phonological awareness and literacy is often explained by decoding and encoding. In reading, decoding refers to the process of relating a word's written representation to its verbal representation. Especially in the early stages of reading, decoding involves mapping letters in the word to their corresponding sounds, and then combining those sounds to form a verbal word. Encoding: a process used in spelling: is similar, although the process goes in the opposite direction, with the word's verbal representation is encoded in a written form. Again, especially in the early stages of reading, encoding involves determining the sounds in a verbal word, and then mapping those sounds onto a letter sequence in order to spell out the written word. In both encoding and decoding, phonological awareness is needed because the child must know the sounds in the words in order to relate them to the letter sounds.

Intervention.

Phonological awareness is an auditory skill that is developed through a variety of activities that expose students to the sound structure of the language and teach them to recognize, identify and manipulate it. Listening skills are an important foundation for the development of phonological awareness and they generally develop first. Therefore, the scope and sequence of instruction in early childhood literacy curriculum typically begins with a focus on listening, as teachers instruct children to attend to and distinguish sounds, including environmental sounds and the sounds of speech. Early phonological awareness instruction also involves the use of songs, nursery rhymes and games to help students to become alert to speech sounds and rhythms, rather than meanings, including rhyme, alliteration, onomatopoeia, and prosody. While exposure to different sound patterns in songs and rhymes is a start towards developing phonological awareness, exposure in itself is not enough, because the traditional actions that go along with songs and nursery rhymes typically focus on helping students to understand the meanings of words, not attend to the sounds. Therefore, different strategies must be implemented to aid students in becoming alert to sounds instead. Specific activities that involve students in attending to and demonstrating recognition of the sounds of language include waving hands when rhymes are heard, stomping feet along with alliterations, clapping the syllables in names, and slowly stretching out arms when segmenting words. Phonological awareness is technically only about sounds and students do not need to know the letters of the alphabet to be able to develop phonological awareness.  Students in primary education sometimes learn phonological awareness in the context of literacy activities, particularly phonemic awareness. Some research demonstrates that, at least for older children, there may be utility to extending the development of phonological awareness skills in the context of activities that involve letters and spelling. A number of scholars have been working on this approach.

Phonological awareness is an individual's awareness of the phonological structure, or sound structure, of words. Phonological awareness is an important and reliable predictor of later reading ability and has, therefore, been the focus of much research.


Early life.

Pons was born at Peyre, Hautes-Alpes, to a poor family; he received little formal education. In 1789, he began working for the Marseille observatory as a caretaker, and gradually gained some experience in assisting the astronomers with observations. He learned to make observations himself, showing a remarkable ability to remember star fields and note changes in them.  In his early astronomical career, the unassuming and trusting Pons was often the target of jokes perpetrated by more experienced astronomers. Franz Xaver von Zach once advised him to look for comets when sunspots were visible, though in doing so Zach may have inadvertently given Pons very good advice.

Career as an astronomer.

Pons made his first comet discovery, jointly attributed to Charles Messier, on 11 July 1801. He appears to have used telescopes and lenses of his own design; his ""Grand Chercheur"" ("Great Seeker") seems to have been an instrument with large aperture and short focal length, similar to a "comet seeker". However, he was not an especially diligent recorder of his observations, and his notes were often extremely vague. However, he found something 75% of all comets in this period.  In 1813 he gained the position of Assistant Astronomer at Marseilles Observatory.  In 1819, Pons became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he left in 1825 to teach astronomy at La Specola, in Florence. Around that time he accepted the opportunity to become Director of the Florence Observatory at the request of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.  He discovered five periodic comets, three of which, 7P/Pons–Winnecke, 12P/Pons–Brooks and 273P/Pons–Gambart, bear his name. One observed on 26 November 1818 was named Comet Encke (now 2P/Enke) after Johann Franz Encke, who calculated its orbit and its remarkably short (3.3 y) period (Encke, however, continued to refer to the comet as "Pons's Comet" or "Comet of Pons"). Pons also co-discovered the comet formerly known as "Pons–Coggia–Winnecke–Forbes" and today known as 27P/Crommelin after Andrew Crommelin, who calculated its orbit.  Pons received the French Academy of Sciences's Lalande Prize in 1818 for his discovery of three comets in that year. He won it again in 1820 (jointly with Joseph Nicollet) for further comet discoveries at Marlia and for an unmatched third time in 1827 (jointly with Jean-Félix Adolphe Gambart) for discovering another seven comets at the Florence observatory.  By 1827, Pons's eyesight had begun to fail, and he retired from observing altogether shortly before his death, on 14 October 1831. In his honour, a moon crater was named after him.

Record & Legacy.

Pons is noted for discovering 37 comets in the early 1800s. As of 1960 this was recognized as the greatest number of comets discovered by a single person.  Of the 37, 28 were determined to have parabolic orbits, and three did not have enough observation to determine an orbit. However, many of his discoveries fueled the discovery or recovery of what were later recognized as periodic comets, including Comet Pons-Brook and Comet Pons-Winnecke.  One Pons observed in 1827, was recovered in 2012; 273P/Pons–Gambart.

Jean-Louis Pons (24 December 1761 – 14 October 1831) was a French astronomer. Despite humble beginnings and being self-taught, he went on to become the greatest visual comet discoverer of all time: between 1801 and 1827 Pons discovered thirty-seven comets, more than any other person in history.


Family.

Leverson was born into a Jewish family. Her father was Samuel Henry Beddington, a wool merchant, and her mother's name was Zillah.  She had eight younger siblings, one of whom died in infancy. Her living siblings were named Evelyn, George, Charles, Sybil, Frank, Arthur and Violet. Sybil (who later married David Seligman) had a brief affair and long friendship with Giacomo Puccini. Violet (1874–1962) turned down a marriage proposal from composer Arthur Sullivan and later married author Sydney Schiff.  At 19 Ada married Ernest Leverson (1852–1921) without her parents' consent. The marriage broke up when he moved to Canada in 1905. It has been suggested that her trilogy, "The Little Ottleys", is loosely based on her own marriage. Her daughter and biographer, Violet Leverson, married Guy Percy Wyndham in 1923 as his second wife. Her grandson was short story-writer and novelist Francis Wyndham. Ernest Leverson's cousins include actor Darrell Fancourt and, by marriage, actor-playwright Brandon Thomas.

Career.

Leverson began writing during the 1890s, as a contributor to "Black and White", "Punch", "The Yellow Book", "St. Stephen's Review", "Saturday Review", and "Referee". She also worked as a drama critic, though when and what she wrote is unknown. Much of her work cannot be identified because she wrote anonymously, because she frequently befriended the people she parodied and critiqued.  She was known as a wit; her writing has been compared to the work of Max Beerbohm and the stories of "Saki".  She was a loyal friend to Oscar Wilde, who called her "Sphinx;" Max Beerbohm; and George Moore. Osbert Sitwell wrote an anecdote in "Great Morning" in which she tries, unsuccessfully, to get Moore to see the young William Walton. Sacheverell Sitwell dedicated a poetry collection to her, while she was hopelessly in love with Osbert  After publishing "Love at Second Sight", Leverson stopped writing fiction. She worked on ever smaller projects, such as writing the preface to "Whom You Should Marry", a book about astrology.  She spent her later life at the Hotel Porta Rossa in Florence, where she died of pneumonia in 1933.

Friendship with Wilde.

Leverson's friendship with Wilde helped her career to flourish. There was no separation between their personal relationship and their creative collaboration. Their work had many stylistic differences; for example, Leverson had a stronger interest in human nature. But the two shared many similarities; they were from the same cultural background, and they shared interests such as the love of conversation and the sense of fantasy. They quickly became fast friends.  The limits of their friendship were tested when Wilde's homosexuality was exposed and he went on trial. Leverson and her husband invited Wilde to stay in their nursery, because no hotel or inn would accept him as a guest. At her meeting him on a railway platform Wilde remarked "My dear Sphinx- only You would know exactly what to wear at this hour of the morning to greet a friend who has been away". Wilde's and Leverson's other friendships were seriously challenged by Leverson's "grand gesture", which, according to James Scanell, is "the dramatic act of welcoming back an outcast."  After Wilde left the Leversons' home, the two friends never saw each other in person again. Their friendship continued through telegrams and letters. Charles Burkhart believes that it is most fitting for Leverson's last piece of work to be a remembrance of the friend who expanded her career.

Reception.

Leverson's work, though not extremely popular, has been critiqued and analyzed from the 19th century to the present.  Critics disagree on which of her novels is the best, some suggesting "The Limit", others "Tenterhooks", and others "Love at Second Sight". She is often praised for her skilful dialogue and characterization, leading many to believe that she would have excelled in theatre. It is interesting that she never acted upon this beyond a single unfinished play; it is assumed that this is because, for Leverson, writing was a hobby rather than a means of financial security.  One critic in "The Bookman" commented on how her lack of characterization distracted the reader from understanding what "The Twelfth Hour" was about. Dennis Poupard says, "some have found Leverson's characters merely vehicles for her wit, others believe she conveys accomplished characterization deftly and swiftly in the epigrammatic dialogue". John Mason Brown recommended that Leverson's work be read by "those who find laughter no hardship, high comedy a delight, nonsense relaxing, and who are not made uncomfortable by worldlings both comfortable and conscienceless". Margaret Crosland summarized several critics' feelings toward Leverson and reports that she is seen "as a distant descendant of Jane Austen, sensitive to the hidden motives of behavior, ready to laugh at vanity, understanding of married couples, parents, and children, yet seemingly preoccupied with all that was going on in the world outside".  Over the years, her work has been more appreciated. Many readers have realized that her perspective was quite modern for her day. Her views are more accepted in today's society, especially as homosexuality is becoming more socially acceptable.

Portrayal in film.

In the 1960 film "The Trials of Oscar Wilde" she is played by Maxine Audley.  In the 1997 film "Wilde" she is played by Zoë Wanamaker.

Ada Esther Leverson (née Beddington; 10 October 1862 – 30 August 1933) was a British writer who is known for her friendship with Oscar Wilde and for her work as a witty novelist of the fin-de-siècle.


Early life.

Alvensleben was born on May 19, 1902, in Wittenmoor (now part of Stendal) to Ludolf Udo von Alvensleben (1852–1923) and Ida, née von Glasenapp (1866–1924). He was taught in various convent schools at Magdeburg in Brandenburg an der Havel and passed his Abitur in 1921 at the Klosterschule Roßleben. After four years of practical training he commenced studies in agriculture, forestry, and law in Eberswalde and Munich.  In 1927, Alvensleben married Cora von Erxleben and started to work at his wife's country estates at Tankow-Seegenfelde in the district of Friedeberg and at Dertzow in the district of Soldin, New March, in 1929. In 1936, he bought the forested estate of Viarthlum, in the district of Rummelsburg (now Miastko), Farther Pomerania. Alvensleben by now had two daughters, born in 1934 and 1936, and was a Knight of Justice of the Order of Saint John as well as a deeply religious Christian.

Military service.

In 1939, Alvensleben became an Officer of the German Wehrmacht, earning the rank of Captain, and served in Poland, France, Russia, Africa, and Italy. He was wounded in 1941 in Russia and received various decorations, including the Wound Badge, the Infantry Assault Badge, and the Iron Cross 1st Class. His wife committed suicide at the arrival of the Soviet Red Army in Tankow-Seegenfelde on 29 January 1945.  In late April 1945, a group of 140 high-status prisoners were transferred to Tyrol, guarded by SS troops. A delegation from the prisoners contacted senior German army officers, made known the identity of the high-status prisoners, and conveyed the apprehension that those prisoners were to be executed. A regular German army unit under the command of Captain von Alvensleben moved in to protect the prisoners. Outnumbered, the SS guards moved out, leaving the prisoners behind. The prisoners were then set free, with the majority taking sanctuary for a time in Pragser Wildsee until the arrival of U.S. troops.

After the war.

In autumn 1945, Alvensleben was released from U.S. custody and started to work as a transport operator in a sugar refinery in Nörten-Hardenberg. In August 1946, Alvensleben married Astrid von Brand (widowed von Brockdorff-Ahlefeldt) and in 1952 he became an administrator of the von Brockdorff estate Ascheberg near Plön. In 1956, Alvensleben was involved with "Diakonisches Werk", a charity organisation of the Lutheran Church at Rendsburg. He retired in 1974 and died on 14 August 1982, in Ascheberg.

Wichard von Alvensleben (May 19, 1902 – August 14, 1982) was a German agriculturist, Wehrmacht Officer, and Knight of the Order of Saint John. Alvensleben was the commander of Wehrmacht troops stationed in April 1945 at Bozen, whence he led his troops to liberate the prisoners being held by the SS at Tyrol.


Details.

The Born rule states that if an observable corresponding to a self-adjoint operator formula_1 with discrete spectrum is measured in a system with normalized wave function formula_2 ("see" Bra–ket notation), then  In the case where the spectrum of formula_4 is not wholly discrete, the spectral theorem proves the existence of a certain projection-valued measure formula_22, the spectral measure of formula_4. In this case,  Given a wave function formula_26 for a single structureless particle in position space, implies that the probability density function formula_27 for a measurement of the position at time formula_28 is

History.

The Born rule was formulated by Born in a 1926 paper. In this paper, Born solves the Schrödinger equation for a scattering problem and, inspired by Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect, concludes, in a footnote, that the Born rule gives the only possible interpretation of the solution. In 1954, together with Walther Bothe, Born was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this and other work. John von Neumann discussed the application of spectral theory to Born's rule in his 1932 book.

Interpretations.

Within the Quantum Bayesianism interpretation of quantum theory, the Born rule is seen as an extension of the standard Law of Total Probability, which takes into account the Hilbert space dimension of the physical system involved. In the ambit of the so-called Hidden-Measurements Interpretation of quantum mechanics the Born rule can be derived by averaging over all possible measurement-interactions that can take place between the quantum entity and the measuring system. It has been claimed that Pilot wave theory can also statistically derive Born's law. While it has been claimed that Born's law can be derived from the many-worlds interpretation, the existing proofs have been criticized as circular. Kastner claims that the transactional interpretation is unique in giving a physical explanation for the Born rule.

The Born rule (also called the Born law, Born's postulate, Born's rule, or Born's law) is a key postulate of quantum mechanics which gives the probability that a measurement of a quantum system will yield a given result. In its simplest form, it states that the probability density of finding a particle at a given point is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the particle's wavefunction at that point. It was formulated by German physicist Max Born in 1926.


History.

Today's Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG was founded in 1931 in Cologne as a German building society AG, construction savings and debt relief fund by members of the local Chamber of Crafts. After the transfer of the business office to Berlin in 1936, the German Central Cooperative Fund and most of the Central Commercial Funds participated in the company, which was meanwhile called "Gesellschaft für zweitstelligen Grundkredit", "Deutscher Bausparer Aktiengesellschaft". In 1941 the "Volksbanks" followed, since then it was called "Bausparkasse der deutschen Volksbanken".  The company headquarter was bombed out in 1943, 1944 the operation together with the rescued business documents was moved to Schwäbisch Hall. The decision to retain this city as a corporate seat was made in 1947. At that time the creation of new housing was important, which was promoted from 1952 with the housing subsidy by the state. Since the conversion into the common mortgage lending institute of the "Volksbanks" and the "Raiffeisenverband" in 1956, the enterprise bears the name Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG. 1970 the last name changes to Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG, "Bausparkasse der Volksbanken und Raiffeisebanken" took place.  As a result of the fall of the Berlin wall, the company was able to extended its business to the new federal states in 1990. The legal change in the year 1991 caused that for the first-time own holding companies could be established abroad. Branches in Luxembourg and France and subsidiaries in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Romania, Hungary and the China were founded.

Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG is a building society in Germany, active abroad with subsidiaries in Eastern Europe and China. It has more than 10 million customers. Shareholders are the cooperative central bank DZ Bank (96.8 percent) in Frankfurt am Main and around 600 cooperative banks. The building society has its headquarters in the city of Schwäbisch Hall in Baden-Württemberg.


Education.

Born in 1955, he received his PhD from the University of Frankfurt in 1987. From 1997 to 2001, he was joint chair of international relations at the European University Institute's Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies and the Department of Social and Political Sciences in Florence, Italy.

Work.

Risse is usually identified as a constructivist scholar of international relations. In contrast to American constructivists, his work borrows heavily from German social theory and philosophy, and in particular the work of Jürgen Habermas. His work suggests that communicative action can reshape actors' understanding of their interests with important consequences for world politics.  During the 1980s the main focus of his work laid on security policy, his dissertation “"Die Krise der Sicherheitspolitik"” (The Crisis of Security Policy) dealt with foreign and security policy decision making processes in West-Germany. In his thesis he observes the development of a Peace movement (opposed to the installation of medium-range rocket on German soil) and theorised their influence on West-German foreign policy. The contribution of his work is crucial to IR theory because it opposes the logic of equality between force and deterrence.  With the end of the Cold War, the focus of his work shifted to transnational relations and human rights. One of his works out of this period is the edited volume “Bringing Transnational Relations Back In”. Here he argues that regular interactions between non-state actors, that do not act on behalf of national governments, but try to influence the policies of a state, got out of focus. These organisations could be various NGOs for example, the Socialist International, Amnesty International or religious groups among others. In this volume an outlook on methodology and theory of transnational relations and their impact on domestic policy is developed. Another work of reference of this period is “Die Macht der Menschenrechte” (The Power of Human Rights). Based on liberal theory and democratic peace, Risse looks at international norms, speech acts and political change in the South. Whereby the main focus is laid on the realisation of human rights. His core theory is that the key for respect of human rights is the influence on transnational and domestic civil society on state structures. "Inter alia" he shows that economic development and democratisation do not forcibly go hand in hand.  Post 9/11 his focus changed again towards research on failed states and governance. In his latest publication he focussed on aspects of governance in areas of limited statehood – distinct from failed states.

Personal Life.

Thomas Risse is married to Tanja Börzel.

Thomas Risse (formerly Risse-Kappen) is a Berlin-based international relations scholar. He currently acts as chair for “transnational relations, foreign- and security policy” at the Otto-Suhr Institute for Political Science at Freie Universität Berlin. Furthermore, he has several engagements in German and international research networks, he also heads the PhD program of the Hertie School of Governance in Berlin.