History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses

Contemporary view.

The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across. Several

Formation hypothesis.

French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes was the first to propose a model for the origin of the Solar System in his "Le Monde" (ou Traité de lumière) which he wrote in 1632 and 1633 and for which he delayed publication because of the Inquisition and it was published only after his death in 1664. In his view, the Universe was filled with vortices of swirling particles and the Sun and planets had condensed from a particularly large vortex that had somehow contracted, which explained the circular motion of the planets and was on the right track with condensation and contraction. However, this was before Newton's theory of gravity and we now know matter does not behave in this fashion.  The vortex model of 1944, formulated by German physicist and philosopher Baron Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, which harkens back to the Cartesian model, involved a pattern of turbulence-induced eddies in a Laplacian nebular disc. In it a suitable combination of clockwise rotation of each vortex and anti-clockwise rotation of the whole system can lead to individual elements moving around the central mass in Keplerian orbits so there would be little dissipation of energy due to the overall motion of the system but material would be colliding at high relative velocity in the inter-vortex boundaries and in these regions small roller-bearing eddies would coalesce to give annular condensations. It was much criticized as turbulence is a phenomenon associated with disorder and would not spontaneously produce the highly ordered structure required by the hypothesis. As well, it does not provide a solution to the angular momentum problem and does not explain lunar formation nor other very basic characteristics of the Solar System.  The Weizsäcker model was modified in 1948 by Dutch theoretical physicist Dirk Ter Haar, in that regular eddies were discarded and replaced by random turbulence which would lead to a very thick nebula where gravitational instability would not occur. He concluded the planets must have formed by accretion and explained the compositional difference (solid and liquid planets) as due to the temperature difference between the inner and outer regions, the former being hotter and the latter being cooler, so only refractories (non-volatiles) condensed in the inner region. A major difficulty is that in this supposition turbulent dissipation takes place in a time scale of only about a millennium which does not give enough time for planets to form.  The nebular hypothesis was first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg and later elaborated and expanded upon by Immanuel Kant in 1755. A similar theory was independently formulated by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796.  In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon conceived the idea that the planets were formed when a comet collided with the Sun, sending matter out to form the planets. However, Laplace refuted this idea in 1796, showing that any planets formed in such a way would eventually crash into the Sun. Laplace felt that the near-circular orbits of the planets were a necessary consequence of their formation. Today, comets are known to be far too small to have created the Solar System in this way.  In 1755, Immanuel Kant speculated that observed nebulae may in fact be regions of star and planet formation. In 1796, Laplace elaborated by arguing that the nebula collapsed into a star, and, as it did so, the remaining material gradually spun outward into a flat disc, which then formed the planets.

Solar evolution hypotheses.

Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century.

Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction.

At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. Theories at the time suggested that stars evolved moving down the main-sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, starting off as diffuse red supergiants before contracting and heating to become blue main-sequence stars, then even further down to red dwarfs before finally ending up as cool, dense black dwarfs. However, the Sun

Red giants.

While the unusual spectra of red giant stars had been known since the 19th century, it was George Gamow who, in the 1940s, first understood that they were stars of roughly solar mass that had run out of hydrogen in their cores and had resorted to burning the hydrogen in their outer shells. This allowed Martin Schwarzschild to draw the connection between red giants and the finite lifespans of stars. It is now understood that red giants are stars in the last stages of their life cycles.  Fred Hoyle noted that, even while the distribution of elements was fairly uniform, different stars had varying amounts of each element. To Hoyle, this indicated that they must have originated within the stars themselves. The abundance of elements peaked around the atomic number for iron, an element that could only

White dwarfs.

The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani, which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A, orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by William Herschel on January 31, 1783; it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851. In 1910, it was discovered by Henry Norris Russell, Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming that despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A, or white.  White dwarfs were found to be extremely dense soon after their discovery. If a star is in a binary system, as is the case for Sirius B and 40 Eridani B, it is possible to estimate its mass from observations of the binary orbit. This was done for Sirius B by 1910, yielding a mass estimate of. (A more modern estimate is.) Since hotter bodies radiate more than colder ones, a star's surface brightness can

Planetary nebulae.

Planetary nebulae are generally faint objects, and none are visible to the naked eye. The first planetary nebula discovered was the Dumbbell Nebula in the constellation of Vulpecula, observed by Charles Messier in 1764 and listed as M27 in his catalogue of nebulous objects. To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae somewhat resembled the gas giants, and William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, eventually coined the

Lunar origins hypotheses.

Over the centuries, many scientific hypotheses have been advanced concerning the origin of Earth's Moon. One of the earliest was the so-called "binary accretion model", which concluded that the Moon accreted from material in orbit around the Earth left over from its formation. Another, the "fission model", was developed by George Darwin (son of Charles Darwin), who noted that, as the Moon is gradually receding from the Earth at a rate of about 4 cm per year, so at one point in the distant past it must have been part of the Earth, but was flung outward by the momentum of Earth's then–much faster rotation. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the Moon's density, while less than Earth's, is about equal to that of Earth's rocky mantle, suggesting that, unlike the Earth, it lacks a dense iron core. A third hypothesis, known as the "capture model", suggested that the Moon was an independently orbiting body that had been snared into orbit by Earth's gravity.

Apollo missions.

However, these hypotheses were all refuted by the late 1960s and early 1970s Apollo lunar missions, which introduced a stream of new scientific evidence; specifically concerning the Moon's composition, its age, and its history. These lines of evidence contradict many predictions made by these earlier models. The rocks brought back from the Moon showed a marked decrease in water relative to rocks elsewhere in the Solar System, and also evidence of an ocean of magma early in its history, indicating that its formation must have produced a great deal of energy. Also, oxygen isotopes

Giant impact hypothesis.

For many years after Apollo, the binary accretion model was settled on as the best hypothesis for explaining the Moon's origins, even though it was known to be flawed. Then, at a conference in Kona, Hawaii in 1984, a compromise model was composed that accounted for all of the observed discrepancies. Originally formulated by two independent research groups in 1976, the "giant impact" model supposed that a massive planetary object, the size of Mars, had collided with

Outstanding issues.

However, the giant impact model has been criticised for being too explanatory; it can be expanded to explain any future discoveries and as such, is unfalsifiable. Also, many claim that much

Other natural satellites.

While the co-accretion and capture models are not currently accepted as valid explanations for the existence of the Moon, they have been employed to

The history of scientific thought about the Formation and evolution of the Solar System begins with the Copernican Revolution. The first recorded use of the term "Solar System" dates from 1704.


Character biography.

Rajesh, who is normally called Raj or just by his surname Koothrappali, is from New Delhi, India. However, he despises Indian food, and his knowledge about Indian culture and Hinduism is often rebuked by Sheldon, who is seen to speak better Hindi than him. He was born into a wealthy family and has five siblings, one of whom is Priya, a former on-off girlfriend of Leonard. Raj is normally seen wearing a layered combination of a printed shirt and sweater vest under a track top-style windbreaker with khakis or cargo pants and skate shoes. White briefs are Raj's underwear of choice. Raj wore a red cap in the pilot episode, but has not worn any headgear on a regular basis for the rest of the series' run. Between seasons two and eleven, Raj styled his naturally curly hair with hair straighteners and hair gel "while trying to blend in".  Raj joins in playing "Halo" online and trading-card games with his friends, and has even claimed to have experienced gaming addiction in the past. It was revealed in "The Monster Isolation" that Raj did at least part of his higher education at the University of Cambridge, where he discovered his interest in astrophysics.

Personality.

While in general Raj is more patient with Sheldon than Leonard, Howard or Penny, Sheldon is completely oblivious to this, and even casually cuts him off as a friend on one occasion.  Another recurring joke is his metrosexuality, which manifests itself in his appreciation for media generally associated with female patrons, such as the novel "Eat, Pray, Love", the TV series "Sex and the City" and films featuring Sandra Bullock. This has led those close to him to opine that he is somewhat feminine (as in "The Closure Alternative"), and others to mistakenly conclude that he is homosexual (a theory his sister mentioned in "The Herb Garden Germination" that had been held by members of their family), which he typically denies (even asserting his metrosexuality in "The Transporter Malfunction"), but which Howard often teases him over.  One of Raj's biggest personality quirks is his tendency to speak or act inappropriately, often landing him in trouble or leading to an angry reaction from whomever he has upset. This was particularly pronounced when he was under the influence of alcohol, which could cause a catch-22, since for years he needed alcohol to even speak to a woman, but the alcohol led to him say the wrong things. On one occasion, just as Leonard and Penny are about to have sex in their hotel room, Raj enters and obliviously proceeds to climb into Sheldon's recently vacated bed, completely unaware of what he has interrupted. On another occasion, he openly discussed having had crushes on Penny and Bernadette directly in front of them, which caused both discomfort, and unwittingly hurting Amy's feelings when he admits that he never had a crush on her as well (despite Penny and Bernadette's best efforts to alert him to this fact).  When socializing with his friends, despite his Indian accent, Raj is noted for using slang and using the word "dude", although on some occasions he appears to not understand American slang. He speaks fluent Hindi, but according to Sheldon, his mother tongue is English.  Raj can play the guitar and has formed a Filk-based band called "Footprints on the Moon" with Howard (and later Bert).

Selective mutism.

Until the season six finale, Raj's principal characteristic was his inability to speak to or around unrelated women, a medical condition known as selective mutism. In the show this was alluded to by Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, Leonard's mother. Raj also stated he has selective mutism in the episode "The Cornhusker Vortex". Raj was able to speak in the presence of women only when they were part of a crowd, if he had been drinking alcoholic beverages (or thinks he has been), if he was under influence of other drugs, if he was unaware of their presence, or if the woman is deaf. He observed that this was an improvement over his previous affliction, in which the presence of women caused him to lose bladder control. He had no problem speaking to his mother, sisters, or other female relatives.  Until the end of the sixth season, Raj remained silent when Penny was present. Penny occasionally taunted him about this, saying such things as "Yo, Raj, talk to me". Raj sometimes whispered what he wanted to say to Howard or Leonard, who then repeated his words or responded to his question out loud. However, Howard sometimes used the situation to amuse himself—for example, when he "confessed" on Raj's behalf that Raj had stalked Penny with binoculars, or when Sheldon called Penny over to their table to silence Raj; Howard then refused to act as a mouthpiece and told Raj, "No no no, he won; Suck it up." In "The Dumpling Paradox", Leonard jokingly suggests cutting Raj in half so the group can play video games without Howard while Penny is in the room: Raj turns to Leonard (facing away from Penny) and responds, "Oh, sure, cut the foreigner in half. There's a billion more where he came from." Later, in "The Bat Jar Conjecture", Raj accidentally utters a few words ("good story"), much to the surprise of his friends, but he immediately realizes Penny is there and covers his mouth with both hands. A recurring gag was for Raj to find himself left alone when his friends, in the company of Penny or another woman, make plans to go somewhere and Raj's mutism prevents him from speaking up to join in.  In "The Grasshopper Experiment", Penny (who was practicing mixing cocktails in order to obtain a bartending shift) inadvertently discovered that Raj's mutism could be suppressed by consuming alcohol: even a tiny amount (such as a bite of rum cake in "The Apology Insufficiency") enabled him to have prolonged conversations with women; however, this also tends to make him loud and obnoxious. When the main characters take a train to an academic conference in San Francisco, Raj can talk to series guest Summer Glau (playing herself) while drinking beer: when Leonard inadvertently reveals the beer is non-alcoholic and that Raj is under a placebo effect, Howard uses this to his advantage and Raj is returned to his usual mute self. In some episodes, Raj took to carrying a hip flask with him to counter his problem, while in other episodes that required him to speak with Penny or other women present, he was usually shown doing so with a beer or wine glass near him to indicate he had consumed alcohol (such as "The Santa Simulation").  Raj experimented with medications that suppressed social anxiety, but they tended to have side effects. When Sheldon's sister Missy visited, Raj took medicine that enabled him to speak to her, but it resulted in involuntary repetitive hand motions. In the episode "The Wildebeest Implementation", Raj was worried that an experimental drug he was considering might affect his rationality, but Sheldon encouraged him to take it anyway: however, Raj's worries were realized while speaking to a woman in a coffee shop when he completely lost all inhibitions and removed all of his clothing.  At the end of the Season 6 finale "The Bon Voyage Reaction", Raj's girlfriend Lucy breaks up with him. The subsequent trauma apparently cures his mutism, and he finds he can talk to Penny, Amy, and Bernadette while completely sober. However, he talks so much that the women become bored and irritated and "start" drinking in order to put up with him.

Family.

Raj regularly communicates with his parents, Dr. and Mrs. V.M. Koothrappali back in India via webcam. Raj is the only one of the guys whose father has been revealed on the show until the ninth season, as Sheldon's father is deceased, Howard's father abandoned him when he was eleven, and Leonard's father didn't make an appearance until season 9, where he appeared when Leonard was again marrying Penny. When they become meddling or judgmental, he "brings his parents" into Leonard and Sheldon's apartment via his laptop. In the season 2 finale, Mrs. Koothrappali and Mrs. Wolowitz have an argument because the latter does not believe that there is not a single Outback Steakhouse restaurant in India.  A running gag in the series is Raj portraying himself as having come from humble origins and growing up in poverty in India, only for his friends to remind him that his father is a gynaecologist, drives a Bentley (which he protests was a "lease"), and had servants (although he protests on one occasion that there were only four servants, and that two of them were children). In the episode "The Wiggly Finger Catalyst", Sheldon reveals that Raj's family is wealthier than he lets on. He observes that they are "Richie Rich rich", which he explains is "halfway between Bruce Wayne and Scrooge McDuck".  Raj's cousin Sanjay (or, as he says his friends know him, "Dave from AT&T Customer Service") works in a call centre and is mentioned in a number of episodes. In one episode, Raj tries to avoid returning to India for his cousin's wedding, as Raj's parents have arranged a date for him.  Raj has three brothers and two sisters. Raj's sister Priya has a one-night stand with Leonard in Season 4. This leads to a brief argument between Leonard, Raj and Howard for breaking the "pinky swear" that Leonard and Howard made about never trying to make a move on her. Later in the series, Priya and Leonard start a relationship against Raj's wishes, which is awkward as she is living with Raj at the time. In the Season 4 finale, Raj had to move temporarily into Sheldon's apartment after overhearing Leonard using Star Trek references as sexual metaphors to his sister. In the Season 11 episode 23 "The Sibling Realignment", He mentions his brother Adoot to Sheldon and Leonard. Adoot was always mean to him, when they were children, he left the front door open causing Raj's pet mongoose to run away.  Also, in the season 3 episode "The Precious Fragmentation", Raj tries to negotiate the possession of the One Ring with the help of his cousin Venkatesh Koothrappali, who is an attorney (but agrees with Raj that he is useless in that role).  In the season 7 episode "The Table Polarization", Raj talks about naming his first child Dileep after his grandfather.

Work.

Raj is an astrophysicist in the Physics Department at Caltech, best known for a publication on Kuiper belt object size distribution.  For his discovery of a planetary object beyond the Kuiper belt,, which he named "Planet Bollywood", Raj was included in "People" magazine's "30 (Visionaries) Under 30 (Years of Age) to Watch", received a larger office, and became a celebrity of sorts, drawing the envy of his friends.  After six months of failed research on the composition of trans-Neptunian objects, Raj feared being deported back to India (at which point, he describes spending his time at work as "mostly checking e-mail, updating his Facebook status, and messing up Wikipedia entries"). To stay in the country, he sought out a research position in stellar evolution with Professor Laughlin; the job proposition failed as the research team included an attractive woman, and Raj, who became drunk so he could talk to her, made an inappropriate comment. Raj ended up working alongside Sheldon (or "for" him, as Sheldon insists), "exploring the string theory implications of gamma rays from dark matter annihilations". Ironically, he noted that he once wanted to be the "Indira Gandhi of particle astrophysics (but with a penis, of course)". During season 6, Raj has developed a talent to be a party planner that was demonstrated at the time of Howard and Bernadette's wedding, and the Halloween, and Valentine's Day parties, at the comic book store.  In the season 11 episode "The Comet Polarization", he sets up a telescope on the roof of Leonard and Sheldon's apartment building. Penny looks through the telescope and sees something interesting and takes a picture. Raj later verifies that the object is a new comet and claims sole discovery for it, angering Penny who thinks she should be named as co-discoverer. This causes friction between them as Raj knows that including Penny (who is not a scientist) will be detrimental to his career. After being confronted by Penny, Raj finally relents on giving her credit for the discovery.

Relationships.

For most of the series' run, Raj had not been involved in any lasting romantic relationship, mostly due to his inability to speak to women. However, he was much more successful in casual sex than the more sexually aggressive Howard. He once dated Lalita Gupta, a childhood friend, in an arrangement made by his parents. With Raj able to speak to her only under the influence of alcohol, the date goes badly, and Lalita left the intoxicated and bothersome Raj to have dinner with Sheldon.  After Raj behaves boorishly with Penny while at a "People" magazine reception, and presents Penny to his parents (via webcam) as his girlfriend, he later apologizes, first with a written note. When Penny forces him to do so verbally, he utters a barely audible "sorry".  Raj also seeks to date Sheldon's attractive twin sister, Missy. To do so, he takes an experimental drug to correct his anxiety disorder. He is the only one, out of himself, Howard and Leonard, in whom Missy showed any interest, but the medication wears off when he tries to ask her out.  When Sheldon, Leonard, Howard, and Raj are on a train to San Francisco, the latter three tried talking to actress Summer Glau, who they see is in their train car. After drinking what he thinks is a beer, Raj is able to charm Glau. When a jealous Howard points out to Raj that his beer is non-alcoholic, Raj stops speaking in the middle of his conversation, and flees from Glau.  Raj reveals that he once had a girlfriend, after Leonard claims that the two of them were the only ones without them. He states that she was deaf, so his inability to speak with women was not an issue. Raj has an infatuation with Howard's girlfriend, Bernadette, and is visibly unhappy when she accepts Howard's marriage proposal. This antagonizes Howard when he learns of it. Despite both being heterosexual, Raj and Howard tend to appear as if they are in a homosexual relationship. This is described by Leonard's mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, as an "ersatz homosexual marriage". Even Raj's parents are aware of this, as Raj's mother once notes "the closest thing we have to a daughter-in-law is that Jewish boy Howard!". Raj often takes up the stereotypically "female" role in arguments with Howard, once expressing his displeasure at Howard constantly ditching him to chase women. Raj recounts a dream where he and Howard both had mansions with a secret tunnel that connected Howard's "front yard" to his "back yard". He uses a female avatar in "World of Warcraft". In season four he claims to be a metrosexual, and in season 8 it is revealed that he and Howard were once in couples therapy. In season 10's "The Emotion Detection Automaton", Howard tells Raj that if they are both unattached in the next thirty years, he would be open to the two of them having a relationship.  In the season 4 finale, Penny and Raj become intoxicated and, despite agreeing to remain good friends, end up in bed together. The next morning, both agree to pretend it never happened, but they are caught by Leonard, Sheldon, and Howard as they try to leave, causing Penny to think about moving back to Nebraska. In the opening episode of season 5, Raj reveals to Penny that they did not have intercourse; instead he ejaculated prematurely and they fell asleep. Penny promised not to tell the guys, although subsequently she sometimes calls him "Quick Draw".  In season 5, Raj buys a new iPhone and quickly develops feelings for the computerized personal assistant, Siri. Later in season 5, Penny believes she has found the perfect match for Raj by having him meet a woman who is deaf: however, it turns out she only dated Raj for his money and leaves him when he tells her that his parents will cut off financial ties with him if they continue to see each other. Finally, in despair, Raj asks his parents to find him a potential bride for an arranged marriage. Raj gets along well with his parents' first selection, but discovers that the woman is a lesbian trying to conceal her sexual orientation from her family: she assumes Raj is also homosexual and that they would have a lavender marriage, an idea Raj considers as a viable alternative to lifelong bachelorhood until Howard and Bernadette convince him otherwise.  Out of their concern for his loneliness, Howard and Bernadette give him a pet dog. Happy with his new companion, a female Yorkshire Terrier he names Cinnamon, Raj proceeds to see if the pup fits in his man-purse. This leads Bernadette to dispute Raj's heterosexuality. In the episode "The Thespian Catalyst", Raj fantasizes various scenarios in which Howard dies or is rendered an invalid, and Raj must satisfy Bernadette's sexual needs. This culminates in a dream sequence where he and Bernadette dance together in a Bollywood musical number. He reflects upon these fantasies by observing that he is "definitely not gay".  At Howard's bachelor party, Raj mentions that he and Howard had a threesome at Comic-Con with an overweight woman in a Sailor Moon costume.  In the season six episode, "The Tangible Affection Proof", Raj and Stuart, put together a party at the store for lonely single people on Valentine's Day. After giving a speech about how one cannot define themself by being in a relationship, he is approached by a woman named Lucy (Kate Micucci). They both leave to get a cup of coffee, with Raj hypocritically declaring "Later, losers!" In "The Monster Isolation", Lucy flees during their coffee date, sending Raj into depression and self-isolation in his apartment wearing nothing but briefs and Uggs. Lucy gives Howard her phone number to give to Raj. Later, Lucy goes to his apartment to apologize and tells him that she has problems around new people. Raj describes his own psychological problems, and they agree to have a formal date.  In the following episode, "The Contractual Obligation Implementation", he takes Lucy out for a first date to a library where they text message each other instead of speaking, in light of her social anxiety and his selective mutism. They continue to date and by "The Love Spell Potential" they kiss. However, in the season 6 finale "The Bon Voyage Reaction", Lucy feels too pressured by Raj to meet his friends, and a dinner between Lucy, Raj, and Amy does not go well. Raj apologizes for his behavior and asks Lucy to come to Leonard's goodbye party before his departure for the North Sea on Professor Stephen Hawking's expedition. However, Lucy text messages him at the party saying she will not be there and does not want to see him again. The next day, Penny goes to comfort a heartbroken Raj, who thinks he is completely unlovable. Penny suggests that this lament is attributed to alcohol, but Raj says he that he has not had a drink since the night before: he is finally cured of his selective mutism.  In season 7, Raj's newfound ability to speak to women allows him to put aside his previous difficulties with them, and though he does not date, he manages to charm several women throughout the series, including the divorced HR representative Mrs. Davis, and a veterinarian named Yvette. Eventually, he begins dating Emily Sweeney (Laura Spencer), an attractive but rather sinister young dermatologist he met on the Internet. Their initial interaction does not go well, when she finds Raj's shyness and passivity off-putting, but she eventually agrees to go on a date with him: it goes well and the two begin dating properly for the rest of the season, becoming exclusive in the final two episodes. In "The Valentino Submergence", episode 15 of season 9, Raj breaks up with Emily right before Valentine's Day, because he has developed an interest in Claire, a bartender working on a sci-fi screenplay for a children's film who he met in the previous episode. Upon learning that Claire has reunited with her former boyfriend, he begs Emily to take him back, but she refuses.  During season 12, Raj asks his now-divorced father to arrange another marriage for him: he ends up seeing an ambitious hotel concierge named Anu (Rati Gupta) whose cavalier and impersonal attitude to marriage leaves him briefly disheartened, but after she proposes to him while on one knee, he accepts. In "The Consummation Deviation", their attempts to be physical together bring about a brief relapse of Raj's mutism. In "The Paintball Scattering", Raj accidentally spies on Anu and they both conclude that they know very little about each other and they cancel the wedding. Afterwards, they agree to start together and date re-starting their relationship from the beginning. However, near the end of the season, Anu accepts a job offer in London and asks Raj if he is prepared to move to England to live with her. Though initially hesitant, Raj decides to move, but at the last second, Howard intercepts Raj at the airport and convinces him to stay in Los Angeles, telling him that he will someday find and genuinely fall in love with a better match for him. Raj subsequently stays with his friends in America, presumably ending his relationship with Anu. In the last episode he is seen holding hands with Sarah Michelle Gellar but she asks him to stop, insisting that they are not on a date.

Creation and casting.

Raj did not appear in the original, unaired series pilot, which only featured Leonard, Sheldon, and a different version of the Penny character, called Katie. The test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. In the new pilot, Raj and Howard were added. Series co-creator Bill Prady stated: "The idea was, if they like these first two guys, let’s give them two more".  Raj's social anxiety around women was inspired by a former co-worker of Prady. Originally the character was called "Dave", and was an American born to Indian parents. This was changed when Nayyar won the role, because he was "so Indian". When doing scenes in which Raj must consume alcohol in order to speak, Nayyar would drink non-alcoholic substitutes. When scenes called for Raj to drink grasshoppers, the substitute was a concoction of water, cream and a heavy amount of green food coloring.

Rajesh Ramayan Koothrappali, Ph.D. is a fictional character on the CBS television series "The Big Bang Theory", portrayed by British Indian actor Kunal Nayyar. Raj is based on a computer programmer that the show's co-creator, Bill Prady, knew back when he himself was a programmer.


Background.

In 1970 Anthony Gavin, a 38-year-old photographer from North London, began planning the burglary of the branch of Lloyds Bank at 187 Baker Street, in the Marylebone district of the City of Westminster, London. He decided to use a nearby premises and tunnel up into the floor of the bank; the plan was inspired by "The Red-Headed League", a short story by Arthur Conan Doyle. In the story, Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson pre-empt the burglars and are in the vault when they break in. A former army physical training instructor with connections to several career criminals, Gavin is described by the journalists Tom Pettifor and Nick Sommerlad as "a forceful personality... [who] had the propensity to be physically threatening". According to Paul Lashmar, the head of journalism at the University of Sussex, Gavin was a member of a gang headed by Brian Reader, who was also involved in the burglary, although Reader firmly denies that he had any involvement in the events at Baker Street.

Prelude.

Gavin asked Reg Tucker, a second-hand-car salesman, who had no criminal record, to reconnoitre the bank. Tucker opened an account with £500 in December 1970 and two months later he rented a safety deposit box in the branch; over the next few months he visited his box thirteen times. Bank practice of the time was for staff to leave customers in private while visiting the vault. As soon as Tucker was alone, he would measure the room using the span of his arms and an umbrella he brought with him; he was aided in getting exact measurements by the regularly sized floor tiles, each of which was square. He drew a map of the room, plotting where the cabinets were and the position of the furniture. Thomas Stephens, another second-hand car salesman with no criminal record, was used to acquire the tools needed for the break-in, including a thermal lance and a 100-ton jack; one of Reader's friends, Bobby Mills, was employed to be the lookout man. Two others were brought in for the job, one of whom was an explosives expert. Another of Gavin's friends, Mickey "Skinny" Gervaise, a burglar-alarm expert, was brought on board, as were two men who have never been identified: "Little Legs" and "TH". Lashmar reports that TH was a contact of Detective Inspector Alec Eist, whom he describes as "by reputation the most corrupt Yard officer of the 1950s to mid-1970s". The journalist Duncan Campbell describes Eist as "One of the most active bent officers from the 1950s to the 1970s".  In May 1971 the owners of the leather goods shop Le Sac at 189 Baker Street—two doors down from the bank—sold the lease of the property for £10,000 to Benjamin Wolfe, a 64-year-old seller of ornaments and knick-knacks, and a contact of several gang members. The property had a basement that, the group calculated, was at the same level as the bank vault.

Burglary.

Road works nearby meant the trembler alarms in the vault floor were turned off after several false alarms. A member of the local security company alerted the gang of the timing of the digging and when the alarms were off. Work began on the tunnel on the Friday evening of the August bank holiday 1971 and continued until 10 September 1971. To avoid being overheard, they dug only during the weekends. Gavin led the digging of the tunnel from Le Sac to under the vault floor. He later said that he lost in the process. The entry hole he, Tucker and a third gang member created in Le Sac was wide and through of concrete. Gavin dug until he reached the walls of the Chicken Inn's basement, then dug down and continued under the building, using their basement floor as the roof of the tunnel. The tunnel was long when finished, and at the end, under the vault, the gang created a cavity. The digging created of waste, which was hauled back into Le Sac and dumped towards the rear of the premises. The tunnel, which needed no supports, was later described in court as "a magnificent piece of engineering".  The gang began their entry into the vault on Friday 10 September, after the bank closed for the weekend. The gang placed a lookout man on a rooftop overlooking the bank, and kept in contact by using walkie-talkies. Their intention was to use the 100-ton jack to force a hole in the reinforced concrete floor, and railway sleepers were laid on the floor to support it. What they did not know was that there was an old well under where the tunnel ended, and the pressure of the jack pushed the bottom of their tunnel down into the well, rather than raising the vault's floor upwards. The gang then used the thermic lance in an attempt to cut through the floor; when this failed they drilled holes in the underside of the vault floor and packed them with gelignite. On Saturday the gang co-ordinated the blast of the explosives with the movement of traffic in the area to mask the noise. A hole was blasted through the floor and into the vault. The tunnel was cleared of the debris created, and the hole was widened with a hammer and chisel. By the time they had finished, the exit of the tunnel measured.  At around 11:00 pm on Saturday 11 September Robert Rowlands, an amateur radio enthusiast living in a flat in Wimpole Street, half a mile (800 m) away from the Lloyds branch, picked up the walkie-talkie conversations of the gang in error. He heard comments over the radio that made him think a local cigarette shop was being burgled. At 11:30 pm, he phoned the police; the local police officer thought it was a prank call, and told Rowlands that he should record the conversation if anything interesting was overheard. Rowlands thought it was a good idea, so used a small cassette recorder to make a record of the conversations. At around midnight he recorded dialogue between the gang inside the shop and the nearby lookout about their need to take a break:  First voice: Right, well listen carefully. We want you to mind for one hour from now until approximately one o'clock and then to go off the air, get some sleep and come on the air with both radios at six o'clock in the morning.
 Second voice: I suggest we carry on tonight, mate, and get it done with.
 First voice: Look, the place is filled with fumes where we was cutting. And if the Security come in and smell the fumes we are all going to take stoppo and none of us have got nothing. Whereas this way we have all got 300 grand to cut up when we come back in the morning. And if Security have naused it for us, well at least we have got something.  The disagreement between the lookout and gang continued for a while, and the lookout said "Money may be your God, but it's not mine, and I'm fucking off!" Eventually, after input from a woman's voice and a fourth person who seemed to carry more sway than the others, the lookout agreed to remain on the roof overnight. The lookout man was also given an update on the progress they had made in opening the safety deposit boxes: "We have done 90 per cent of the easy ones and we now face the hard ones." At 2:00 am Rowlands decided he had enough material recorded to call the police again; he did not recontact his local station, but phoned Scotland Yard directly. Scotland Yard sent members of the Flying Squad to listen to the tapes, and they confirmed that they thought a burglary was taking place. The officers stayed with Rowlands until 8:30 am on Sunday 12 September when the gang returned to the shop and radioed the lookout. One of the gang members in the shop thanked him for staying on the roof all night and informed him that they planned to finish the job early that afternoon. At one stage in the morning a waiter from the Chicken Inn restaurant heard noises from within the bank and peered through the windows of the building to see if anything could be seen. Shortly afterwards Rowlands and listening policemen heard the final radio broadcast "Would you like to change to the other channel, over". Rowlands thinks this was the code for leaving the bank.  Police contacted bank staff and local security firms to open up their branches as they began to check 750 banks in an radius. Each branch was visited by both bank staff and police. They visited the Baker Street branch of Lloyds at 3:30 pm on 12 September. They found the vault secure; they were unable to open the vault to check as it was time locked. It is not known if the gang were still in the vault at the time, although police suspect that they were, but keeping quiet following a warning from the lookout.  During the burglary 268 safety deposit boxes were opened, about a quarter of the boxes present; the gang did not try to crack the bank's safe. Lord Hailsham owned one of the boxes in the bank; at the time of the robbery he was Lord Chancellor, the most senior member of the judiciary. Estimates of the amounts stolen vary between £150,000 and nearly £4 million. Because of the way the gang communicated the burglary was soon nicknamed "the walkie-talkie job". Although the common name for the events is the "Baker Street Robbery", it is legally defined as a burglary. "A Dictionary of Law" by the Oxford University Press defines robbery as "The offence of using force against any person, or putting them in fear of being subjected to force, in order to commit a theft"; burglary is defined as "The offence, under the Theft Act 1968, of... entering a building... with the intention of committing one of three specified crimes in it... [including] theft."

Aftermath.

Investigation.

Initially a news blackout was imposed on the radio messages to avoid letting the burglars know their conversations had been overheard by the police, but this was lifted by Monday 13 September. On that morning bank staff opened the vault and found that they had been burgled. Police found the thermal lance, walkie-talkies and other tools, including an oxyacetylene torch, in the shop. Eight hundred pieces of evidence were logged and forensically examined. Police announced that they were searching for four men and a woman. They thought that during the burglary the woman was acting as a controller, based in a different location to the lookout and the gang. The police later widened their search to include five others. The bank provided the police with the names of 260 box owners; eight others refused to allow their names to be passed on.  Up to 120 detectives worked on the case, organised into four teams: one examining the scene, one contacting the known safety box owners, one covering the co-ordination from the control centre and one team dealing with all external enquiries. Police soon identified Wolfe from the lease documents, and within four days the police had a list of likely suspects that they were investigating. Informers provided the first names of two of the gang members and incomplete details of a pub that had been taken over by another member. Police made the connection between a newly acquired pub and Gavin. After several weeks of surveillance and investigation police had identified Wolfe, Gavin, Stephens and Tucker as the key individuals to arrest, but they also wanted to speak to three of four other people who they thought were involved. One of those they were interested in had been living in France and Italy since October 1971; there were no extradition agreements in place to request overseas police arrange for his return to Britain.  Towards the end of October 1971 police surveillance teams saw Tucker hand over a bag to two men, Abdullah Hashan Gangji and his nephew Ackbar Mohammad Ali Gangji. The two were arrested and £32,000 of notes were seized. Wolfe, Gavin, Stephens and Tucker were also picked up within the next two days. Police recovered £231,000 they identified as stolen from the vault.  After the end of the investigation Scotland Yard considered prosecuting Rowlands under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1967 for listening to unlicensed transmissions, but no charges were laid against him. Shortly after the court case, Lloyds Bank sent him a cheque for £2,500 to thank him for his actions.

Court case.

The two Gangjis were remanded in custody until 16 November, when bail was set at £75,000. Tucker, Gavin and Stephens were all remanded on bail of £30,000 each on charges relating to the break in. Shortly afterwards the bank's insurers offered a £30,000 reward for information that would lead to more arrests.  The trial of the four gang members and the two Gangjis opened on 2 January 1973. Stephens, Tucker, Wolfe and Gavin were charged with breaking into the bank and stealing the contents of the security boxes—valued at a minimum of £1.5 million—and of possessing explosives; the two Gangjis were charged with handling stolen goods. Stephens, Tucker and Gavin pleaded guilty, Wolfe and the two Gangjis pleaded not guilty. The two Gangjis stated that they were acting as a courier for a Swiss-based finance house involved in purchasing sterling. Wolfe claimed that after he signed the lease for Le Sac, he had only returned to the shop once, to pick up the post, and that he was shocked to hear the news about the break in. The trial ended on 23 January 1973 and sentences were handed down three days later. The two Gangjis were found not guilty, Stephens, Tucker and Gavin were each given sentences of twelve years; Wolfe received eight years—shorter than the others on account of his age.

Lloyds.

In March 1973, 64 of those whose safety deposit boxes had been broken into sued Lloyds for £500,000. The case opened in the High Court in 1977, by which time there were 138 plaintiffs seeking damages of £660,000. One witness, a retired jeweller, recounted how he identified some of his property by walking around tables on which several items were placed; he and twenty other people were unsupervised while they did this. He noticed a single diamond that could easily have been stolen, which he estimated was worth between £3,000 and £4,000 at the 1971 price. Another customer complained that he saw a ring in a wastepaper bin, that it was too easy to steal some of the smaller items, if one wished, and that one of the bank assistants had told him that two people had tried to claim the same pair of candlesticks. Four days into the trial, the judge visited the bank and the rooms where the property had been on show. The following day he adjourned the case; no reason was given and no date to resume proceedings was set.

Rumours.

There have been several rumours circulating about the burglary. One is that the government issued a D-Notice—a formal request that the media do not publish a story on a specific subject for reasons of national security—to stop any news being released. The claim is dismissed by Duncan Campbell who writes "no D-Notice was even requested, far less granted"; the journalist Graeme McLagen observes that there was a news embargo on the Sunday—while the burglary was still in progress—but that the events were widely reported over the following days. Another rumour is that one of the safety deposit boxes contained compromising photographs of Princess Margaret and the actor and criminal John Bindon. Campbell describes the story as "cheerful nonsense". A third rumour is that photographs of a Conservative cabinet minister abusing children were discovered by the gang and left behind for the police to find, but no action was taken.

Legacy.

In 1976 James Humphreys, a Soho-based pornographer and strip club owner, alleged that police officers had stolen £1 million worth of gems "as their share" of the burglary. The following year Commander Bert Wickstead, a senior officer at Scotland Yard, was appointed to head an inquiry into the allegations.  In 2011 "The Baker Street Robbery", a documentary on the burglary, was broadcast on The History Channel; the programme included an interview with Robert Rowlands and the recordings he made of the robbery. A fictionalised version of the burglary is the subject of the 2008 film "The Bank Job", which uses the storyline that the crime was either set up—or later covered up—by MI5 to secure the compromising photographs of Princess Margaret, that were being kept in a deposit box at the bank by Trinidadian radical Michael X. The advertising for the film played up many of the rumours, both fuelling and reinforcing them:  [the gang]... looted safe deposit boxes of cash and jewellery worth millions and millions of pounds. None of it was recovered. Nobody was ever arrested. The robbery made headlines for a few days and then disappeared – the result of a UK Government 'D' Notice, gagging the press. This film reveals what was hidden in those boxes. The story involves murder, corruption and a sex scandal with links to the Royal Family – a story in which the thieves were the most innocent people involved.  The 2015 Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary bears a close resemblance to the break in at Baker Street. It was headed by Brian Reader, was carried out over a weekend and involved breaking into a vault containing safety deposit boxes, although in this case the burglars used a heavy-duty drill to enter through a wall.  Although many of the records relating to the burglary at the bank were released by The National Archives in 2013, approximately 800 pages of information remain closed; they will be available for viewing in January 2071.

The Baker Street robbery was the burglary of safety deposit boxes at the Baker Street branch of Lloyds Bank in London, on the night of 11 September 1971. A gang tunnelled from a rented shop two doors away to come up through the floor of the vault. The value of the property stolen is unknown, but is likely to have been between £1.25 and £3 million; only £231,000 was recovered by the police.


Components.

Beacon frames consist of an 802.11 MAC header, body and FCS. Some of the fields in the body are listed below. Infrastructure network access points send beacons at a defined interval, which is often set to a default 100 TU which is equivalent to 102.4 ms. In the case of an ad hoc network where there are no access points, a peer station is responsible for sending the beacon. After an ad hoc station receives a beacon frame from a peer, it waits a random amount of time. After that random timeout has elapsed, it will send a beacon frame unless another station has already sent one. In this way, the responsibility of sending beacon frames is rotated amongst all the peers in the ad hoc network, while ensuring that beacons will always be sent.  Most access points allow the changing of the beacon interval. Increasing the beacon interval will cause the beacons to be sent less frequently. This reduces load on the network and increases throughput for clients on the network; however, it has the undesirable effect of delaying association and roaming processes as stations scanning for access points could potentially miss a beacon while scanning other channels. Alternatively, decreasing the beacon interval causes beacons to be sent more frequently. This increases load on the network and decreases throughput for users, but it does result in a quicker association and roaming process. An additional downside of decreasing the beacon interval is that stations in power save mode will consume more power as they must more frequently awake to receive beacons.  Inspecting an idle network with packet-monitoring tools such as tcpdump or Wireshark would show that most traffic on the network consists of beacon frames, with a few non-802-11 packets mixed in, such as DHCP packets. If users joined the network, responses to each beacon would begin to appear, along with regular traffic generated by the users.  Stations must schedule beacon transmission at the nominal beacon interval. However, the transmission may suffer some delays due to the channel access. Like other frames, beacons must follow the CSMA/CA algorithm. This means that if the channel is busy (e.g., another station is currently sending a frame) when the beacon needs to be sent, it must wait. This means that the actual beacon interval may differ from the nominal beacon interval. However, stations are able to compensate for this difference by inspecting the timestamp in the beacon frame when it is finally sent.

Function.

While beacon frames do cause some non-trivial overhead for a network, they are vital for the proper operation of a network. Radio NICs generally scan all RF channels searching for beacons announcing the presence of a nearby access point. When a radio receives a beacon frame, it receives information about the capabilities and configuration of that network, and is also then able to provide a list of available eligible networks, sorted by signal strength. This allows the device to choose to connect to the optimal network.  Even after associating with a network, the radio NIC will continue to scan for beacons. This has several benefits. Firstly, by continuing to scan for other networks, the station has options for alternative networks if the current access point's signal becomes too weak to continue communication. Secondly, as it still receives beacon frames from the currently associated access point, the device is able to use the timestamps in those beacons to update its internal clock. Beacons from the currently associated access point also inform stations of imminent configuration changes, such as data rate changes.  Finally, beacons enable devices to have power saving modes. Access points will hold on to packets destined for stations that are currently sleeping. In the traffic indication map of a beacon frame, the access point is able to inform stations that they have frames waiting for delivery.

Beacon frame is one of the management frames in IEEE 802.11 based WLANs. It contains all the information about the network. Beacon frames are transmitted periodically, they serve to announce the presence of a wireless LAN and to synchronise the members of the service set. Beacon frames are transmitted by the access point (AP) in an infrastructure basic service set (BSS). In IBSS network beacon generation is distributed among the stations. For the 2.4 GHz spectrum, when having more than 15 SSIDs on overlapping channels (or more than 45 in total), beacon frames start to consume significant amount of air time and degrade performance even when most of the networks are idle.


IntelliCAD Technology Consortium.

The IntelliCAD Technology Consortium ("ITC") is the non-profit organizational body of developers maintaining all vanilla-stock IntelliCAD source code toolkits and APIs for their CAD interface. The ITC also develops several advanced integrations with third-party technologies. These third-party technologies include the DWGdirect library (now called "Teigha for.dwg files") from the Open Design Alliance, which reads and writes the “.dwg” data format, and the ACIS 3D modeling kernel from Spatial Technology. The ITC office base is in Portland, Oregon, USA.

IntelliCAD Functionality.

Modern IntelliCAD toolkits not only provide partial compatibility with.dwg, but also has a set of commands similar to AutoCAD by Autodesk, Inc. Similarly, IntelliCAD provides several calling convention routines, or APIs, such as LISP, COM, Visual Basic, and SDS (IntelliCAD's C/C++ Programming API) that allow users the ability to create complex custom CAD applications.  One focus of ITC development is improving compatibility between IntelliCAD and AutoCAD:  Toolkit features also include support for complex linetypes, multiline text, lightweight polyline, draworder, audit & recover, ADS support in most applications and raster image tools.

History.

"IntelliCADD" began as an independent AM/FM/GIS (Automated Mapping/Facilities Management/Geographic Information System) software firm in La Mesa, CA, USA. One of its products, AutoCAD Data Extension, allowed multiple users to access the same AutoCAD drawing, or have a single drawing point to entities stored in other drawings. Softdesk, the then-largest third-party product developer for Autodesk, acquired this company in 1994 and used the know-how to secretly develop an AutoCAD clone. Autodesk had recently entered into direct competition with Cyco Software (another third-party Autodesk partner), and Softdesk was concerned that the same could happen to them. The AutoCAD-clone project was kept semi-secret under the project name ""Phoenix"."  In December 1996 Autodesk announced that it would instead buy Softdesk outright for $90 million in common stock. A complaint regarding the inclusive sale of IntelliCADD was filed with the US Federal Trade Commission ("FTC"). According to FTC Docket No. C-3756:  By late 1996 a formal search for new venture capital was underway. Marketing director Robert Drummer was referred to John Forbes at Visio Corporation and "gave him the pitch". Further according to his own first-hand account, "He (John Forbes) called back a few hours later and said that he along with Jeremy Jaech and Ted Johnson would be chartering a plane that day and would be down to take a look at a demo. They arrived in San Diego that evening." A core team of nine Softdesk/IntelliCADD developers soon moved to become employees of Visio. In March 1997 the FTC forbade "Autodesk or Softdesk from re-acquiring the IntelliCADD product or any entity that owns or controls it, without prior notice to the Commission for a 10 year period". The FTC granted Visio leave to acquire Boomerang completely for $6.7 million in the same ruling that prevented Autodesk from doing so (above). IntelliCAD's original architect, Mike Bailey, turned and left Visio before the first release. Nevertheless, after several years of background development, "Visio IntelliCAD" (one 'D' for the product, two for name of the original company) was finally released for the first time to the public in 1998 with a very low price compared to AutoCAD. Twelve thousand licenses of IntelliCAD were sold in the first three months before new concerns over software stability emerged.  Visio's "IntelliCAD 98" sold about 30,000 copies—far less than some expected. IntelliCAD development seemed to need more resources than Visio could grant it. At this point, Visio "granted a royalty- free, perpetual license for the IntelliCAD (2000 version) source code to The IntelliCAD Technology Consortium".  On September 15, 1999 Microsoft announced that it would acquire Visio Corporation (completed in January 2000)—a deal that evidently included Visio's "IntelliCAD 98". A new IntelliCAD 2000 source code branch, however, continued independent development under the new ITC.  IntelliCAD 3 ("IntelliCAD 2001") introduced complex linetypes, XREF clipping and IntelliCAD's first display and printing of ACIS 3D solids on May 22, 2001.  IntelliCAD 4 followed with full ACIS 3D solid modelling.  IntelliCAD 5 - added workspaces with tabs and DWF file support in October 2004. ITC has also announced a new partnership with SolidWorks., which added tabbed workspaces and DWF support. The ITC also announced a new partnership with SolidWorks.  IntelliCAD 6 - in November 2005 added True Color color support (16 million colors), ADeko Raster raster image support tool, previewing thumbnails while viewing drawing files, drawing and viewing elements, attaching WAV files as audio notes.  IntelliCAD 7 - on October 29, 2008. During the annual ITC meeting in Athens, Greece, the first test release of the new version was announced. One of the functions is the complete replacement of the old ITC internal database and the old "SDS" API with newer DWGdirect and DRX APIs from the ODA. As of 2009, about 50 ITC members globally shared in IntelliCAD development.  IntelliCAD 8 - on June 13, 2014 Intellicad made available in 64-bit and 32-bit versions of IntelliCAD 8.0 that allows opening, saving and creating *.dwg files, including the latest file format 2014. New features include layer states, search layer filters, layer transparency and window freezing, custom menu *.cui files, quick selection, 3D orbits, additional mesh capabilities, Collada (.dae) file import, MrSID MG4 compressed raster image support and more. IntelliCAD 8.0 includes several API enhancements, including Teigha® Open Design Alliance (ODA) version 3.9.1 updates and VBA 7.1 support. ITC members now have access to the source code for advanced rendering and image processing components.  IntelliCAD 9 - is a version that contains many new features and improvements, including native support for opening, editing and saving files *.dwg 2018. IntelliCAD 9.0 increases performance in many areas, with the most noticeable increase in speed when saving files. Now only modifications are saved to *.dwg files, which provides exceptional speed, especially for large *.dwg files that contain only a few changes. Some issues related to running IntelliCAD on Fall Creators 2017 Microsoft® Windows® 10 have also been fixed.

Software based on IntelliCAD.

Intellicad Technology Consortium: IntelliCAD

IntelliCAD is a CAD-software programming toolkit and API published by the IntelliCAD Technology Consortium ("ITC"). IntelliCAD aims (at some levels) to emulate the basic interface and functions of AutoCAD. Unlike typical CAD programs, ITC IntelliCAD is not sold directly to end users. ITC IntelliCAD is exclusively licensed to Consortium members who pay fees in exchange for permission and guidance to include IntelliCAD technology in final OEM "IntelliCAD" (and other) products with their own end user license agreements. The ITC has nearly 50 members.


Methods.

Three methods are used in electrology: Galvanic, thermolysis, and blend. All three methods have their own merits, and one method is not better than another. The success depends on the skill of the electrologist, the type of hair being removed, the condition of the skin and the pain threshold of the client. All three methods, when properly performed, can be thorough at destroying the hair matrix cells, and leaving follicles incapable of regrowing hair.

Galvanic method.

This method is named after Luigi Galvani and uses a person's body as an electrolytic cell. Galvanic electrolysis was first reported in medical literature in 1875 by ophthalmologist Charles Michel as a method for removing ingrown eyelashes. A galvanic hair remover is essentially a positive ground power supply that delivers 0-3 milliamperes through the body. The follicular probe is the cathode of an electrolytic cell. Sodium hydroxide formed at the cathode by the process of chemical electrolysis kills the hair matrix cells. Modern galvanic hair removers automatically adjust the voltage to maintain constant current.

Thermolysis.

Another method is known as thermolysis, also called radio frequency (RF), shortwave or diathermy. Thermolysis was developed in the 1920s and first reported in medical literature by Henri Bordier. A thermolytic hair remover is essentially a radio transmitter, usually with an output of about 0-8 watts at a frequency of 13.56. RF energy emanates from the probe tip to tissue within about a millimeter. Thermolysis works by heating the hair matrix cells to about, causing electrocoagulation.

Blend method.

The galvanic method and thermolysis are often combined in the blend method, developed by Arthur Hinkel in 1948, which uses both RF and direct current, combining many of the advantages of both methods.

Technique.

The practitioner selects a metal probe that slides easily into the hair follicle, usually the same diameter as the hair shaft or smaller. The probe is typically 50 to 150 μm (0.002 to 0.006 inches) for all three modalities. Care is needed to insert the probe at the same angle as the hair is growing out of the skin. The probe is inserted to the depth of the hair matrix, the site where hair is formed. The power and duration of the electricity are started at the lowest setting, then gradually increased until the hair comes out as easily as possible. If the patient experiences significant discomfort, the settings can be lowered.

Treatment duration.

Most practitioners will advise that complete removal of male pattern facial hair takes between 1 and 4 years, with an average treatment length of 2 years in case of one session per week, one hour per session. Removal of body hair works considerably faster.

Status of profession.

In the United States, electrolysis is regulated in many states, requiring training and licensing.  Electrolysis as a profession faced new competition in the 1990s after laser hair removal was developed and promoted as a quicker and easier way to remove hair. However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declared laser can only claim to reduce hair growth, not permanently remove it.

Electrology is the practice of electrical hair removal to permanently remove human hair from the body. Electrolysis is the actual process of removing hair using electricity.


Production and composition.

"OMG" was written and produced by The Black Eyed Peas frontman, will.i.am. The tune was recorded at Chung King Studios, New York City. Dylan "3-D" Dresdow mixed the record at Paper V.U. Studios, North Hollywood. The vocal sample of a crowd shouting "owowowo" supposedly taken from Deep Purple's Live at Olympia '96. The song was recorded by will.i.am while performing with The Black Eyed Peas on the French TV show Taratata.  "OMG" is a midtempo pop song, drawing from the subgenres of dance-pop and synthpop, and is also influenced by R&B. The song also infuses hints of Eurodance. Several lines feature the Auto-Tune vocal effect, and makes use of "hypnotic" hand claps, and "Jock Jams"-esque arena chanting. The song is set in common time, and has a tempo of 130 beats per minute. It is written in the key of E minor, and Usher's vocals span from the low note of G to high note of E. It follows the chord progression Em–D–Bm–C. According to James Reed of "The Boston Globe", Usher is featured in a staccato delivery over the song's minimalist dance beat." will.i.am begins the song with the line, "Oh my gosh" then Usher starts singing the chorus. He performs his verse and the second chorus, before will.i.am gives his verse. "OMG" concludes with an extended final chorus. Mikael Wood of "The Los Angeles Times" said that the lyrics of the song detail Usher's encounter with a woman in a club.

Reception.

Critical.

The song has garnered mixed reception, with most critics disapproving of the auto-tuned vocals, and the production and appearance by will.i.am. Edna Gundersen of "USA Today" said that Usher seemed "disengaged" on the song, and allowed will.i.am. to "bludgeon" the song with auto-tune. Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" said the song was one of the tracks where production fell short on "Raymond v. Raymond", calling the song another auto-tuned "formulaic chant" by will.i.am. "The New York Daily News" said that the song is "as annoying as the tech-speak it mimics." Andrew Winistorfer of "Prefix Magazine" preferred "Lil Freak" to be the album's big single, stating that the song "doesn't come close to matching the filthy heights of "Little Freak," "[sic]" but the sports arena chanting thing hasn't been done this well since the '90s when "Jock Jams" were enormous." Winistorfer also said that Usher brought back his "bad taste" in collaborators since Lil Jon on "Yeah!", saying that having the latter on this song would be an improvement.  James Reed of the "Boston Globe" said that Usher "fares better" on the collaboration. Mikael Wood of "The Los Angeles Times" commended the song's "thumping" groove. Gail Mitchell of "Billboard" said that Usher "pumps up the beat on the infectious club anthem." Caroline Sullivan of "The Guardian", called the track "irresistible". Monica Herrera of "Billboard" magazine said the song, like "Yeah!", appealed to a broader audience and attuned to clubs. Herrera also said that "the lyrics are hypnotic hand claps and soccer-game chants that fade in and out to keep the party going".

Controversy.

In 2010, WYOY disc jockeys compared part of Usher's verse to a song sung by Homer Simpson in "Dude, Where's My Ranch?", a 2003 episode of television comedy "The Simpsons". The cadences of the line, "Honey got a booty like pow, pow, pow. Honey got some boobies like wow, oh wow" were compared to those of Homer's tune, "Christmas in December, wow wow wow. Give me tons of presents, now now now." Simon Vozick-Levinson of "Entertainment Weekly" disagreed, calling the likenesses "a random coincidence".

Chart performance.

The song debuted at number fourteen on the "Billboard" Hot 100 selling 130,000 units in its first week. The song became the third-highest debut on the "Billboard" Hot 100 of Usher's career, behind 1997's "Nice & Slow" at number nine, and 1998's "My Way" at eight. For the week ending May 15, 2010, the song lifted to number one on the chart, becoming Usher's ninth number-one single and Will.i.am's first number one single as a solo artist (or without his group, The Black eyed Peas). The song collected airplay and digital gainer honors, moving fourteen to seven on the Hot 100 Airplay chart, and two to one on the Hot Digital Songs chart. The song later topped both charts. By March 2011, the song has reached 4 million in sales, and as of May 2013, the song has sold 4,719,000 copies.  With the song, Usher tied with the Bee Gees, Elton John, and Paul McCartney for ninth among artists all time with the most Hot 100 hits. Usher also became the third male solo artist, behind McCartney and Michael Jackson to collect at least one number-one single from five consecutive albums. The song made Usher the first artist in the 2010s to have a number-one single in three consecutive decades, Usher's being the 1990s, 2000s and 2010s. He became only the fifth artist of all time to accomplish this, the others being Stevie Wonder in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s; Michael Jackson in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s; and Madonna and Janet Jackson in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. "OMG" was the second shortest title to lead the chart, tying Jackson's "Ben", "Bad", and "ABC" with the Jackson 5, with Britney Spears' "3" being the chart-topper with the shortest title.  The song charted at number three on the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, two on the Pop Songs chart, and three on the Hot Dance Club Play chart. It also topped the Rhythmic Top 40, making Usher the first artist to collect ten number ones on the chart, above 50 Cent, Beyoncé, Nelly, T-Pain, and Mariah Carey, each with seven. Usher led first on the chart with "You Make Me Wanna" for thirteen weeks from 1997–1998 and "Love in This Club" featuring Young Jeezy in 2008.  "OMG" reached number two in Canada, and was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. It was later upgraded to 2x Platinum for shipments over 160,000 copies. It sold 223,000 copies during 2010 in Canada. Internationally, "OMG" charted across Europe, reaching number one in the Ireland, and United Kingdom where it became the third best selling song of 2010. It also charted moderately in other countries, allowing it to reach a peak of six on the European Hot 100. In Australia and New Zealand the song placed at the top of the charts. It was certified 2× Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, and Platinum in New Zealand by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 15,000 units. It was later upgraded to 6× Platinum in Australia for shipments over 420,000 copies.

Music video.

Background.

Usher and will.i.am shot the video the weekend of March 6, 2010. The video was directed by Anthony Mandler. In an interview with "Rap-Up", Mandler said about the concept of the video: "...The video is a spectacle. It really emphasizes what we love about Usher and the character and the icon that he is, and most importantly, it's really a video that showcases his superstardom". The video was released on March 30, 2010, on VEVO and AMTV. According to Mandler, the original idea for the video was citing Max Headroom, a fictional artificial intelligence character from 1980s British television and film. The reference is made when Usher is seen on a flickering television at the beginning of the video. Mandler specified, commenting, "Max Headroom was always in his room," he continued, "this unidentifiable room, '80s shapes. I used that for inspiration." Usher stated that he wanted to do something theatrical and fun, and that while will.i.am. brought the international sound, he wanted to bring the producer into his world, "working off of each other and playing off of each other as artists, but the cinematography would be artistic and incredible." Mandler described the visuals in the clip as "Hitchcock-ian", as well as simply capturing Usher in his element, as he said he wanted the R&B singer's talent to take over. He further explained, stating, "The concept was to create a world where we put Usher in a space where he does what I think he does better than anyone else in the world, which is perform at a level and magnitude of a superstar and take us, the viewer, whether audible or visually, on a journey, not a ride. And, in that, I wanted to create an unpredictability, so one set leads to another and another, and you never know what's gonna happen. Along the way, Usher becomes our guide. We're so focused on him, we don't notice the change. The thing is unfolding little by little, and you can't quite see far enough ahead to know what's gonna come next."

Synopsis and reception.

The video begins with Usher flickering on a television in a room, before we see him in a scene dancing with blue flashing lights, and will.i.am. is shown in a similar room with red flashing lights. Usher is then shown with female background dancers in a white room. In the scene he dons a pair of glasses which show the dancers performing through the lens. Usher then dances outside in front of a concrete wall, with male background dancers appearing as shadows. As will.i.am. performs his verse, he and Usher are seen in their corresponding rooms with flashing lights. After this, Usher puffs a cigar and dances with male background dancers in an arena-like area, whilst he is also joined by female dancers with flashing lights on the floor, with the video ending with Usher shown on the flashing television.  In a review of the video, Brad Wete of "Entertainment Weekly" said, "For a song with such a title, it sure does take a minute for its video to build up to wow-worthy moments. After some clean dance sequences, the magic begins. Usher grooves with shadows, puffs out O's with cigar smoke, and then links back up with his ladies on a primary colored dance floor to show off his steps." Chris Ryan of "MTV News" compared the video's flashing lights to the music video for "Yeah!", and called the song an answer track to Trey Songz's "LOL". At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, the clip was nominated for Best Dance Video, Best Choreography, and Best Male Video.

Live performances.

Usher performed the song with will.i.am. on the ninth season of "American Idol", appearing in a black bowler and matching black suit with silver lapels, accompanied by flames and other pyrotechnics. They then performed the song together on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" on May 10, 2010. The song has also been performed live in Australia on "Hey Hey it's Saturday" on May 19, 2010, as well as on "Sunrise" on May 21, 2010. Usher later performed the song on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", "So You Think You Can Dance", "Good Morning America" and live in the United Kingdom on "Britain's Got Talent". On August 6, 2010, he performed the song alongside other hits at his New Look Foundation's inaugural World Leadership Awards in Atlanta, where his protege Justin Bieber and R&B singer Ciara also performed. Another event the song was performed at was the Activision E3 Event. The song was performed alongside "DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love" during the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. VMA executive producer Dave Sirulnick told MTV News, "We said to him, 'We want to do the best televised dance routine that you've done in years. Let's show why you're the king.'" MTV Buzzworthy writer, Tamar Antai was present at the rehearsal for the show, and commented that the VMA crew was about to "pull off visual feats not just previously unseen and unparalleled at the VMAs, but unseen and unparalleled on TV."  The performance was received with critical acclaim. On Usher specifically Antai said the performance was like "liquid magic", saying, "He took it to the level that comes after the next level. The penthouse level." He was aided by about a dozen background dancers, the males in skeleton-like costumes, and the females donning a one-piece, gloves and boots. The "OMG" performance was accompanied by red laser lights, making an illusion as if the stage disappeared. The lights spelled out "O.M.G" as well as "Usher", as dancers lowered from the ceiling. Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News commented, "The singer moved and grooved, proving that he's the R&B star that everyone pays attention to for the big moments." Rochell D. Thomas, also of the site said "Call it what you will: talent, swag, skills...When he steps on the dance floor, some mysterious thing comes out of him and puts the G in groove." Thomas went on to say that Usher's dance moves would make "the late great Michael Jackson jealous" in the stage production "that included more special-effects bells and whistles than a summer blockbuster." Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy also compared the performance to Jackson, calling it overall, "One part "Tron," one part laser show, one part Michael Jackson choreo tribute, and all spectacle." Usher appeared with The Black Eyed Peas to perform the song during the Super Bowl XLV halftime show.

Personnel.

Source:

"OMG" is a song by American recording artist Usher and American rapper will.i.am, who also wrote and produced the song. It uses the auto-tune effect in several lines, as well as "Jock Jams"-esque sports arena chanting. It was released on March 22, 2010 as the first worldwide single off his sixth studio album, "Raymond v. Raymond", and the fourth single overall, following the three US singles "Papers", "Hey Daddy (Daddy's Home)", and "Lil Freak". The song was met with a mixed reception from critics, who criticized the use of auto-tune, but commended the song's dance and club vibe. The song marks the second time that Usher has collaborated with will.i.am, following the single "What's Your Name", from his previous album "Here I Stand" (2008).


Formula.

The Hagenbach-Bischoff quota may be given as:  where:  The Droop quota's formula is slightly different in that the quotient arrived at by dividing the total vote by the number of seats plus 1 is rounded up if it is fractional, or if it is a whole number, 1 is added, so that in either case the quotient is increased to the next whole number.

An example of use in STV.

To see how the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota would work in an STV election imagine an election in which there are 2 seats to be filled and 3 candidates: Andrea, Carter, Brad. There are 100 voters who vote as follows:  Because there are 100 votes cast, and 2 seats, the Hagenbach-Bischoff is:  To begin the count the first preferences cast for each candidate are tallied and are as follows:  Andrea has more than 331⁄3 votes. She therefore has reached the quota and is declared elected. She has 112⁄3 votes more than the quota. These votes are transferred to Carter so the tallies become:  Carter has now reached the quota so he is declared elected. The winners are therefore Andrea and Carter.

Advantage over the Droop quota.

Some voting systems experts, such as Christine Cierra Danica, have observed that in an STV election held under the Droop quota it is sometimes possible for a group of candidates supported by a majority of voters to receive only a minority of seats. Such an outcome is far more likely under the older Hare quota but can still occur under the Droop quota in rare circumstances. It is a possibility that is only completely eliminated by use of the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota. The problem is best illustrated by an example.

Scenario.

Imagine an election in which there are 7 seats to be filled. There are 8 candidates standing, in two groups: Andrea, Carter, Brad and Delilah are members of the Alpha party; Scott, Jennifer, Matt and Susan are members of the Beta party. There are 104 voters and they vote as follows:  It can be seen that supporters of the Alpha party all rank all four Alpha party candidates higher than any of the Beta party candidates (the last four preferences of the voters are not shown above because they will not affect the result of the election). Similarly, voters who support the Beta party all give their first four preferences to Beta party candidates. Overall, the Alpha party receives 53 votes out of a total of 104. The Alpha party therefore has a majority of one. The Beta party receives a minority share of the vote.  Below the election results are shown first under the Droop and then under the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota. It can be seen that under the Droop quota, despite having the support of a majority of voters, the Alpha party receives only a minority of seats. When the same election is conducted under the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota, however, the Alpha party's majority is rewarded with a majority of seats.

Count under the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota.

The elected candidates are Andrea, Carter, Brad and "Delilah" (from the Alpha party) and Scott, Jennifer and Matt (from the Beta party).

Disadvantage of Hagenbach-Bischoff quota.

In STV-like system with larger quotas (such as Hare or Droop), the typical rule is that candidates are elected when their number of votes "equals or exceeds" the quota. If this rule is used with the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota, it is possible that more candidates are elected than there are seats. Imagine an election with three candidates for two positions where the 300 votes are  The Hagenbach-Bischoff quota is 300/(2+1) = 100. In the first round Andrea is elected with 200 preferences, while Brad (75) and Carter (25) remain in contention. Andrea's surplus of 100 is transferred: 25 to Brad and 75 to Carter, bringing each of them to 100. So all three have achieved the quota and so should be elected even though there are only two positions to fill.  This problem is easily resolved, as suggested by Irwin Mann in 1973, by adjusting the rule so candidates are only elected when their number of votes strictly "exceeds" the quota (not necessarily by so large a fraction as to reach the Droop quota).  Alternatively, B. L. Meek proposed treating the result as an n+1-way tie, and eliminating one of the candidates at random; still another solution would call for a runoff between the candidates.

The Hagenbach-Bischoff quota (also known as the Newland-Britton quota or the exact Droop quota, as opposed to the more common rounded Droop quota) is a formula used in some voting systems based on proportional representation (PR). It is used in some elections held under the largest remainder method of party-list proportional representation as well as in a variant of the D'Hondt method known as the Hagenbach-Bischoff system. The Hagenbach-Bischoff quota is named for its inventor, Swiss professor of physics and mathematics Eduard Hagenbach-Bischoff (1833–1910)


Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (soundtrack)

Details.

Jon Brion provided much of the music for the film. Although only one track ("Strings That Tie to You") features his singing (similar to the soundtrack for "Punch-Drunk Love"), his next soundtrack (for "I Heart Huckabees") would feature seven vocal songs.  The garage rock band The Willowz contributed two songs to the soundtrack, and would later contribute songs to director Michel Gondry's next film "The Science of Sleep".  "Mr. Blue Sky" isn't featured in the film, but plays in the theatrical trailer and most advertising spots for the film.  Brion's song "Showtime" on this soundtrack should not be confused with the song "Showtime" he wrote for the film "Magnolia".  Three "filmi" songs from old Hindi movies can be heard playing in the background (when Clementine invites Joel to her apartment for a drink). These are "Mera Man Tera Pyasa" ("My mind yearns for you") from the movie "Gambler" (1971) performed by Mohammed Rafi, "Tere Sang Pyar Main" from the movie "Nagin" (1976) performed by Lata Mangeshkar, and "Wada Na Tod" ("Break not the promise") also by Lata Mangeshkar from the movie "Dil Tujhko Diya" ("Gave my heart to you", 1987). All three songs are listed in the original soundtrack credits.

Albums appearing in the movie.

Several albums were mentioned in the shooting script and appeared in the final cut of the film. Among these are Brian Eno's "Music for Airports" (1978), the instrumental live version of the same by Bang on a Can (1998), Björk's "Homogenic" (1997) and Tom Waits's "Rain Dogs" (1985).

Track listing.

All tracks by Jon Brion, except where noted.

Adaptation.

Roc Nation artist Jay Electronica sampled five Jon Brion compositions from the mixtape for his debut mixtape "". The tracks first appeared in 2007 on Jay Electronica's Myspace page.

The soundtrack album for "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind" was released by Hollywood Records on March 16, 2004. It features the score, composed by Los Angeles musician Jon Brion, as well as songs from artists E.L.O., The Polyphonic Spree, The Willowz, and Don Nelson. Beck, in a collaboration with Jon Brion, provides a cover version of the Korgis' "Everybody's Got to Learn Sometime". Many of the vocal songs either revolve around memories or the sun.


Early life.

He was born Oskar Josef Leschziner in Oppeln, Upper Silesia, Germany to a Jewish family. Around 1893, possibly to evade military service, he moved to London, where he purportedly worked as a bookmaker using various names, including "Anderson", before settling on "Slater" for official purposes. He was prosecuted for alleged malicious wounding in 1896 and assault in 1897 but was acquitted in both cases.  In 1899, Slater moved to Edinburgh and by 1901 was living in Glasgow. He was known to be a well-dressed dandy, who billed himself variously as a dentist and a dealer in precious stones, but was believed to earn his living as a gambler.

Marion Gilchrist.

In December 1908, Marion Gilchrist, a spinster aged 83 years, was beaten to death in a robbery at West Princes Street, Glasgow, after her maid, Helen Lambie, had popped out for ten minutes. Although she had jewellery worth £3,000 ("2015: £") hidden in her wardrobe, the robber, who was disturbed by a neighbour, had rifled through Mrs. Gilchrist's personal papers and taken only a brooch. Slater left for New York five days after the murder and came under suspicion, as apparently before the murder, a caller to Gilchrist's house had been looking for someone called "Anderson", and Slater had coincidentally previously been seen trying to sell a pawn ticket for a brooch.  The police soon realised that the pawn ticket was for an entirely different brooch and a false lead, but notwithstanding the contradictory evidence, still applied for Slater's extradition. While Slater was advised that the application would probably fail anyway, he voluntarily returned to Scotland to clear his name of the alleged crime.

Trial of Oscar Slater.

At his trial presided over by Lord Charles John Guthrie, whose summing up was highly prejudicial, defence witnesses provided Slater with an alibi and confirmed that he had announced his trip to America long before the date of Mrs. Gilchrist's murder. He was convicted by a majority of nine to six (five "not proven" and one "not guilty"). In May 1909, he was sentenced to death, with the execution to take place before the end of that month. However, Slater's lawyers organised a petition that was signed by 20,000 people, and the Secretary of State for Scotland, Lord Pentland, subsequently issued a conditional pardon and commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. Slater was to serve nineteen years at Peterhead Prison.  The following year, the Scottish lawyer and amateur criminologist William Roughead published his "Trial of Oscar Slater", highlighting flaws in the prosecution. The circumstantial evidence against Slater included his alleged "flight from justice". The prosecution's evidence and witnesses identifying Slater as a suspect, including maid Helen Lambie, were also criticized as fleeting and otherwise unreliable, prejudiced, tainted, or coached. In particular, Slater was conspicuously contrasted with nine off-duty policemen in a rigged identification parade.

"The Case of Oscar Slater".

Roughead's book convinced many of Slater's innocence; influential people included Sir Edward Marshall Hall; Ramsay MacDonald; (eventually) Viscount Buckmaster; and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In 1912, Conan Doyle published "The Case of Oscar Slater," a plea for a full pardon for Slater.  In 1914 Thomas MacKinnon Wood ordered a Private Inquiry into the case. A detective in the case, John Thomson Trench, provided information which had allegedly been deliberately concealed from the trial by the police. The Inquiry found that the conviction was sound, and instead, Trench was dismissed from the force and prosecuted on trumped-up charges from which he was eventually acquitted.

Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927.

1927 saw the publication of "The Truth about Oscar Slater" by William Park. The contents of the book led the Solicitor General for Scotland, Alexander Munro MacRobert, to conclude that it was no longer proven that Slater was guilty. An Act (17 & 18 Geo. V) was passed to extend the Jurisdiction of the then recently established Scottish Court of Criminal Appeal to convictions before the original shut-off date of 1926. Slater's conviction was quashed in July 1928 on the grounds that Lord Guthrie had failed to direct the jury about the irrelevance of allegations relating to Slater's previous character.  After serving an almost two-decades long prison sentence of hard labour, Slater received only £6,000 ("2015: £") in compensation.

Aftermath.

Detective-Lieutenant Trench died in 1919, aged fifty, and never lived to see justice done.  In the 1930s, Slater married a local Scottish woman of German descent thirty years his junior and settled in the seaside town of Ayr where he repaired and sold antiques. As an enemy alien (born German), Slater and his wife were interned for a brief time at the start of World War II, though Slater had long since lost his German citizenship and never returned to Germany. Most of Slater's surviving family, including his two sisters, ultimately died in the Holocaust. He died in Ayr in 1948 of natural causes.  The lessons of the Slater miscarriage were considered, as late as 1976, by the Devlin Committee review on the limitations of identity parades.  More recently, the Slater case has been revisited by several scholars and writers.

Legacy.

In Glasgow rhyming slang "See you "Oscar"" rhymes "Slater" with "later".

Oscar Joseph Slater (8 January 1872 – 31 January 1948) was the victim of Scotland's worst ever miscarriage of justice. Wrongly convicted of murder and sentenced to death, he was freed after almost two decades of hard labour at Scotland’s HM Prison Peterhead through the efforts of multiple journalists, lawyers, and writers, including Sherlock Holmes author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.


Life and work.

Klemens' father was a saddler and carriage maker from Kladsko. His artistic talent was first displayed by painting pictures on his father's coaches. He became an assistant at a printing shop owned by, a Slovak patriot and cultural figure, who used his influence to promote Klemens' education. In 1837, upon the recommendations of Karel Slavoj Amerling and Father, he was admitted to the Academy of Fine Arts, Prague for a trial period. He studied there from 1838 to 1843, attending science and technology lectures as well as his art classes.  After 1839, Klemens also worked as a teacher at a girls' school operated by Amerling, where he experimented with the educational techniques of Jan Amos Komenský (known as "Comenius"). In 1842, Amerling introduced him to Daguerrotypes in the chemical laboratory at the school. Shortly after, he opened a small photography studio called "Světloobrazárna" (The Light Gallery), in the school's garden. It was only the second such studio in Prague, but financial difficulties forced its closure after a year.  In 1843, Klemens returned to Slovakia, where he devoted himself to geological explorations for coal in Orava and Šariš. He also worked with "", a Slovak cultural organization, where he painted the portraits of many notable Slovak nationalists. From 1847 to 1848, he was back in Prague, auditing lectures on medicine at the University of Prague and chemistry at the Technical University. After Amerling's school was ordered closed for its nationalistic tendencies, Klemens attempted to create his own industrial school, but was thwarted by the chaos resulting from the Revolutions of 1848.  He completed his studies in 1849 and went back to his hometown, using his wife's dowry to establish a workshop for manufacturing zinc oxide with equipment he had designed himself. Once again, his enterprise ended in financial failure and he found work painting altarpieces. He briefly considered emigrating to Russia, but accepted an offer to teach at the Belgrade Lyceum (now the University of Belgrade). However, he stayed for only a short time, claiming that the climate was bad for his family's health.  Returning to Prague, Klemens obtained a secondary school teaching certificate and was qualified to teach chemistry, physics and German grammar. In 1856, he won a competitive exam to teach drawing at the Gymnasium in Žilina and remained there until the school was closed in 1863. He then became a Professor of natural sciences and drawing at the Catholic high school in Banská Bystrica. He retired in 1878.  In his last years, Klemens suffered from kidney stones. He went to Vienna, seeking surgical relief, but died after the operation.

Technical and scientific activities.

In 1865, Klemens came up with a design for a printing machine called the "Samotlač" (self-print). The drawings were sent to an exhibition in London, but the idea was never developed. In the late 1870s, he worked on a propulsive steam engine called the "Žiaroruchu" (roughly translated, "out-motion"), to be used for construction work, and explored the possibility of using exhaust from the machine to inflate balloons that could be used to move heavy machinery. For lack of funds, he failed to create a prototype or obtain a patent, however.  Klemens was a member of Matice česká and a founding member of Matica slovenská. On the basis of his work determining the epicenter of a small earthquake at Žilina in 1858, he was appointed a corresponding member of the "Imperial Geological Institute" in Vienna. He owned one of the largest collections of minerals in Slovakia.

Jozef Božetech Klemens (8 March 1817 in Liptovský Mikuláš – 17 January 1883 in Vienna) was a Slovak portrait painter, sculptor, photographer, inventor and naturalist. He chose his middle name, after an 11th Century painter and sculptor who was the last abbot of Sázava Monastery.