Etymology.

Earlier known as the Periyaru Dam as it was basically meant to dam the Periyaru river, the present name "Mullaperiyar" is derived by vaguely blending the names of Mullayar River and Periyaru River, at the confluence of which the dam is located below.

Purpose.

The Periyaru river which flows westward of Kerala in to the Arabian sea was diverted eastwards to flow towards the Bay of Bengal to provide water to the arid rain shadow region of Madurai in Madras Presidency which was in dire need of a greater supply of water than the small Vaigai River could provide. The dam created the Periyar Thekkady reservoir, from which water was diverted eastwards via a tunnel to augment the small flow of the Vaigai River. The Vaigai was dammed by the Vaigai Dam to provide a source for irrigating large tracts around Madurai. Initially the dam waters were used only for the irrigation of.  Currently, the water from the Periyaru (Thekkady) Lake created by the dam, is diverted through the water shed cutting and a tunnel to Forebay Dam near Kumily (Iraichalpalam). From the Forebay dam, hydel pipe lines carry the water to the Periyar Power Station in Lower Periyaru. This is used for power generation (180 MW capacity) in the Periyar Power Station. From the Periyar Power Station, the water is let out into Vairavanar river and then to Suruliyar and from Suruliyar to Vaigai Dam.

Design.

The Mullaperiyar Dam is a gravity dam made with concrete prepared from limestone and "surkhi" (burnt brick powder), and faced with rubble. Gravity dams use their weight and the force of gravity to support the reservoir and remain stable. The main dam has a maximum height of and length of. Its crest is wide while the base has a width of. It consists of a main dam, spillway on its left and an auxiliary dam (or "baby dam") to the right. Its reservoir can withhold of water, of which is active (live) storage.

History.

Feasibility studies.

The unique idea of harnessing the westward flowing water of the Periyar river and diverting it to the eastward flowing Vaigai river was first explored in 1789 by Pradani Muthirulappa Pillai, a minister of the Ramnad king Muthuramalinga Sethupathy, who gave it up as he found it to be expensive. The location of the dam had first been scouted by Captain J. L. Caldwell, Madras Engineers (abbreviated as M.E.) in 1808 to reconnoitre the feasibility of providing water from the Periyar river to Madurai by a tunnel through the mountains. Caldwell discovered that the excavation needed would be in excess of 100 feet in depth and the project was abandoned with the comment in his report as "decidedly chimerical and unworthy of any further regard".  The first attempt at damming the Periyaar with an earthen dam in 1850 was given up due to demands for higher wages by the labour citing unhealthy living conditions. The proposal was resubmitted a number of times and in 1862, Captain J. G. Ryves, M.E., carried out a study and submitted proposals in 1867 for another earthwork dam, 62 feet high. The matter was debated by the Madras Government and the matter further delayed by the terrible famine of 1876–77. Finally, in 1882, the construction of the dam was approved and Major John Pennycuick, M.E., placed in charge to prepare a revised project and estimate which was approved in 1884 by his superiors.

Lease.

On 29 October 1886, a lease indenture for 999 years was made between the Maharaja of Travancore, Visakham Thirunal Rama Varma and the British Secretary of State for India for Periyar Irrigation Works. The lease agreement was signed by Dewan of Travancore V Ram Iyengar and State Secretary of Madras State J C Hannington. This lease was made after 24 years negotiation between the Maharaja and the British. The lease indenture granted full right, power and liberty to the Secretary of State for India to construct make and carry out on the leased land and to use exclusively when constructed, made and carried out, all such irrigation works and other works ancillary thereto. The agreement gave 8000 acres of land for the reservoir and another 100 acres to construct the dam. The tax for each acre was 5 per year. The lease provided the British the rights over "all the waters" of the Mullaperiyar and its catchment basin, for an annual rent of 40,000.  In 1947, after Indian Independence, after British India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan, Travancore and Cochin joined the Union of India and on 1 July 1949 were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State in 1947.  On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Canara. The Kerala state government announced that the earlier agreement which had been signed between British Raj and Travancore agreement was invalid and needed to be renewed.  After several failed attempts to renew the agreement in 1958, 1960, and 1969, the agreement was renewed in 1970 when C Achutha Menon was Kerala Chief Minister. According to the renewed agreement, the tax per acre was increased to 30, and for the electricity generated in Lower Camp using Mullaperiyar water, the charge was 12 per kiloWatt per hour. Tamil Nadu uses the water and the land, and the Tamil Nadu government has been paying to the Kerala government for the past 50 years 2.5 lakhs as tax per year for the whole land and 7.5 lakhs per year as surcharge for the total amount of electricity generated. The validity of this agreement is under dispute between the States of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. As of 2013 the matter is pending before a Division Bench of the Supreme Court. The dispute puts into question the power of the federal government of India to make valid orders respecting Indian States, in this case regarding a watershed and dam within one state that is used exclusively in another.

Construction.

In May 1887, construction of the dam began. As per "The Military Engineer in India" Vol II by Sandes (1935), the dam was constructed from limestone and "surkhi" (burnt brick powder and a mixture of sugar and calcium oxide ) at a cost of 104 lakhs, was 173 feet high and 1241 feet in length along the top and enclosed more than 15 thousand million cubic feet of water. Another source states that the dam was constructed of concrete and gives a figure of 152 feet height of the full water level of the reservoir, with impounding capacity of 10.56 thousand million cubic feet along with a total estimated cost of 84.71 lak.  The construction involved the use of troops from the 1st and 4th battalions of the Madras Pioneers as well as Portuguese carpenters from Cochin who were employed in the construction of the coffer-dams and other structures. The greatest challenge was the diversion of the river so that lower portions of the great dam could be built. The temporary embankments and coffer-dams used to restrain the river waters were regularly swept away by floods and rains. Due to the coffer dam failures, the British stopped funding the project. Officer Pennycuick raised funds by selling his wife's jewelry to continue the work. In Madurai, Pennycuick's statue has been installed at the state PWD office and his photographs are found adorning walls in peoples homes and shops. In 2002, his great grandson was honoured in Madurai, a function that was attended by thousands of people.  The dam created a reservoir in a remote gorge of the Periyar river situated 3,000 feet above the sea in dense and malarial jungle, and from the northerly arm of this manmade waterbody, the water flowed first through a deep cutting for about a mile and then through a tunnel, 5704 feet in length and later through another cutting on the other side of the watershed and into a natural ravine and so onto the Vaigai River which has been partly built up for a length of 86 miles, finally discharging 2000 cusecs of water for the arid rain shadow regions of present-day Theni, Dindigul District, Madurai District, Sivaganga District and Ramanathapuram districts of Tamil Nadu, then under British rule as part of Madras Province (Sandes, 1935).  The Periyar project, as it was then known, was widely considered well into the 20th century as "one of the most extraordinary feats of engineering ever performed by man". A large amount of manual labour was involved and worker mortality from malaria was high. It was claimed that had it not been for "the medicinal effects of the native spirit called arrack, the dam might never have been finished". 483 people died of diseases during the construction of this dam and were buried on-site in a cemetery just north of the dam.  In 2012, it was announced that a memorial dedicated to dam engineer Pennycuick would be erected at the dam site.

Protected area.

The Periyar National Park in Thekkady, a Protected area of Kerala, is located around the dam's reservoir, the Periyar lake. 62 different kinds of mammals have been recorded in Periyar, including many threatened ones. Periyar is a highly protected tiger reserve and hosts 35 tigers above two-years of age as of January 2017 in the reserve. Declared an elephant reserve on 2 April 2002, the population of Indian elephants in 2005 was estimated at 1100, however Periyar suffers greatly from poaching of elephant being the worst affected of South Indian sanctuaries.  Other mammals found here include gaur, bison, sambar (horse deer), barking deer, mouse deer, dholes (Indian wild dogs), mongoose, foxes and leopards. Four species of primates are found at Periyar – the rare lion-tailed macaque, the Nilgiri langur, the common langur, and the bonnet macaque. According to a report by the Kerala Forest Research Institute, the protected area surrounding the dam and reservoir is classified as a biodiversity hot spot.

Dam safety.

After the 1979 Morvi Dam failure which killed up to 15,000 people, safety concerns of the aging Mullaperiyar dam's and alleged leaks and cracks in the structure were raised by the Kerala Government. A study conducted by The Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Thiruvananthapuram, had reported that the structure would not withstand an earthquake above magnitude 6 on the Richter scale. The dam was also inspected by the Chairman, CWC (Central Water Commission). On the orders of the CWC, the Tamil Nadu government lowered the storage level from 152 feet to 142.2 feet then to 136 feet, conducted safety repairs and strengthened the dam.  Strengthening measures adopted by Tamil Nadu PWD from 1979 onwards include cable anchoring of the dam's structure and RCC backing for the front slope. During a recent scanning of the Mullaperiyar dam using a remotely operated vehicle by the Central Soil and Materials Research Station on directions from the Empowered Committee of the Supreme Court, the Kerala Government observer opined that "mistakes in the strengthening works carried out by Tamil Nadu" in 1979 damaged the masonry of the dam.  Current safety concerns relate to several issues. Since the dam was constructed using stone rubble masonry with lime mortar grouting following prevailing 19th-century construction techniques that have now become archaic, seepage and leaks from the dam have caused concern. Moreover, the dam is situated in a seismically active zone. An earthquake measuring 4.5 on the Richter scale occurred on 7 June 1988 with maximum damage in Nedumkandam and Kallar (within 20 km of the dam). Subsequently, several tremors have occurred in the area in recent times. These could be reservoir-induced seismicity, requiring further studies according to experts. A 2009 report by IIT Roorkee stated that the dam "was likely to face damage if an earthquake of the magnitude of 6.5 on the Richter scale struck its vicinity when the water level is at 136 feet".

Justice A.S. Anand Committee (The Empowered Committee).

On 18 February 2010, the Supreme Court decided to constitute a five-member empowered committee to study all the issues of Mullaperiyar Dam and seek a report from it within six months. The Bench in its draft order said Tamil Nadu and Kerala would have the option to nominate a member each, who could be either a retired judge or a technical expert. The five-member committee will be headed by former Chief Justice of India A. S. Anand to go into all issues relating to the dam's safety and the storage level. However, the then ruling party of Tamil Nadu, DMK, passed a resolution that it not only oppose the apex court's decision to form the five-member committee, but also said that the state government will not nominate any member to it.  The then late Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi said that immediately after the Supreme Court announced its decision to set up a committee, he had written to Congress president asking the Centre to mediate between Kerala and Tamil Nadu on Mullaperiyar issue. However, the then Leader of Opposition i.e., the late Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu J. Jayalalithaa objected to the TN Government move. She said that this would give advantage to Kerala in the issue. Meanwhile, Kerala Water Resources Minister N. K. Premachandran told the state Assembly that the State should have the right of construction, ownership, operation and maintenance of the new dam, while giving water to Tamil Nadu on the basis of a clear cut agreement. He also informed the media that former Supreme Court Judge K. T. Thomas will represent Kerala on the expert panel constituted by Supreme Court.  On 8 March 2010, Tamil Nadu told the Supreme Court that it was not interested in adjudicating the dispute with Kerala before the special "empowered" committee appointed by the apex court for settling the inter-State issue. However, Supreme Court refused to accept Tamil Nadu's request to scrap the decision to form the empowered committee. The Supreme Court also criticized the Union Government on its reluctance in funding the empowered committee.  Setting at rest the controversy over the safety of the 116-year-old Mullaperiyar dam, the Empowered Committee, headed by the former Chief Justice of India A.S. Anand, has said it is "structurally and hydrologically safe, and Tamil Nadu can raise the water level from 136 to 142 feet after carrying out certain repairs."  In its report submitted to the Supreme Court on 25 April 2012, the committee is understood to have said: "The dam is seismically safe." Last year's earth tremors in that region "did not have any impact on the Mullaperiyar dam and the Idukki reservoir and there was no danger to the safety of the two dams."  In regard to the dam safety issue of Mullaperiyar between the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Hon’ble Supreme court in its order dated 7 May 2014 constituted a 3-member Supervisory Committee under Chairmanship of CWC Officer in the rank of Jt. Secretary to the Centre, The Additional Chief Secretary, WRD, Govt of Kerala and Principal Secretary, PWD, Govt of Tamil Nadu are the members of the Committee.  It was decided to constitute a Supervisory Sub Committee to scrutinize all data for close monitoring of the safety of the dam in 2nd Supervisory committee meeting. The Supervisory Sub-Committee brings to the notice of the supervisory committee urgent issues, if any. The Supervisory Sub-Committee is headed by CWC Officer in the rank of Deputy Director. The members of the Sub-Committee are from both the member states  Incumbency of Chairman, Supervisory Sub Committee on Mullaperiyar Dam:  Present: M. S. Saravana Kumar, Dy. Director (from Indian Engineering Service) (4th Chairman of Supervisory Sub Committee on Mullaperiyar Dam) (ex-officio)  Past: 1. Harish Grish Umbarje,Dy. Director (from Indian Engineering Service) (1st Chairman of Supervisory Sub Committee on Mullaperiyar Dam) (by name)  2. D. Ashokan, Dy. Director (from Indian Engineering Service) (2nd Chairman of Supervisory Sub Committee on Mullaperiyar Dam) (by name)

Interstate dispute.

The control and safety of the dam and the validity and fairness of the lease agreement have been points of dispute between Kerala and Tamil Nadu states. Supreme court judgment came on 27 February 2006, allowing Tamil Nadu to raise the level of the dam to after strengthening it. Responding to it, Mullaperiyaru dam was declared an 'endangered' scheduled dam by the Kerala Government under the disputed Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2006.  For Tamil Nadu, the Mullaperiyar dam and the diverted Periyaru waters act as a lifeline for Theni, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramnad districts, providing water for irrigation and drinking, and also for generation of power in Lower Periyaru Power Station. Tamil Nadu has insisted on exercising the unfettered colonial rights to control the dam and its waters, based on the 1886 lease agreement.  Kerala has pointed out the unfairness in the 1886 lease agreement and has challenged its validity. However, safety concerns posed by the 119-year-old dam to the safety of the people of Kerala in the event of a dam collapse, have been the focus of disputes from 2009 onwards. Kerala's proposal for decommissioning the dam and constructing a new one has been challenged by Tamil Nadu.  Tamil Nadu argues that building a new dam is for gaining unfair tax revenues from developing states, which is a qua within India, to the detriment of the revenue producing states, i.e., a form of wealth distribution. It is a microcosm of the bigger problem that India faces with China, which is building dams on Brahmaputra.  Tamil Nadu has insisted on raising the water level in the dam to 142 feet, pointing out crop failures. However, the court has clarified Tamil Nadu is not a riparian state. In the process the farmers of the erstwhile rain shadow areas in Tamil Nadu who had started a thrice yearly cropping pattern had to go back to the bi-annual cropping."  The Kerala Government maintains that this is not true. During the year 1979–80 the gross area cultivated in Periyar command area was. After the lowering of the level to, the gross irrigated area increased and in 1994–95 it reached. The Tamil Nadu government had increased its withdrawal from the reservoir, with additional facilities to cater to the increased demand from newly irrigated areas.  In 2006, the Supreme Court of India by its decision by a three-member division bench, allowed for the storage level to be raised to pending completion of the proposed strengthening measures, provision of other additional vents and implementation of other suggestions.  However, the Kerala Government promulgated a new "Dam Safety Act" against increasing the storage level of the dam, which has been challenged by Tamil Nadu on various grounds. The Supreme Court issued notice to Kerala to respond, however did not stay the operation of the Act even as an interim measure. The Court then advised the States to settle the matter amicably, and adjourned hearing in order to enable them to do so. The Supreme Court of India termed the act as not unconstitutional. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court constituted a Constitution bench to hear the case considering its wide ramifications.  The Kerala Government states that it does not object to giving water to Tamil Nadu as a shared commodity, their main cause of objection being the dam's safety as it is 116 years old. Increasing the level would add more pressure to be handled by the already leaking dam. They also raised the problematic definition of inter-State river when in its entirety the river goes into the sea within Kerala without passing through any other states. They also raised the complexity of the judgment and disputes that it can raise in other states that have small catchments of other-State rivers and right to claim part of waters.  In a 2000 "Frontline" edition, one author stated thus: "For every argument raised by Tamil Nadu in support of its claims, there is counter-argument in Kerala that appears equally plausible. Yet, each time the controversy gets embroiled in extraneous issues, two things stand out: One is Kerala's refusal to acknowledge the genuine need of the farmers in the otherwise drought-prone regions of Tamil Nadu for the waters of the Mullaperiyar; the other is Tamil Nadu's refusal to see that it cannot rely on or continue to expect more and more from the resources of another State to satisfy its own requirements to the detriment of the other State. A solution perhaps lies in acknowledging the two truths, but neither government can afford the political repercussions of such a confession". Tamil Nadu wants the 2006 order of Supreme court be implemented so as to increase the water level to.  In May 2014, Supreme Court of India declared Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2006 as unconstitutional. The Supreme Court on Wednesday struck down the law passed by the Kerala Assembly on the Mullaperiyar Dam that said that the water level cannot be increased beyond 136 feet. The court has ruled that Tamil Nadu can increase the water level to 142 feet and constituted a permanent Supervisory Committee consisting of three members one member from the Central Water Commission of The Water Resource Ministry who will act as the chairman of the Supervisory Committee and two other members from the respective states. The Supervisory will also have a Sub Committee under it.  The powers and functions of the Supervisory Committee shall be as follows:  (i) The Committee shall supervise the restoration of FRL in the Mullaperiyar dam to the elevation of 142 ft.  (ii) The Committee shall inspect the dam periodically, more particularly immediately before the monsoon and after the monsoon and keep close watch on its safety and recommend measures which are necessary. Such measures shall be carried out by Tamil Nadu.  (iii) The Committee shall be free to take appropriate steps and issue necessary directions to the two States Tamil Nadu and Kerala or any of them if so required for the safety of the Mullaperiyar dam in an emergent situation. Such direction shall be obeyed by all concerned.  (iv) The Committee shall permit Tamil Nadu to carry out further precautionary measures that may become necessary upon its periodic inspection of the dam in accordance with the guidelines of the Central Water Commission and Dam Safety Organisation.  On 20 February 2015 Kerala Government Withdraws a plea seeking clarification on 5 May 2014 Judgement which the apex court had allowed the raising the water storage level of the dam to 142 feet and go before the three-member Mullaperiyar committee. The apex court had also rejected the plea for giving open court hearing and said there was no reason to interfere with the judgement of its five-judge Constitution Bench.  In an application, the Tamil Nadu government said Kerala has defied the Supreme Court's judgments in "letter and spirit". Without mincing words, it accused the Kerala government of harassment by denying Tamil Nadu officials free entry to carry out routine periodical maintenance and repairs of the dam. The application wants the Supreme Court to direct Kerala government to allow free access to Tamil Nadu officials to the dam and its appurtenant structures to collect data and change the weekly chart in the Mullakodi rainfall station. It said the court should direct Kerala to allow Tamil Nadu to transport the machinery and materials required for carrying out repairs.

Proposal to construct a new dam.

Kerala enacted the "Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2006" to ensure safety of all 'endangered' dams in the State, listed in the second schedule to the Act. Section 62A of the Act provides for listing in the schedule, "details of the dams which are endangered on account of their age, degeneration, degradation, structural or other impediments as are specified". The second schedule to the Act lists Mullaperiyar (dam) constructed in 1895 and fixes 136 feet as its maximum water level. The Act empowers "Kerala Dam Safety Authority" (Authority specified in the Act) to oversee safety of dams in the State and sec 62(e) empowers the Authority to direct the custodian (of a dam) "to suspend the functioning of any dam, to decommission any dam or restrict the functioning of any dam if public safety or threat to human life or property, so require". The Authority can conduct periodical inspection of any dam listed in the schedule.  In pursuance of Kerala's dam safety law declaring Mullaiperiyar dam as an endangered dam, in September 2009, the Ministry of Environment and Forests of Government of India granted environmental clearance to Kerala for conducting survey for new dam downstream. Tamil Nadu approached Supreme Court for a stay order against the clearance; however, the plea was rejected. Consequently, the survey was started in October 2009.  On 9 September 2009 Govt. of Tamil Nadu stated that there is no need for construction of a new dam by the Kerala Government, as the existing dam after it is strengthened might function like a new dam.  In May 2014, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the water level in the dam could be increased to 136 ft. It also struck down an 2006 amendment included in the Kerala Irrigation Water Conservation Act 2003 that deemed certain fixed water level for old dams.

Mullaperiyar Dam is a masonry gravity dam on the Periyar River in the Indian state of Kerala It is located above mean sea level, on the Cardamom Hills of the Western Ghats in Thekkady, Idukki District of Kerala, South India. It was constructed between 1887 and 1895 by John Pennycuick and also reached in an agreement to divert water eastwards to the Madras Presidency area (present-day Tamil Nadu). It has a height of from the foundation, and a length of. The Periyar National Park in Thekkady is located around the dam's reservoir. The dam is built at the confluence of Mullayar and Periyar rivers. The dam is located in Kerala on the river Periyar, but is operated and maintained by the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu. Although the Periyar River has a total catchment area of 5398 km with 114 km downstream from the dam in Tamil Nadu, the catchment area of the Mullaperiyar Dam itself lies entirely in Kerala and thus not an inter-State river. However, by the principle of estoppel it is considered otherwise. On 21 November 2014, the water level hit 142 feet for first time in 35 years. The reservoir again hit the maximum limit of 142 feet on 15 August 2018, following incessant rains in the state of Kerala.


Layout and Architecture.

The layout reminds of Persian “four Iwan” designs, such as the Great Mosque of Esfahan in Iran. The Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo in Egypt may have served as model for the minaret and other features such as the decoration of the attic.  The mosque itself is rectangular, almost square, with a rectangular court built somewhat offset to the west. Four iwans open to the central court. The iwans are not emphasized as individual structures as in the Persian examples but are mere openings in a large screen wall. The north and south iwans are each set in front of a domed hall that separate four pillared halls to the east and west. The west halls are divided by two pillars each into three naves with to bays. The larger east halls have three naves with five bays and eight pillars each. The east iwan is the largest and connects the court to the largest domed hall that rises between the longer pillared halls in front of the qibla wall. Irregularly shaped rooms fill the triangular spaces between the actual mosque and the outside facade on the north, south and east wall because the mosque is built at an angle to the street grid so that the qibla wall may point to Makkah. The west facade opens to the Medinah Road with a large cubic structure added to the northern end. The minaret of the mosque towers over the south west corner of this structure that has a large iwan opening to the south leading into a domed hall that connects to a corridor that runs along the west wall of the mosque. This large Iwan with the minaret on the left and the mosque connecting at a right angle to the right, both accessible by a flight of steps, form an iconic group that easily catches the eye when looking north along the Medinah road.

His Majesty King Saud Mosque is the largest mosque in the city of Jeddah and is located in Jeddah's Al-Sharafeyyah District.


Background.

After the American victory in the Guadalcanal campaign in early 1943, operations in the Solomon Islands shifted to the west, where the Japanese maintained a substantial garrison on Kolombangara. Airbases had been established at Munda, on the western coast of New Georgia, and at Vila on the southern coast of Kolombangara. Allied efforts to reduce these airbases initially focused on air strikes, but later included naval bombardment in preparation for a ground campaign to capture New Georgia that would eventually commence in late June and early July 1943. Meanwhile, the Japanese continued to build up these bases as part of their efforts to reinforce the southern defenses to their main base around Rabaul.  On the night of 5 March 1943, the Japanese destroyers and took supplies to the Japanese base at Vila, on Kolombangara. Together, these ships formed part of the 2nd Fleet's Destroyer Squadron 4, which was under the command of Captain Masao Tachibana. Their passage to Vila was undertaken through the Vella Gulf and Blackett Strait, while they decided to return to the Shortland Islands via the shorter route through the Kula Gulf.

Battle.

As the Japanese ships withdrew through the Kula Gulf after landing their cargo, they encountered Task Force 68 (TF 68), consisting of three light cruisers (,, and ) and three destroyers (,, and ) commanded by Rear Admiral Aaron S. Merrill. This force was en route to commence bombarding Japanese positions at Vila. Two submarines, "Grayback" and "Grampus", had been assigned to support Merrill's force, and were stationed along likely Japanese withdrawal routes out of the Kula Gulf. Merrill's attack on Vila was timed to coincide with another attack on Munda by four destroyers under Captain Robert Briscoe.  In a short battle, both Japanese destroyers were sunk. The U.S. force was proceeding in a southwesterly direction about off the New Georgia coast, cruising at about. Meanwhile, the Japanese ships were sailing in the opposite direction along the east coast of Kolombangara, northeast from Sasamboki Island, roughly offshore from Stanmore. First contact was established by the U.S. radar operators around 00:57 on 6 March and firing commenced at 01:01. The U.S. cruisers engaged to starboard with their 6-inch guns at a range of around. Radar controlled gunnery was in its infancy as a technique and there was a tendency for the initial barrage to fall on the same, usually nearest, target. In earlier naval battles in the Pacific, this tactical deficiency had allowed the Japanese to successfully engage attacking U.S. ships with torpedoes and had resulted in several losses for U.S. forces previously.  In this case, the entire opening salvo straddled "Murasame". As "Minegumo"s captain began passing orders to his crew, "Murasame" was hit by the sixth salvo of American gunfire, which was followed shortly afterwards by a salvo of five torpedoes that had been fired by the destroyer "Waller". At around 01:15, one of these torpedoes hit "Murasame", which exploded, caught fire and eventually sank. The explosion was reportedly heard by Briscoe's force about away around Munda. The U.S. cruisers then rapidly shifted target, doing so before "Minegumo" could release any torpedoes.  Meanwhile, "Minegumo" attempted to return fire, aiming for the flashes of the U.S. gun batteries off their starboard bow. After a few minutes, though, the second Japanese destroyer was also hit and began sinking in short order. As the surviving Japanese crew abandoned ship, firing ceased at 01:14. After the engagement, the U.S. vessels completed a turn to starboard when they were roughly due east of the Blackett Strait and north of Tunguirili Point. At 01:24, they commenced a northerly bombardment run off the Kolombangara coast, having been delayed by only 16 minutes. Under the direction of a reconnaissance aircraft flying overhead, the U.S. gunners targeted "supply dumps, runways, bivouacs and dispersed aircraft", according to Samuel Morison. The bombardment was reportedly very destructive and accurate. Several Japanese shore batteries responded, firing on the bombarding ships, but were knocked out quickly with counter battery fire. After completing their task at 01:40, Merrill's force withdrew through the New Georgia Sound.

Aftermath.

A total of 174 Japanese sailors lost their lives during the battle on 6 March; 128 of these were from "Murasame", while the rest were from "Minegumo". The survivors swam to shore on Kolombangara. Fifty-three survivors from "Murasame" and 122 from "Minegumo" managed to reach Japanese lines. Two other survivors from "Minegumo" were later captured by U.S. forces. One of the U.S. submarines assigned to support the operation, "Grampus", went missing and did not return to base at the end of its patrol. The submarine's fate remains unknown and it is uncertain if it was lost as a result of actions during the Blackett Strait operation or before. It was officially listed a missing, presumed lost on or before 3 March although there is a possibility it was attacked by "Minegumo" during the evening of 5/6 March.

Mining operations.

On 20 March, the Allies began mining operations in the central Solomons using U.S. Navy and Marine Corps torpedo bombers to sow mines throughout the northern Solomons. After a month, these operations were briefly suspended as a result of Operation I-Go due to the need to free up AirSols aircraft to respond in the event of further attacks. In May, these operations resumed. On 7 May, the minelayers,, and, escorted by, laid mines across Blackett Strait in an attempt to interdict Japanese ships traveling through the strait. The next day, the Japanese destroyers,, and all hit mines in that area. "Kuroshio" sank immediately. "Kagero" and "Oyashio" sank later that day after being attacked and further damaged by U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field following a radio report from an Australian coastwatcher on Kolombangara.

"PT-109".

Later in the year, with the ground campaign around Munda reaching a climax, another engagement occurred in Blackett Strait when a force of 15 PT boats, including Lieutenant (Junior Grade) John F. Kennedy's "PT-109" were sent to intercept the "Tokyo Express" supply convoy on 2 August. In what National Geographic called a "poorly planned and badly coordinated" attack, 15 boats with 60 available torpedoes went into action. However, of the 30 torpedoes fired by PT boats from four sections, not a single hit was scored. In the battle, only four PT boats (the section leaders) had radar, and they were ordered to return to base after firing their torpedoes on radar bearings. When they left, the remaining boats were virtually blind.  Patrolling just after the section leader had departed for home, "PT-109" was run down on a dark moonless night by the Japanese destroyer, returning from the supply mission. The PT boat had her engines at idle to hide her wake from seaplanes. Conflicting statements have been made as to whether the destroyer captain spotted and steered towards the boat. Members of the destroyer crew believed the collision was not an accident, though other reports suggest "Amagiri"'s captain had not intentionally rammed "PT-109". Kennedy's crew was assumed lost by the U.S. Navy, but were found later by Solomon Islander scouts Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana.

The Battle of Blackett Strait (Japanese: ビラ・スタンモーア夜戦 (Battle of Vila–Stanmore)) was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on 6 March 1943 in the Blackett Strait, between Kolombangara and Arundel Island in the Solomon Islands. The battle was a chance encounter between two Japanese destroyers that had been undertaking a resupply run to Vila and a U.S. Navy force of three light cruisers and three destroyers that had been tasked with bombarding the Japanese shore facilities around Vila. The two forces clashed as the Japanese destroyers were withdrawing through the Kula Gulf. In the short battle that followed the two Japanese destroyers were sunk after which the U.S. ships completed their bombardment of Vila before returning to their base.


Background.

The fighting on Vella Lavella took place following the Battle of Munda Point on New Georgia, which was fought in the aftermath of the Japanese evacuation from Guadalcanal as the Allies began advancing to main Japanese at Rabaul under the Operation Cartwheel plan. After the loss of the airfield at Munda Field to US forces, the Japanese had withdrawn to Kolombangara, where they established a 10,000 to 12,000-strong garrison under Major General Noboru Sasaki. Initial US plans following Munda Point had envisaged an assault on Kolombangara, but the US commander, Admiral William Halsey, decided to bypass Kolombangara and land forces around Barakoma near the southeastern tip of the island of Vella Lavella instead where they were to capture the Japanese airfield and develop a naval base. Situated northwest of Munda, Vella Lavella was the most northern island in the New Georgia chain, and offered a stepping stone for future operations against Japanese forces on the Shortland Islands and on Bougainville. It also offered better prospects for base development than at Kolombangara. At the same time, it was close enough to US airbases at Munda and Sergei Point to afford the required air support that would be necessary to defend against Japanese air attack.  In late July, a small reconnaissance party was dispatched to Vella Lavella, linking up with an Australian Coastwatcher, a New Zealand missionary and several natives, to gather intelligence on Barakoma and the southeast coast. These men and their native guides managed to explore the island for a full week, completely avoiding contact with the Japanese. On 31 July, they returned to Guadalcanal with thorough intelligence about the target. The village of Barakoma near the island's southeastern tip was selected as the landing place.  On 12 August, an advanced party, consisting of naval and military personnel and a small group of troops from the 103rd Infantry Regiment, was sent from Guadalcanal and Rendova to Barakoma aboard four torpedo boats. En route, the boats were subjected to aerial attack which resulted in several casualties, but their crews were able to continue on to their destination where they were met by a small group of natives in canoes. As reports were received about a larger-than-expected Japanese force near the landing beach, on 14 August this force was reinforced by more troops from the 103rd Infantry. The force was then tasked with marking and holding the beachhead for the assault force and for securing Japanese prisoners in the vicinity. They subsequently captured seven Japanese. As of 15 August, there were 250 Japanese personnel were present on Vella Lavella. These men were a mix of soldiers evacuated from New Georgia and sailors who had been stranded on the island.

Battle.

The initial landing on Vella Lavella was undertaken by a landing force of around 4,600 (rising to 5,800) US troops under Brigadier General Robert B. McClure. The main maneuver elements came from the 35th Regimental Combat Team. This regiment was commanded by Colonel Everett E. Brown. It was drawn from the 25th Infantry Division, under Major General J. Lawton Collins, and formed part of Major General Oscar Griswold's XIV Corps. These troops landed on 15 August as part of an expeditionary force (designated Task Force 31) under the command of Rear Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson, which embarked from Guadalcanal. The expeditionary force consisted of a variety of vessels including: seven destroyer-transports, three LSTs, two submarine chasers and many LCIs. It was escorted by a destroyer screen of 12 ships, while P-40 and Corsair fighters patrolled the air above. The Japanese dispatched a large number of Zero fighters and Val dive-bombers in response to the landing. They attacked the LSTs around noon but were driven off by massed anti-aircraft fire. A further attempt late in the day was also spoiled. The returning Japanese aircraft were attacked by US Marine Corsairs that had been tasked to conduct a strafing mission around Kahili. In the early evening, a small group of Japanese torpedo aircraft unsuccessfully attacked the LCIs, while several seaplanes attacked the LSTs around midnight. Losses during these attacks were light for the Americans, with no ships being sunk and only two defending US aircraft being shot down, against Japanese losses of between 17 and 44 aircraft.  Casualties during the initial landing amounted to 12 killed and 50 wounded for the Americans. After the initial fighting, the Americans established a beachhead and began resupply operations. Meanwhile, the Japanese decided against a counterattack, electing to evacuate the island instead. A barge depot was established for the evacuation at Horaniu, on the northeast coast of the island. A group of destroyers ("Sazanami", "Hamakaze", "Shigure", and "Isokaze", under Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin) sailed from Rabaul while a group of reinforcements was also dispatched to secure Horaniu. These consisted of two companies of the 13th Infantry Regiment, with a combined strength of 390 soldiers, and a platoon of Special Naval Landing Force troops. In response, four US destroyers (,, and ) sailed from Purvis Bay under the command of Captain Thomas J. Ryan to disrupt the Japanese landing. Throughout 18 August, during the Battle off Horaniu, US and Japanese destroyers engaged each other off Horaniu, during which two Japanese destroyers were damaged and several smaller vessels destroyed. While this fighting was taking place at sea, the troop-laden Japanese barges made for the north coast, where they camouflaged themselves and hid. Their landing at Horaniu was completed the following day on 19 August. While the Japanese worked to establish their barge depot, two more echelons of US troops and supplies were dispatched for Barakoma, on 17 and 20 August respectively. These were subjected to further Japanese air attacks, during which "LST-396" was lost and several other ships were damaged, including the destroyer which accidentally collided with. Gordan Rottman has written that the Japanese force on Vella Lavella eventually reached 750 men. Jon Diamond provides a higher figure, stating that 1,000 Japanese served on the island.  While the main action occurred at sea and in the air, US troops ashore worked to improve the defenses around the beachhead and began limited patrol operations. In late August, a US reconnaissance patrol searching for a suitable location for a radar site discovered a strong concentration of Japanese troops around Kokolope Bay. The US commander, McClure, subsequently began an advance along the east coast of the island supported by native guides and a small group of Fijian scouts, aimed at capturing Kokolope Bay in order to establish the radar site. As the troops from the 1st Battalion, 35th Infantry pushed beyond their beachhead, a battalion of the 145th Infantry Regiment arrived from New Georgia to hold the perimeter. The 3rd Battalion, 35th Infantry and the 64th Field Artillery Battalion also joined the advance up the east coast. Several small scale skirmishes followed, but largely the Japanese sought to avoid decisive engagement. On 14 September, Horaniu was captured after the Japanese garrison withdrew to the northeast of the island.  In the aftermath of the US advance, the Japanese troops began concentrating between Paraso Bay and Mundi Mundi. Meanwhile, there were 121 Japanese air raids on Vella Lavella between 15 August and 6 October. The Marine 4th Defense Battalion provided defensive support during this time, and claimed to have shot down 42 Japanese aircraft.  In mid-September, the Americans were relieved by New Zealanders from Major General Harold Barrowclough's 3rd Division. The New Zealand 14th Brigade, consisting of around 3,700 men under Brigadier Leslie Potter, used a series of amphibious operations and cross-country marches to advance through the coastal areas, bounding from bay to bay and then clearing each area with patrols. Two infantry battalions, the 35th and 37th, each allocated eight landing craft, conducted a pincer movement to trap the 600-strong Japanese garrison, while the 30th Infantry Battalion was held in reserve around the main concentration of troops in the south of the island.  Departing from Maravari Beach on 21 September, the New Zealanders established their forward areas around Matu Soroto and Boro and then began their advance on 25 September. Over the course of ten days, the New Zealanders fought a series of minor actions as the 35th Infantry Battalion advanced up the western coast and the 37th moved up the east. During the advance, the terrain prevented the use of armour, while artillery had to be moved by landing craft and to be dragged ashore to support the infantry, which struggled to advance through the thick jungle amidst torrential rain. Progress was slow, and initially combat was confined to skirmishes against small groups of Japanese hiding in well concealed jungle positions.  The 35th Battalion advanced to Pakoi Bay and then pushed overland towards Timbala Bay, where they planned to attack the main Japanese garrison which was withdrawing on both fronts. In doing so, several patrols were pushed forward to block suspected Japanese withdrawal routes towards Marquana Bay. These patrols were subsequently ambushed and cut off, after which two platoons were dispatched to rescue them. These also came up against strong opposition and forced to turn back and the decision was made to wait for the 37th Battalion to join the 35th before attacking. While they waited, further patrols were sent out and the ambushed patrols fought their way out from Japanese lines, having inflicted heavy casualties and were subsequently rescued by barge.  Meanwhile, the 37th's advance had slowed due to the breakdown of many of its allotted landing craft. They subsequently had to borrow some of the craft allocated to the 35th Battalion, and supplemented these with a barge that was captured from the Japanese when a patrol boarded a vessel that had pulled into Tambana Bay. By 5 October they cleared Warambari Bay, amidst heavy fighting. The following day, the two New Zealand battalions were close to linking up, having squeezed the Japanese into a small pocket, which was reduced further when the 37th Battalion finally reached Mende Point on the afternoon of 6 October. A large scale attack was planned on the Japanese around Marziana Point and that night a heavy barrage was dialled in on the position. The appearance of Japanese aircraft, however, silenced the guns and throughout the night, the Japanese garrison was withdrawn from the island, replicating the withdrawal that had taken place from Kolombangara between 28 September and 4 October.

Aftermath.

Japanese withdrawal and casualties.

During the night and early of the morning of 6–7 October, Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin led a force consisting of three destroyer-transports and twelve small craft, which was able to evacuate 589 personnel by sub chasers and transports from Marziana Point in Marquana Bay. A large naval battle subsequently took place north of Vella Lavella, as a group of six US destroyers engaged Ijuin's covering force. For the loss of one destroyer, the Japanese transports were successful in evacuating the ground troops from Vella Lavella, while the US lost one destroyer sunk and two heavily damaged.  The evacuated troops were disembarked at Buin, on Bougainville. There, they joined many of the roughly 12,000 Japanese troops that had been withdrawn from Kolombangara; they would subsequently take part in the fighting on the island against Allied forces from late 1943 to 1945. Casualties during the fighting around Vella Lavella during this phase of the campaign amounted to 150 US and New Zealand naval and military personnel killed. The postwar, official New Zealand history reports estimated Japanese casualties at between 200 and 300. In contrast, Rottman has written that "less than 150" Japanese were killed. The fighting on Vella Lavella took place concurrently with fighting on Arundel Island as US troops secured western New Georgia, and represented the end of the New Georgia campaign. It was followed by operations to secure the Treasury Islands and the landings at Cape Torokina, on Bougainville.

Base development.

Seabees of the 58th Naval Construction Battalion began landing on 15 August and set to work unloading the landing ships under frequent air attack. Among the first items unloaded were bulldozers, which were used to construct roads inland to sites where supplies could be dumped, dispersed away from the beach and each other. The Seebees built of roads during August. Their next task was the construction of a dispensary and an underground sick bay. An underground radio room was also built. The airstrip was surveyed and cleared during August, followed by the construction of the signal tower, operations room, avgas storage tanks and an accommodation camp for personnel in September. The first landing was made on the airstrip of 24 September. Work continued on developing the airbase into December, including the provision of an avgas tank farm with six tanks. Vella Lavella became an important Allied airbase from which they were able to project air power towards Rabaul. It was the home base of Major Gregory Boyington's VMF-214, and other units.  The channel through the reef was deepened to allow the passage of PT boats into the lagoon. PT Squadron 11 established a base on the northeast coast of Vella Lavella on 25 September with seven PT boats and a small coastal transport (APc). A ramp was built for LSTs, and the jetty at Biloa was upgraded with the addition of an L-shaped end. This was subsequently improved by raising the surface, deepening the water, and adding pilings and ship camels. The 77th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on 25 September, in the midst of a Japanese air raid. During its tour on Vella Lavella, it would be bombed 47 times, and suffer ten casualties. Its main task was the construction of hospital facilities with 1,000 beds for the upcoming Bougainville campaign. This included wards, operating rooms and administrative buildings. The 58th Naval Construction Battalion established a sawmill that produced of cut lumber per day. The 77th Naval Construction Battalion operated two more to satisfy the demands of the campaigns in the Treasury Islands and Bougainville. A detachment of the 53rd Naval Construction Battalion operated two more sawmill between November 1943 and January 1944.  Two New Zealand field engineer companies (the 20th and 26th) were also sent to the island following the commitment of New Zealand troops. These worked alongside the Americans to improve roads and constructed several bridges. The last of the US naval construction battalions left Vella Lavella in January 1944, and responsibility for the installations on Vella Lavella passed to the 502nd Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit (CBMU). Salvage operations commenced in May 1944, and the airstrip was abandoned on 15 June 1944. The final task was dismantlement of the tank farm. The 502nd CBMU then departed for Emirau on 12 July 1944.

The Battle of Vella Lavella was fought from 15 August – 6 October 1943 between Japan and the Allied forces from New Zealand and the United States at the end of the New Georgia campaign. Vella Lavella, an island located in the Solomon Islands, had been occupied by Japanese forces early during the war in the Pacific. Following the fighting around Munda Point, the Allies recaptured the island in late 1943, following a decision to bypass a large concentration of Japanese troops on the island of Kolombangara.


Dedekind numbers.

The number of different Sperner families on a set of "n" elements is counted by the Dedekind numbers, the first few of which are Although accurate asymptotic estimates are known for larger values of "n", it is unknown whether there exists an exact formula that can be used to compute these numbers efficiently.  The collection of all Sperner families on a set of "n" elements can be organized as a free distributive lattice, in which the join of two Sperner families is obtained from the union of the two families by removing sets that are a superset of another set in the union.

Bounds on the size of a Sperner family.

Sperner's theorem.

The "k"-element subsets of an "n"-element set form a Sperner family, the size of which is maximized when "k" = "n"/2 (or the nearest integer to it). Sperner's theorem states that these families are the largest possible Sperner families over an "n"-element set. Formally, the theorem states that, for every Sperner family "S" over an "n"-element set,

LYM inequality.

The Lubell–Yamamoto–Meshalkin inequality provides another bound on the size of a Sperner family, and can be used to prove Sperner's theorem. It states that, if "a" denotes the number of sets of size "k" in a Sperner family over a set of "n" elements, then

Clutters.

A clutter is a family of subsets of a finite set such that none contains any other; that is, it is a Sperner family. The difference is in the questions typically asked. Clutters are an important structure in the study of combinatorial optimization.  If formula_7 is a clutter, then the blocker of "H", denoted by formula_8, is the clutter with vertex set "V" and edge set consisting of all minimal sets formula_9 so that formula_10 for every formula_11. It can be shown that formula_12, so blockers give us a type of duality. We define formula_13 to be the size of the largest collection of disjoint edges in "H" and formula_14 to be the size of the smallest edge in formula_8. It is easy to see that formula_16.

Minors.

There is a minor relation on clutters which is similar to the minor relation on graphs. If formula_7 is a clutter and formula_30, then we may delete "v" to get the clutter formula_31 with vertex set formula_32 and edge set consisting of all formula_11 which do not contain "v". We contract "v" to get the clutter formula_34. These two operations commute, and if "J" is another clutter, we say that "J" is a minor of "H" if a clutter isomorphic to "J" may be obtained from "H" by a sequence of deletions and contractions.

In combinatorics, a Sperner family (or Sperner system; named in honor of Emanuel Sperner), or clutter, is a family F of subsets of a finite set "E" in which none of the sets contains another. Equivalently, a Sperner family is an antichain in the inclusion lattice over the power set of "E". A Sperner family is also sometimes called an independent system or irredundant set.


Early life.

Stadler was born in San Diego His father started him in golf at age four, and he displayed a talent for golf early in life. Stadler attended La Jolla High School He won the 1973 U.S. Amateur, while attending the University of Southern California, where he was a teammate of future PGA Tour winners Mark Pfeil and Scott Simpson. Stadler was an All-American all four years – first-team his sophomore and junior years; second-team his freshman and senior years. Stadler finished college in 1975 and turned professional in 1976.

Professional career.

Stadler won his first two PGA Tour events in 1980, at the Bob Hope Desert Classic and the Greater Greensboro Open. His career year was 1982 when he won four PGA Tour events including the Masters Tournament after a playoff with Dan Pohl and the World Series of Golf at the end of the year. Stadler won the money list for the only time. His next win was at the 1984 Byron Nelson Classic.  Despite playing relatively well, Stadler did not win a PGA Tour event for over 7 years (May 1984 – November 1991) during the heart of his career. During this period he recorded six runner-up performances and dozens of top-10s on the PGA Tour. He had more success at winning international tournaments. He won the 1985 Swiss Open on the European Tour and the 1987 Dunlop Phoenix Tournament on the Japan Golf Tour. He had great success at the Scandinavian Enterprise Open too, an official event on the European Tour, finishing runner-up at the 1983 and 1986 events until finally winning in 1990. His winless steak in America was broken at the final event of the 1991 season, defeating Russ Cochran in a playoff at the Tour Championship.  Stadler won the B.C. Open in 2003, becoming the first player over age 50 to win a PGA Tour event in 28 years and the first player ever to win on the PGA Tour after he had won on the Champions Tour. He won 13 PGA Tour events in all, and played on the 1983 and 1985 Ryder Cup teams.  He appeared as himself, with a speaking role in the 1996 film "Tin Cup".  Stadler began playing on the Champions Tour upon becoming eligible in June 2003. His greatest successes came during his first two years of eligibility; he was the leading money winner in his first full year on that tour in 2004. Stadler underwent total left-hip-replacement surgery in Los Angeles on September 15, 2010, which limits his playing time.  Very popular with the galleries, Stadler is affectionately called "The Walrus" for his portly build and ample mustache. He currently lives in Denver, Colorado. His son Kevin is also a PGA Tour champion. His brother Gary Stadler is a Billboard-charting recording artist.  Stadler announced that the 2014 Masters Tournament, his 38th and in which he played with Kevin, was his last.

Professional wins (31).

PGA Tour wins (13).

PGA Tour playoff record (3–3)

European Tour wins (3).

European Tour playoff record (1–1)

Champions Tour wins (9).

Champions Tour playoff record (1–2)

Major championships.

Wins (1).

Defeated Pohl with par on first extra hole.

Results timeline.

CUT = missed the halfway cut (3rd round cut in 1975 and 1985 Open Championships)
 WD = withdrew
 "T" indicates a tie for a place.

Results in The Players Championship.

CUT = missed the halfway cut "T" indicates a tie for a place

Results in World Golf Championships.

Cancelled due to 9/11
 QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play
 NT = No tournament

U.S. national team appearances.

Amateur  Professional

Craig Robert Stadler (born June 2, 1953) is an American professional golfer who has won numerous tournaments at both the PGA Tour and Champions Tour level, including one major championship, the 1982 Masters Tournament.


Plot.

Lomax is a lemming knight, whose friends have been transformed into monsters by "Evil Ed". His quest is to rescue them and put a stop to Evil Ed using his magical helmet.

Gameplay.

This game inherits the gameplay and style which was seen in Erwin Kloibhofer and Henk Nieborg's previous title, "Flink". As Lomax, the player must navigate through four main worlds with three levels each, in a side-scrolling platform game. The enemies are brainwashed lemmings who have been turned into deadly monsters taking the form of zombies, cowboys, and aliens. The player's main attack spins Lomax around, and can be used to both avoid being killed by bumping into enemies, and defeat them. When defeated, enemies are turned back into ordinary lemmings, and true to type, they then jump off the nearest ledge. There are coins scattered throughout the levels that grant additional lives when enough are found. Magic helmets can also be found, which can be used as weapons and grant Lomax immunity from one attack, after which he loses the helmet.  In addition to the standard platforming, Lomax is also able to use several abilities featured in the original "Lemmings", such as building bridges and blowing up obstacles, as well as others not found in the original.

Reception.

A reviewer for "Next Generation" gave the game a generally negative review, remarking that while ""The Adventures of Lomax" isn't all bad for a side-scroller", the storyline was uninteresting and the 2D platform genre had been played out. Reviewers for "GameSpot" and "Electronic Gaming Monthly", however, felt that a new 2D platform jumper was a breath of fresh air since there had been no new entries in the genre for a while. They further remarked that the colorful graphics, smooth animation, and fun gameplay make it stand out even among other 2D platformers. "EGM"s Crispin Boyer said "it proves that PlayStation titles don't have to be 3-D to be good", and "GameSpot"s Hugh Sterbakov concluded that "though "The Adventures of Lomax" is not state-of-the-art, it is a genuinely fun ride."

The Adventures of Lomax (known in Europe as Lomax) is a spin-off video game of the "Lemmings" series. The player takes the role of Lomax, a lemming character that has to save his friends and animals from an evil doctor. The game was released for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows in 1996. Kath Soucie provides the voice of Lomax.


Description.

A stale seed bed technique of weed control creating a seedbed some weeks before seed is due to be sown. The early seedbed is designed to germinate weed seeds that have been disturbed and brought to the soil surface during cultivation, so that the young weeds can then be eliminated before they can propagate.

Method.

The technique can be utilized in early spring, when the weather is still too cold for proper seed germination. Several passes are made with a power harrow, such as an R2 Rinaldi, rototiller or plow, then weed seeds are allowed to germinate as weather permits. By tilling, the farmer increases the chance of weed seed germination by the same method as one would for favorable vegetable/crops: the fine soil allows weed seed to grow rapidly by allowing the seed to open and the roots to spread easier than in compacted soil. Deep tilling will also bring dormant seed to the surface for germination; some species of plant are known for seeds that can lay deeply buried in the soil for years before favorable conditions allow germination.  After weeds have sprouted, they are hoed off or eliminated with the other means (e.g., use of a flame weeder) before sowing of the actual crop. Timing is important; weed seeds must be destroyed before they themselves can create new seeds. By destroying them early, the farmer eliminates most of that season's annual weeds. Turning the dead weeds back into the soil also increases soil nutrient content, although this difference is slight.  In many cases, several tillings are done, perhaps every two weeks beginning in very early spring. This allows more and more weed seeds to germinate only to be killed off later. This eliminates more weeds, but care must be used to not delay planting of a desirable crop later than the crop needs for a successful season's growth. After several years, most, if not all, weeds can be eliminated from the seed bank in the soil. In some cases the effect can be noticed in the same year the process is first carried out.  If the weed patch is vigorous enough, the farmer may mow the patch first before tilling. This allows for easier/quicker decomposition in the soil when the plants are turned under. Some farmers may apply a light and inexpensive fertilizer mix to the soil to hoping to cause even more weed seeds to germinate and eliminate seeds earlier that otherwise would have sprouted in later years.

A false or stale seed bed is a seedbed created some weeks before seed is due to be sown. The early seedbed is used a weed control technique. It is designed to germinate weed seeds that have been disturbed and brought to the soil surface during cultivation, so that the young weeds can then be eliminated. The tilled soil increases the chance of weed seed germination as the fine soil allows seed to grow rapidly than in compacted soil and dormant seeds are brought to the surface. The weeds must then be destroyed before they can create new seeds. By destroying them early, the farmer eliminates most of that season's annual weeds, and nominally increases soil nutrient content.


History.

In the 1880s the artist Kate Greenaway illustrated popular books of English nursery rhymes showing children in smock dresses. These came to be a popular style of children's dress which were given the name 'Mother Hubbard' by fashion writers at the time after the nursery rhyme character in the books.  Around the same time a dress reform movement arose that sought to free western women from the tight and impracticable clothing of small waists and tight corsets that was dictated by fashion in well off society. The smock dress with full length arms proved very adaptable to both size and shape and migrated up the age groups until it became comfortable day wear for women of all ages and a wide spread of social class.  Contemporary with this in Victorian times missionary movements attempted to spread what they saw as the benefits of western religion and morals to native peoples under the rule of the imperial western countries. The Mother Hubbard garments were insisted upon by missionaries who were often horrified to find a flock of near naked people in their churches. They were distributed widely in Africa, South Asia, and the Pacific. They have influenced modern dress in all these areas but particularly in the Pacific islands where they persist today.

Pacific island dress.

Names and designs vary. In Hawaii, it is called "holokū". There, a derivative, the muumuu, is highly similar, but without the yoke and train, and therefore even easier to make. In Tahiti, the name was "ahu tua" (empire dress, in a sense of colonial empire); now, "ahu māmā rūau" (grandmother's dress) is used. In Samoa and Tonga, the design has taken on a two-piece form, with classic mother hubbard blouses (long, wide, loose-fitting with puffy sleeves) over ankle-length skirts, called "puletasi" and "puletaha," respectively. In Marshallese, the name is "" (), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu. The missionaries who introduced it in the Marshall Islands came from Oahu. In New Caledonia, these dresses are referred to as "robes missions" (Mission Dresses). New Caledonian women wear these dresses when playing their distinctive style of cricket. In Papua New Guinea, the form of dress is known as "meri blaus", which in Tok Pisin means women's blouse. It is considered formal local attire. In the 1960s and 1970s many women in Tarawa, Kiribati and a few i-matang women wore a garment which was referred to as a Mother Hubbard. Whilst the lower half of the body was covered with a wrap-around (lavalava) or a skirt, the top half was worn a very loose low-necked blouse short enough to expose a band of flesh at the waist. The latter was usually worn without underclothes.

Elsewhere.

In India and much of South Asia, these dresses are referred to as "Housecoats". Indian women wear these dresses as a convenient apparel at home, particularly around only the family members when they are not expecting company.

A Mother Hubbard dress is a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck. It is intended to cover as much skin as possible. It was devised in Victorian western societies to free women from the constriction of corsets that fashion imposed on better off women. It is mostly known today for its later introduction by Christian missionaries in Polynesia to "civilise" those whom they considered half-naked savages.


Early life.

James Richmond Barthé was born in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. His father's name is Richmond Barthé and mother's name is Marie Clementine Robateau. Barthé's father died at age 22, when he was only a few months old, leaving his mother to raise him alone. She worked as a dressmaker and before Barthé began elementary school she remarried to William Franklin, with whom she eventually had five additional children.  Barthé showed a passion and skill for drawing from an early age. His mother was, in many ways, instrumental in his decision to pursue art as a vocation. Barthé once said: "When I was crawling on the floor, my mother gave me paper and pencil to play with. It kept me quiet while she did her errands. At six years old I started painting. A lady my mother sewed for gave me a set of watercolors. By that time, I could draw very well."  Barthé continued making drawings throughout his childhood and adolescence, under the encouragement of his teachers. His fourth grade teacher, Inez Labat, from the Bay St. Louis Public School, influenced his aesthetic development by encouraging his artistic growth. When he was only twelve years old, Barthé exhibited his work at the Bay St. Louis Country Fair.  However, young Barthé was beset with health problems, and after an attack of typhoid fever at age fourteen, he withdrew from school. Following this, he worked as a houseboy and handyman, but still spent his free time drawing. A wealthy family, the Ponds, who spent summers at Bay St. Louis, invited Barthé to work for them as a houseboy in New Orleans, Louisiana. Through his employment with the Ponds, Barthé broadened his cultural horizons and knowledge of art, and was introduced to Lyle Saxon, a local writer for the "Times Picayune". Saxon was fighting against the racist system of school segregation, and tried unsuccessfully to get Barthé registered in an art school in New Orleans.  In 1924 Barthé donated his first oil painting to a local Catholic church to be auctioned at a fundraiser. Impressed by his talent, Reverend Harry F. Kane encouraged Barthé to pursue his artistic career and raised money for him to undertake studies in fine art. At age twenty-three, with less than a high school education and no formal training in art, Barthé applied to the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Art Institute of Chicago, and was accepted by the latter.

Chicago.

During the next four years Barthé followed a curriculum structured for majors in painting. During this time he boarded with his aunt Rose and made a living working different jobs. His work caught the attention of Dr. Charles Maceo Thompson, a patron of the arts and supporter of many talented young black artists. Barthé was a flattering portrait painter, and Dr. Thompson helped him to secure many lucrative commissions from the city's affluent black citizens.  At the Art Institute of Chicago, Barthé's formal artistic instruction in sculpture took place in anatomy class with professor of anatomy and German artist Charles Schroeder. Students practiced modeling in clay to gain a better understanding of the three-dimensional form. This experience proved to be, according to Barthé, a turning point in his career, shifting his attention away from painting and towards sculpture.  Barthé had his debut as a professional sculptor at "The Negro in Art Week" exhibition in 1927, while still a student of painting at the Art Institute of Chicago. He also exhibited in the April 1928 annual exhibition of the Chicago Art League. The critical acclaim allowed Barthé to enjoy numerous important commissions such as the Bust of Henry O. Tanner (1928) and Toussaint L’Ouverture (1928). Though he was still in his late twenties, within a short time he won recognition, primarily through his sculptures, for making significant contributions to modern African American art. By 1929, the essentials of his artistic education complete, Barthé decided to leave Chicago and head for New York City.

New York.

While many young artists found it very difficult to earn a living from their art during the Great Depression, the 1930s were Richmond Barthé's most prolific years. The shift from the Art Institute of Chicago to New York City, where he moved following graduation, exposed Barthé to new experiences as he arrived in the city during the peak of the Harlem Renaissance. He established his studio in Harlem in 1930 after winning the Julius Rosenwald Fund fellowship at his first solo exhibition at the Women's City Club in Chicago. However, in 1931, he moved his studio in Harlem to Greenwich Village. Barthé once said: "I live downtown because it is much more convenient for my contacts from whom it is possible for me to make a living." He understood the importance of public relations and keeping abreast of collectors' interests.  Barthé mingled with the bohemian circles of downtown Manhattan. Initially unable to afford live models, he sought and found inspiration from on-stage performers. Living downtown provided him the opportunity to socialize not only among collectors but also among artists, dance performers, and actors. His remarkable visual memory permitted him to work without models, producing numerous representations of the human body in movement. During this time, he completed works such as Black Narcissus (1929), The Blackberry Woman (1930), Drum Major (1928), The Breakaway (1929), busts of Alain Locke (1928), bust of A’leila Walker (1928), The Deviled Crab-Man (1929), Rose McClendon (1932), Féral Benga (1935), and Sir John Gielgud as Hamlet (1935).  In October 1933, a major body of Barthé's work inaugurated the Caz Delbo Galleries at the Rockefeller Center in New York. That same year his works were also exhibited at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933. In the summer of 1934, Barthé went on a tour to Paris with Reverend Edward F. Murphy, a friend of Reverend Kane from New Orleans, who exchanged his first class ticket for two third class tickets to share with Barthé. This trip exposed Barthé to classical art, but also to performers such as Féral Benga and African American entertainer Josephine Baker, of whom he made portraits in 1935 and 1951, respectively. During the next two decades, he built his reputation as a sculptor. He was awarded several awards and has experienced success after success and was considered by writers and critics as one of the leading "moderns" of his time. Among his African-American friends were Wallace Thurman, Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Jimmie Daniels, Countee Cullen, and Harold Jackman. Ralph Ellison was his first student. His white supporters included Carl Van Vechten, Noel Sullivan, Charles Cullen, Lincoln Kirstein, Paul Cadmus, Edgar Kaufmann Jr., and Jared French.  In 1945 Barthé became a member of the National Sculpture Society.

Later life.

Eventually, the tense environment and violence of the city began to take its toll, and he decided to abandon his life of fame and move to Jamaica in the West Indies in 1947. His career flourished in Jamaica and he remained there until the mid-1960s when ever-growing violence forced him to yet again move. For the next five years he lived in Switzerland, Spain, and Italy before eventually settling in Pasadena, California in a rental apartment. In that apartment, Barthé worked on his memoirs and most importantly, editioned many of his works with the financial assistance of the actor James Garner until his death in 1989. Garner copyrighted Barthé's artwork, hired a biographer to organize and document his work, and established the Richmond Barthe Trust.

Public works.

Barthé's first public commission came from the New York City's Federal Art Project and for the 80-foot bas-relief in cast stone, (1939), for the embellishment of the Harlem River Houses complex, but upon completion, his work was installed at the Kingsborough Houses in Brooklyn. His other most notable public works include a monumental bronze of Toussaint L’Ouverture, (1950), in front of the National Palace in Port-au-Prince, Haiti; 40-foot bronze equestrian statue Jean Jacques Dessalines, (1952), at Champs-du-Mars, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; a cast stone relief of American Eagle, (1940), on the façade of Social Security Board Building in Washington, DC; a marble Arthur Brisbane Memorial in New York City, (1939), a later enlarged version of a sculpture of Rose McClendon (1932), for Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater, (c.1935); and the design of several Haitian coins, still in use today.

Haitian works.

Barthe's Haitian works came in a time after his 1950 move to Ocho Rios, Jamaica, and were among his largest and most famous works. The huge 40-foot equestrian bronze of Jean Jacques Dessalines, (1952), was one of four heroic sculptures commissioned in 1948 by Haitian political leaders to mark independence celebrations. The Dessalines monument was part of a larger 1954 restoration of the "Champs-du-Mars" park in Port-au-Prince, Barthe's 40-foot-high Toussaint L’Ouverture statue (1950), and stone monument was positioned nearer the National Palace, and was unveiled in 1950 with two other commissioned heroic sculptures (in the capital and in the north of the county) by Cuban sculptor Blanco Ramos. At the time, one African-American newspaper called the collection "the Greatest Negro Monuments on earth." L'Overture was in fact a subject Barthe returned to several times, having created a bust (1926) and painted portrait (1929) of the figure early in his career.

Exhibitions.

Barthé's first debut as a professional sculptor was at "The Negro in Art Week" exhibition in Chicago in 1927. His first solo exhibition was held at the Women's City Club in Chicago in 1930, exhibiting a selection of thirty-eight works of sculpture, painting, and works on paper. In 1932, the Whitney Museum of American Art decided to purchase a bronze copy of the Blackberry Woman (1930) after exhibiting it at the opening exhibition of "Contemporary American Artists" in 1932. Barthé's work was paired with drawings by Delacroix, Matisse, Laurencin, Daumier, and Forain at the Caz-Delbo Gallery in 1933 in New York City. In 1942, he had an exhibition of 20 works of art at the South Side Community Art Center in Chicago. The retrospective which included works from private collections shown for the first time, Richmond Barthé: The Seeker was the inaugural exhibition of the African American Galleries at the Ohr-O'Keefe Museum of Art in Biloxi, Mississippi which was curated by Margaret Rose Vendryes, PhD. Barthé's most recent retrospective, "Richmond Barthé: His Life in Art", consisted of over 30 sculptures and photographs. The exhibition was organized by Landau Traveling Exhibitions of Los Angeles, CA, in 2009. The exhibition venues included the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the California African American Museum, the Dixon Gallery and Gardens, and the NCCU Art Museum.

Collections.

The Whitney Museum of American Art purchased Barthé's bronze copy of the Blackberry Woman (1930) in 1932, after the inaugural exhibition "Whitney Annual" in 1932. The African Dancer (1933) was also purchased after being displayed in "Whitney Annual" in 1933, as well as the Comedian in 1935. The Metropolitan Museum of Art purchased The Boxer (1942) after "Artists For Victory" exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1942. Barthé's other pieces are in the collections of the Smithsonian American Art Museum; the Art Institute of Chicago, Fallingwater, and others.

Recognition.

Richmond Barthé received many honors during his career, including the Rosenwald Fellowship in 1930 and the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1940. Barthé was also the first African American artist to be represented, together with the painter Jacob Lawrence, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art's permanent collection. In 1945, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He also received awards for interracial justice and honorary degrees from Xavier and St. Francis Universities. He was the recipient of the Audubon Artists Gold Medal in 1950. A few years after his arrival in Pasadena, California, the city renamed the street where Barthé lived in "Barthé Drive". He also was honored and received an award from President Carter in 1980.

Personal life.

Sexuality.

Once, when interviewed, Barthé indicated that he was homosexual. Throughout his life, he had occasional romantic relationships that were short lived. In an undated letter to Alain Locke he indicated that he desired a long-term relationship with a "Negro friend and a lover". The book Barthé: A Life in Sculpture, by Margaret Rose Vandryes, links Barthé to writer Lyle Saxon, to African American art critic Alain Locke, young sculptor John Rhoden, and the photographer Carl Van Vechten. According to a letter from Alain Locke to Richard Bruce Nugent, Barthé had a romantic relationship with Nugent, a cast member from the production of Porgy & Bess.

Religious beliefs.

Barthé was a devoted Roman Catholic. Many of Barthé's later work depicted religious subjects, including "John the Baptist" (1942), "Come Unto Me" (1945), "Head of Jesus" (1949), "Angry Christ" (1946), and "Resurrection" (1969). Works like "The Mother" (1935), "Mary" (1945), or his unfinished "Crucifixion" (ca. 1944) are noticeably influenced by the interracial justice for what he was awarded the James J. Hoey Award by the Catholic Interracial Council in 1945.

James Richmond Barthé, also known as Richmond Barthé (January 28, 1901 – March 5, 1989) was an African-American sculptor associated with the Harlem Renaissance. Barthé is best known for his portrayal of black subjects. The focus of his artistic work was portraying the diversity and spirituality of man. Barthé once said: "All my life I have been interested in trying to capture the spiritual quality I see and feel in people, and I feel that the human figure as God made it, is the best means of expressing this spirit in man."


Local government.

For the purposes of local government, the whole of the historic parish forms a single parish district with commissioners.  The Captain of the Parish (since 2003) is Donald James Gelling, CBE.

Politics.

Santon parish is part of the Middle constituency, which elects two members to the House of Keys. From 1986 until 2016 it was in the Malew and Santon constituency.

Geography.

It has an area of approximately and is the island's smallest parish. The parish is now popularly known as Santon instead of the older Santan. Currently the Captain of the Parish is Mr Donald Gelling.  To the north of the parish is Newtown and the recently built estate of Mount Murray where the northern border along the Crogga River Glen is to be found. The western boundary is slightly east of Ballalonna Glen and the modern Fairy Bridge. The coastal extremities stretch from the mouth of the Crogga River at Port Soderick over Santon Head, Port Grenaugh and Port Soldrick to the mouth of the Santon Burn which rarely encroaches on Santon territory but forms the northwestern (inland) boundary for much of its course.  While the parish lacks size and good soil, it does have some high cliffs, ancient monuments, ruins, and various other scenery.  All along the Manx coastline, and particularly on the rocky slate headlands of the south, are the remains of promontory forts which date back almost 2,000 years. Four out of more than twenty have been excavated and several, especially in Santon, can be visited using the coastal footpath. All have a rampart on their vulnerable landward side, and excavations at have shown that access to the fort was by a strongly built gate.  The Scandinavians who arrived in Mann in the 8th and 9th centuries sometimes re-used these Iron Age promontory forts, often obliterating the old domestic quarters with their characteristic rectangular houses; the fine example at has been used as the basis of the reconstruction in the House of Manannan.

Demographics.

The Isle of Man census of 2016 returned a parish population of 700, an increase of 1.3% from the figure of 691 in 2011.

Ecclesiastical parish.

The ecclesiastical parish of Santon no longer exists as a separate area. Until 1 November 2012 it was coterminous with the civil parish (see below), but on that date part of the ecclesiastical parish of Braddan between Mount Murray and Port Walberry, including part of the Mount Murray estate, Port Soderick and Quine's Hill, was transferred to the parish of Santon. On 1 February 2013 the parish of Santon and the parish of Malew (except a detached part of the latter to the west of Castletown) were united to form a new ecclesiastical parish of Malew and Santon. The parish church of the former parish of Santon, which is now one of the four parish churches of the united parish, is St Sanctain. St Sanctain's stands on the site of an ancient 1500-year-old chapel - well before St. Augustine came from Rome to Canterbury. The name St Sanctain is of Irish origin and according to legend, the saint was a disciple of St Patrick and Bishop of Cell da Les (Church of Two Forts). Occasioned by an error, the church was referred to as St Ann (or Anne) during the 17th century and this lasted until it was officially corrected in 1891.  The living of Santon was in the patronage of the Crown, in the person of Her Majesty the Queen, the Lord of Mann. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries, it was in the hands of the Abbot of Rushen Abbey. The united benefice of Malew and Santon is also in the patronage of the Crown. When the Queen appoints a new vicar, the Lieutenant Governor receives presentment documents signed by the Queen. At the Service of Institution and induction of a new vicar, these documents, together with the new vicar, are presented by the Lieutenant Governor to the Bishop of Sodor and Man with the request that the Bishop institute the nominee of the Crown. This duty is always carried out by the Governor in person.

Santon (), historically Santan, is one of the seventeen historic parishes of the Isle of Man. It is located in the south-east of the island (part of the traditional "South Side" division) in the sheading of Middle.


History.

The place was first known as Davison's Mill after Crosier Davison, who in partnership with Simeon Holden, had purchased land and water power rights here in 1854. Benjamin Harris and his sons, Levi and Henry, of West Bloomfield, New York bought out the partners. A post office established on September 16, 1857 was named Harrisville, with Levi as the first postmaster.  The Harris sold out to Weston, (George L.) Colwell & Company, who had H.G. Rothwell plat the community in 1870. Harrisville was incorporated as a village in 1887 and as a city in 1905.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land. It is considered to be part of Northern Michigan.  The city is on the western shore of Lake Huron and has a harbor for recreational boaters. The harbor is a center for salmon and trout fishing. It is also a designated "Harbor of Refuge" on Lake Huron by the United States Coast Guard. The town also boasts Harrisville State Park, which includes a wooded campground along the beach. Sturgeon Point Light, a lighthouse and museum, is a few miles to the north, and is open to the public.  Harrisville is on the edge of Huron National Forest, which offers outdoor recreational opportunities such as hunting, swimming, cross-country skiing and trout fishing. The forest contains of hiking trails. The Huron and Manistee National Forests were separately designated but were combined in 1945 for administrative purposes.  The Lake Huron beaches in and around Harrisville (including two state parks) have been recognized as being among the "top ten in Michigan." "Old-fashioned lake vacations abound on this pretty stretch of Lake Huron."  Harrisville is situated along the Lake State Railway, formerly the Detroit and Mackinac Railway (D&M). The D&M passenger depot is made of stone, which makes it one of two along the railway (the other being in Standish). It is privately maintained by local citizens as part of the municipality's historical legacy.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 493 people, 231 households, and 130 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 329 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.6% White, 0.6% African American, 1.0% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.4% of the population.  There were 231 households, of which 18.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.4% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.7% were non-families. 38.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.96 and the average family size was 2.55.  The median age in the city was 51.6 years. 16.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.2% were from 25 to 44; 29% were from 45 to 64; and 29.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.0% male and 55.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 514 people, 239 households, and 131 families residing in the city. The population density was 831.2 per square mile (320.1/km). There were 327 housing units at an average density of 528.8 per square mile (203.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.94% White, 2.14% African American, 0.39% Native American, 0.97% Asian, and 1.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.97% of the population.  There were 239 households, out of which 18.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.4% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.8% were non-families. 41.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.92 and the average family size was 2.57.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 16.0% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 21.6% from 25 to 44, 25.9% from 45 to 64, and 29.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $27,500, and the median income for a family was $34,286. Males had a median income of $23,625 versus $21,875 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,983. About 9.3% of families and 13.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.8% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

Airport.

Harrisville City Airport is 2200 feet (671 m) in length; it is located on Walker Road about a mile northwest of the city. A much larger public airport that serves the area and has nearly all weather capability is Oscoda–Wurtsmith Airport.

Local events.

Harrisville is also home to the famous Glenview Clydesdales.

Government.

The following is a list of elected officials of Harrisville, as of December 2018:

Harrisville is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Alcona County. The population was 493 at the 2010 census, making Harrisville the sixth-smallest city by population in the state of Michigan. The city is surrounded by Harrisville Township but is administratively autonomous. Located on Lake Huron, it is an official Michigan Department of Natural Resources Harbor of Refuge.