Physics.

The Z-pinch is an application of the Lorentz force, in which a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force. One example of the Lorentz force is that, if two parallel wires are carrying current in the same direction, the wires will be pulled toward each other. In a Z-pinch machine the wires are replaced by a plasma, which can be thought of as many current-carrying wires. When a current is run through the plasma, the particles in plasma are pulled toward each other by the Lorentz force, thus the plasma contracts. The contraction is counteracted by the increasing gas pressure of the plasma.  As the plasma is electrically conductive, a magnetic field nearby will induce a current in it. This provides a way to run a current into the plasma without physical contact, which is important as a plasma can rapidly erode mechanical electrodes. In practical devices this was normally arranged by placing the plasma vessel inside the core of a transformer, arranged so the plasma itself would be the secondary. When current was sent into the primary side of the transformer, the magnetic field induced a current into the plasma. As induction requires a "changing" magnetic field, and the induced current is supposed to run in a single direction in most reactor designs, the current in the transformer has to be increased over time to produce the varying magnetic field. This places a limit on the product of confinement time and magnetic field, for any given source of power.  In Z-pinch machines the current is generally provided from a large bank of capacitors and triggered by a spark gap, known as a Marx Bank or Marx generator. As the conductivity of plasma is fairly good, about that of copper, the energy stored in the power source is quickly depleted by running through the plasma. Z-pinch devices are inherently pulsed in nature.

History.

Early machines.

Pinch devices were among the earliest efforts in fusion power. Research began in the UK in the immediate post-war era, but a lack of interest led to little development until the 1950s. The announcement of the Huemul Project in early 1951 led to fusion efforts around the world, notably in the UK and in the US. Small experiments were built at labs as various practical issues were addressed, but all of these machines demonstrated unexpected instabilities of the plasma that would cause it to hit the walls of the container vessel. The problem became known as the "kink instability".

Stabilized pinch.

By 1953 the "stabilized pinch" seemed to solve the problems encountered on earlier devices. Stabilized pinch machines added external magnets that created a toroidal magnetic field inside the chamber. When the device was fired, this field added to the one created by the current in the plasma. The result was that the formerly straight magnetic field was twisted into a helix, which the particles followed as they traveled around the tube driven by the current. A particle near the outside of the tube that wanted to kink outward would travel along these lines until it returned to the inside of the tube, where its outward-directed motion would bring it back into the centre of the plasma.  Researchers in the UK started construction of ZETA in 1954. ZETA was by far the largest fusion device of its era. At the time, almost all fusion research was classified, so progress on ZETA was generally unknown outside the labs working on it. However US researchers visited ZETA and realized that they were about to be outpaced. Teams on both sides of the Atlantic rushed to be the first to complete stabilized pinch machines.  ZETA won the race, and by the summer of 1957 it was producing bursts of neutrons on every run. Despite the researchers' reservations, their results were released with great fanfare as the first successful step on the path to commercial fusion energy. However, further study soon demonstrated that the measurements were misleading, and none of the machines were near fusion levels. Interest in pinch devices faded, although ZETA and its cousin Sceptre served for many years as experimental devices.

Fusion-based propulsion.

A concept of Z-pinch fusion propulsion system was developed through collaboration between NASA and private companies. The energy released by the Z-pinch effect accelerates lithium propellant to a high speed, resulting in a specific impulse value of 19400 s and thrust of 38 kN. A magnetic nozzle is required to convert the released energy into a useful impulse. This propulsion method could significantly reduce interplanetary travel times. For example, a mission to Mars would take about 35 days one-way with a total burn time of 20 days and a burned propellant mass of 350 tonnes.

Tokamak.

Although it remained relatively unknown for years, Soviet scientists used the pinch concept to develop the tokamak device. Unlike the stabilized pinch devices in the US and UK, the tokamak used considerably more energy in the stabilizing magnets, and much less in the plasma current. This reduced the instabilities due to the large currents in the plasma, and led to great improvements in stability. The results were so dramatic that other researchers were skeptical when they were first announced in 1968. Members of the still-operational ZETA team were called in to verify the results. The tokamak became the most studied approach to controlled fusion.

Sheared-flow stabilized.

In 2018 neutron generation from a sheared-flow stabilized Z-pinch was demonstrated by Zap Energy Inc a fusion company spin-out from University of Washington.. Flowing plasma remained stabilized 5,000 times longer than a static plasma. A mixture of 20% deuterium/80% hydrogen by pressure produced neutron emissions lasting approximately 5 μs with pinch currents of approximately 200 kA during an approximately 16 μs period of plasma quiescence. Average neutron yield was estimated to be (1.25±0.45)×10 neutrons/pulse. Plasma temperatures of 1–2 keV and densities of approximately 10 cm with 0.3 cm pinch radii were measured.

Experiments.

Z-pinch machines can be found at University of Nevada, Reno (USA), Cornell University (USA), University of Michigan (USA), Sandia National Laboratories (USA), University of California, San Diego (USA), University of Washington (USA), Ruhr University (Germany), Imperial College (United Kingdom), École Polytechnique (France), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (Mexico), NSTRI (Iran).

In fusion power research, the Z-pinch, also known as zeta pinch, is a type of plasma confinement system that uses an electrical current in the plasma to generate a magnetic field that compresses it (see pinch). These systems were originally referred to simply as pinch or Bennett pinch (after Willard Harrison Bennett), but the introduction of the θ-pinch concept led to the need for increased clarity.


Sources of the legend.

The origin of the myth is somewhat obscure, as it is possible that the existence of this god is an invention by a satirist. No ancient polytheistic source appears for this deity.  The earliest mention of a god of flatulence is as an Egyptian, not a Roman deity. This comes from the hostile pen of the author of the "Recognitions" dubiously attributed to Pope Clement I, in which it is reported that:  It is unlikely that Clement I was the author of the extant "Recognitiones"; these are extant chiefly in a Latin translation, presumably out of the original Greek, made by Tyrannius Rufinus in the late fourth or early fifth century. The passage of Pseudo-Clement stands within a Western Christian tradition of satire against the variety of minor deities worshipped by classical pagans; similar passages exist in "The City of God" by Saint Augustine of Hippo, and Tertullian's "Ad Nationes".  Robert Burton, in "The Anatomy of Melancholy", mentions a god "Crepitus Ventris" among a variety of other deities allegedly worshipped in classical antiquity:  Burton cites a work called "Syntagma de Diis" ("A Compendium of the Gods") by Lilius Giraldus as his source for the existence of such a god; by this reference, Burton probably meant Giraldus' "Historia de diis gentium" ("History of the Pagan Gods"); but because Burton wrote in what he called an "extemporean" style, "quicquid in buccam venit" ("whatever came into his head"), Burton's quotations and references are not always reliable. Because of Burton's mixed Latin and English style, this passage may not say that there was a god "named" "Crepitus Ventris", (Latin for "intestinal noise"), but only that there was a god of intestinal noise. The Latin word "crepitus", moreover, did not exclusively mean the sound generated by intestinal gas; it referred to squeaks, groans, knocks, and any nondescript noise in general. In "The City of God", Augustine elsewhere refers to "crepitus cymbalorum", the clang of cymbals. Medical jargon gives the name "crepitus" to the creaking or popping noises made by the joints. The is "pēdere".  Voltaire, in a passage of his "Philosophical Dictionary" devoted to changing conceptions of deity, alludes to a number of real or alleged Roman deities of a less exalted status:  Through these passages, the noun "Crepitus" moves from a common noun to a proper noun. Previous authorities had only claimed that the ancient polytheists, whether Egyptian or Roman, worshipped a god of intestinal noises. Perhaps in Burton's mention, and certainly in Voltaire, "Crepitus" is the name of a god of flatulence.

In Baudelaire.

Baudelaire criticised both the need of religion and the mediocrity of neopagan artists in a text entitled "L'École païenne" ("The Pagan School"):

In Flaubert.

Relying on Voltaire's account, Gustave Flaubert put a memorable speech into the mouth of the alleged deity Crepitus in "The Temptation of Saint Anthony":

A modern invention.

While Flaubert learned from his friend Fréderic Baudry, who in turn had consulted Alfred Maury, that "poor little Deus Crepitus does not exist; it's a modern invention," he liked his text so much that he left him in. While it is unlikely that the god Crepitus ever existed, the scene from Aristophanes is genuine; in "The Clouds" Athenians compare thunder to the sound of celestial flatulence.

Crepitus is an alleged Roman god of flatulence. It is unlikely that Crepitus was ever actually worshipped. The only ancient source for the claim that such a god was ever worshipped comes from Christian satire. The name "Crepitus" standing alone would be an inadequate and unlikely name for such a god in Latin. The god appears, however, in a number of important works of French literature.


Plot.

Action Man is a member of an elite multinational task force named Action Force who fight against the terrorist Dr. X and his "Council of Doom". Action Man is also portrayed as being an amnesiac who is trying to unlock the mystery of his past.

Toys.

The show introduced several new team mates for Action Man which were then made into toys. The action figures of Natalie Poole and Knuck have become very rare collectors items. At Joecon 2010, a convention exclusive Q-Force action figure of Natalie Poole was released.

Media releases.

United States.

In 2001, Lions Gate Home Entertainment and Trimark Home Video released two VHSes titled "Secret of Action Man" and "Action Man in Space", containing two episodes each. The latter was also released on DVD, containing the four episodes seen on the VHSes.  In 2003, Sterling Entertainment released a DVD called "Space Wars" containing the two episodes found on the "Action Man in Space" VHS as well as two more. It was re-released by NCircle Entertainment in 2007.  On 17 February 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment released "Action Man- The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1. This marked the first time all episodes of the show had received a DVD release.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, the series was released on VHS by Abbey Home Entertainment and later on DVD by the company’s successor Abbey Home Media, but the episodes on the DVDs are in a random order, and many episodes have been released numerous times while several have not been released at all. This has caused confusion amongst many fans.

Action Man is an American-Canadian-British children's animated television show, created by DIC Productions, L.P. and Bohbot Entertainment. The cartoon is based on the Hasbro toy line of the same name. The show also featured live action segments before and after the main show, which they were filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood and Florida.


History.

One of the first recorded discoveries regarding electromagnetic propulsion was in 1889 when Professor Elihu Thomson made public his work with electromagnetic waves and alternating currents. A few years later Emile Bachelet proposed the idea of a metal carriage levitated in air above the rails in a modern railway, which he showcased in the early 1890s. In the 1960s Eric Roberts Laithwaite developed the linear induction motor, which built upon these principles and introduced the first practical application of electromagnetic propulsion. In 1966 James R. Powell and Gordon Danby patented the superconducting maglev transportation system, and after this engineers around the world raced to create the first high-speed rail. From 1984 to 1995 the first commercial automated maglev system ran in Birmingham. It was a low speed Maglev shuttle that ran from the Birmingham International Airport to the Birmingham International Railway System.

Uses.

Trains.

Electromagnetic propulsion is utilized in transportation systems to minimize friction and maximize speed over long distances. This has mainly been implemented in high-speed rail systems that use a linear induction motor to power trains by magnetic currents. It has also been utilized in theme parks to create high-speed roller coasters and water rides.  Maglev  A typical Maglev train costs three cents per passenger mile, or seven cents per ton mile (not including construction costs). This compares to 15 cents per passenger miles for travel by plane and 30 cents for ton mile for travel by intercity trucks. Maglev tracks have high longevity due to minimal friction and an even distribution of weight. Most last for at least 50 years and require little maintenance during this time. Maglev trains are promoted for their energy efficiency since they run on electricity, which can be produced by coal, nuclear, hydro, fusion, wind or solar power without requiring oil. On average most trains travel 483 km/h (300 mph) and use 0.4 megajoules per passenger mile. Using a 20 mi/gallon car with 1.8 people as a comparison, travel by car is typically 97 km/h (60 mph) and uses 4 megajoules per passenger mile. The carbon dioxide emissions are based upon the method of electrical production and fuel use. Many renewable electrical production methods generate little or no carbon dioxide during production (although carbon dioxide may be released during manufacture of the components, e.g. the steel used in wind turbines). The running of the train is significantly quieter than other trains, trucks or airplanes. Assembly: Linear Induction Motor A linear induction motor consists of two parts: the primary coil assembly and the reaction plate. The primary coil assembly consists of phase windings surrounded by steel laminations, and includes a thermal sensor within a thermal epoxy. The reaction plate consists of a 3.2 mm (0.125 inch) thick aluminum or copper plate bonded to a 6.4 mm (0.25 inch) thick cold rolled steel sheet. There is an air gap between these two parts that creates the frictionless property an electromagnetic propulsion system encompasses. Functioning of a linear induction motor begins with an AC force that is supplied to the coil windings within the primary coil assembly. This creates a traveling magnetic field that induces a current in the reaction plate, which then creates its own magnetic field. The magnetic fields in the primary coil assembly and reaction plate alternate, which generates force and direct linear motion.

Spacecraft.

There are multiple applications for EMP technologies in the field of aerospace. Many of these applications are conceptual as of now, however, there are also several applications that range from near term to next century. One of such applications is the use of EMP to control fine adjustments of orbiting satellites. One of these particular systems is based on the direct interactions of the vehicle's own electromagnetic field and the magnetic field of the Earth. The thrust force may be thought of as an electrodynamic force of interaction of the electric current inside its conductors with the applied natural field of the Earth. To attain a greater force of interaction, the magnetic field must be propagated further from the flight craft. The advantages of such systems is the very precise and instantaneous control over the thrust force. In addition, the expected electrical efficiencies are far greater than those of current chemical rockets that attain propulsion through the intermediate use of heat; this results in low efficiencies and large amounts of gaseous pollutants. The electrical energy in the coil of the EMP system is translated to potential and kinetic energy through direct energy conversion. This results in the system having the same high efficiencies as other electrical machines while excluding the ejection of any substance into the environment.  The current thrust-to mass ratios of these systems are relatively low. Nevertheless, since they do not require reaction mass, the vehicle mass is constant. Also, the thrust can be continuous with relatively low electric consumption. The biggest limitation would be mainly the electrical conductance of materials to produce the necessary values of the current in the propulsion system.

Ships and Submarines.

EMP and its applications for seagoing ships and submarines have been investigated since at least 1958 when Warren Rice filed a patent explaining the technology. The technology described by Rice considered charging the hull of the vessel itself. The design was later refined by allowing the water to flow through thrusters as described in a later patent by James Meng. The arrangement consists of a water channel open at both ends extending longitudinally through or attached to the ship, a means for producing magnetic field throughout the water channel, electrodes at each side of the channel and source of power to send direct current through the channel at right angles to magnetic flux in accordance with Lorentz force.

Elevators.

Cable-free elevators using EMP, capable of moving both vertically and horizontally, have been developed by German engineering firm Thyssen Krupp for use in high rise, high density buildings.

Electromagnetic propulsion (EMP), is the principle of accelerating an object by the utilization of a flowing electrical current and magnetic fields. The electrical current is used to either create an opposing magnetic field, or to charge a field, which can then be repelled. When a current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, an electromagnetic force known as a Lorentz force, pushes the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the conductor and the magnetic field. This repulsing force is what causes propulsion in a system designed to take advantage of the phenomenon. The term electromagnetic propulsion (EMP) can be described by its individual components: electromagneticusing electricity to create a magnetic field, and propulsionthe process of propelling something. When a fluid (liquid or gas) is employed as the moving conductor, the propulsion may be termed magnetohydrodynamic drive. One key difference between EMP and propulsion achieved by electric motors is that the electrical energy used for EMP is not used to produce rotational energy for motion; though both use magnetic fields and a flowing electrical current.


Overview.

Baars (2001) writes that medical students who study "frightening diseases" for the first time routinely experience vivid delusions of having contracted such diseases, and describes it as a "temporary kind of hypochondria". Baars says that the experience is so common that it has become known as "medical student syndrome".  Hodges (2004), reviewing the literature, said that "the first descriptions of medical students' disease appeared in the 1960s." He may have been referring to the phrase, for the phenomenon itself was noted much earlier. George Lincoln Walton (1908) reported that  Hodges also said that it was suggested in the 1960s that:  Hodges went on to describe work by Moss-Morris and Pétrie who saw medical students' disease as "a normal perceptual process, rather than a form of hypochondriasis." Learning about a disease "creates a mental schema or representation of the illness which includes the label of the illness and the symptoms associated with the condition. Once this representation is formed, symptoms or bodily sensations that the individual is currently experiencing which are consistent with the schema may be noticed, while inconsistent symptoms are ignored."  Howes and Salkovskis (1998) noted that "medical students frequently develop fears and symptoms of illness. This has been termed medical students' disease, nosophobia, hypochondriasis of medical students, and medicalstudentitis." They mentioned two studies, one concluding that about 70% of medical students have groundless medical fears during their studies, and one which found that 78.8% of a randomly chosen sample of medical students showed a history of "medical student disease." However, they cite a number of studies showing a similar incidence of hypochondria in law students and other non-medical students, which they said call into question "the widely held view that medical students are more likely than others to have excessive anxiety about their health."

In popular culture.

An episode of the TV show "Scrubs" called "Our Driving Issues" features a class of medical students who, despite having been warned about medical students' disease, nevertheless suffer from it.  In the Indian movie "Dharmadhurai" (Tamil) starring Vijay Sethupathy, one of the lead heroine Dr.Stella suffer from second year syndrome.

Medical students' disease (also known as second year syndrome or intern's syndrome) is a condition frequently reported in medical students, who perceive themselves to be experiencing the symptoms of a disease that they are studying.


Early life.

Ng was born in Hong Kong to a family with ancestry from Panyu, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. He is the uncle of footballer, Ng Wai Chiu.  Ng revealed in a stand-up comedy, saying that when he was a child he told his mother that his dream was to get a job that does not need any academic qualification, without a fixed working hours and high pay. Then, his mother asked him to become a beggar. So, he went to Wong Tai Sin, a famous temple in Hong Kong, to observe those beggars there. He realised that becoming beggar is too busy and need to perform manual labour, which does not suit his free and unconstrained attitude. Consequently, he gave up and decided to become a movie star because being a movie star fulfilled all the condition he requested.  During that time, the only way to become a movie star was to get into TVB Training Classes, so Ng signed up. After failing thrice entering the training classes, he eventually gave up. He went for a short period Pabbajja for seven days, shaved his head bald. After the event, he decided to try applying for the training classes again and this time he succeeded. He said in an interview that he succeeded because the interviewer thought that he Knew Shaolin Kung Fu due to his bald head.

Television career.

He graduated from TVB's training classes in 1982 along with Stephen Chow and Tony Leung. He acted in minor roles for the first few years in his television career. Until 1985, he started to involve in a great deal of TV Series, he was very outstanding in playing villainous roles in TV series such as "The Price of Growing Up" and "The Final Combat". Later on, he played as a protagonist in situation comedies such as "Everybody Loves Somebody" and "The Family Squad", which make him gradually disengage from being the stereotypical villain.  His contract with TVB ended in 1993 and he broke into the movie industry. In 1997, he returned to TVB to star a nostalgic comedy series "Old Time Buddy" with Gallen Lo, Maggie Cheung and Jessica Hsuen, which was one of the highest rating TV series that year. Later in 2003, he was invited back to TVB again to film "Triumph in the Skies" casting an airline pilot. He was the leading man role of the series, that series was cited as one of the best serial drama in TVB. He also involved in the sequel of the series "Triumph in the Skies II" which was aired on 15 July 2013.

Film career.

Ng entered the movie industry in 1986, and debuted in "Midnight Girls." As a newcomer, he was only given minor roles. After becoming a freeman in 1993, he had the chance to be involved in bigger production film such as "Flirting Scholar" with Stephen Chow and "Kung Fu Cult Master" with Jet Li.  Ng's turning point in his filming career came in "Young and Dangerous" (1995), as villain Ugly Kwan, which was so popular that it spun an unofficial spin-off in "Once Upon a Time in Triad Society" (1996). His output has steadily increased since then. During 1999, he has won the "Golden Horse Awards" Best Actor for "The Mission" and the Hong Kong Film Critics Society Best Actor for "Bullets Over Summer". In 2002, he also won the Hong Kong Film Awards and Golden Bauhinia Awards Best Supporting Actor for "2000 AD".  Although Hong Kong cinema encountered a downturn in the late 1990s, however Ng still put on at least 10 films per year. Ng also ventured into the arena of directing. He has directed a few movies including "9413" (1998), "What is a Good Teacher" (2002), "Dancing Lion" (2003) and "Tracing Shadow" (2009).  Along with Lau Ching-wan and Anthony Wong, he was named as one of the major three character actors working in the Hong Kong film industry at the 25th Hong Kong International Film Festival.

Other performances.

Other than television series and movies, Ng once was involved in stand-up comedy with Cheung Tat-ming and Dayo Wong in 1998 and 2000.  He provided the voice for Mr. Incredible/Bob Parr in the Cantonese version of Disney and Pixar's "The Incredibles".

Francis Ng Chun-yu (born 21 December 1961) is a Hong Kong actor and director. He is known for his roles in the TVB series "Triumph in the Skies" and in films such as "Young and Dangerous", "Once Upon a Time in Triad Society" and "The Mission".


History.

Righteous Babe Records was originally called Righteous Records; however, Difranco then discovered a pre-existing gospel music label with that name, and to differentiate her company, added the "babe".  Located in DiFranco's hometown of Buffalo, New York, the business grew organically, starting in 1990 with her first cassette tape. DiFranco sold the tapes out of the back of her car and at shows on tour, then sold them on consignment in local stores. Teaming up with her longtime business partner Scot Fisher, they were able to self-distribute her albums directly to over 100 indie accounts. Ani cites her anti-corporate ethos for the DIY ethics at Righteous Babe and not wanting to buy into the major label system.  Having a large women’s music following she was able to make connections at Zango and Goldenrod, two music distributors specializing in women’s music who started selling her albums to women’s book stores and other small music shops. After the independent success of her sixth album "Out of Range", Righteous Babe Records signed a distribution deal with independent distributor Koch International (now eOne) for DiFranco’s highly anticipated "Not a Pretty Girl" release in 1995. Her records could then be found in large and small record stores alike and the Righteous Babe staff quickly grew to include fourteen people.  DiFranco and Fisher stress the importance of community in their business model such as working with local printers whenever possible, hiring friends and like minded people.  Righteous Babe expanded in the late 1990s to release albums for non-mainstream artists and in 2001 Righteous Babe opened a European office called Righteous Babe LTD.

Babeville.

In 1995, an abandoned 19th century historical landmark, the Asbury Delaware United Methodist Church was scheduled to be demolished by the City of Buffalo. The church was built in 1876 and had become derelict with no upkeep. In 1999, Righteous Babe Records offered to buy the building from the city. Restoration efforts began in 2000, and by 2006 it had been converted into an entertainment venue. Originally referred to as "The Church", the name was affectionately changed to "Babeville." It has a 1,200-seat concert hall and is the current home of the label.

Righteous Babe Records is an American independent record label that was created by folk singer Ani DiFranco in 1990 to release her own songs in lieu of being beholden to a mainstream record company.


Career.

Early years.

His first public appearance was in 1976 in one of his father's shows. Alejandro was meant to perform the song "Alejandra" but in the middle of the song he forgot the lyrics, started crying, and suffered a panic attack. His father Vicente Fernandez got on stage and helped by singing along with him.  Fernández released his first album, "Alejandro Fernandez" under Sony Music. The main hits were "Necesito olvidarla", "Brumas" and "Equivocadamente". With this material, Alejandro began a tour in Mexico and some cities of the United States. In 1993, he performed with his father in a concert at the Palacio de los Deportes, and he continued for a season at the Teatro Blanquita in Mexico City. The same year Fernández released the successful "Piel de Niña", produced by Pedro Ramírez. The songs "Piel de Niña", "A La Vera del Camino", and "Cascos Ligeros" are some of the hits of the album. At the Lo Nuestro Awards of 1993 Fernández was nominated for Male Artist, New Artist and Regional Mexican Album of the Year for his debut album, winning none.  In 1994 he released the album "Grandes Éxitos a la Manera de Alejandro Fernández", singing pieces of legendary composers such as Armando Manzanero, Luis Demetrio and Agustín Lara. At the 9th Lo Nuestro Awards, Fernández received a nomination for Regional Mexican Male Performer of the Year.

1995–1998: "Que Seas Muy Feliz", "Me Estoy Enamorando".

In 1995, he released the album "Que Seas Muy Feliz". The song "Como Quien Pierde Una Estrella", became his first international hit. It was heavily promoted on radio and television shows.  In 1996, his release "Muy Dentro de Mi Corazón" was an instant success. Songs like "Moño Negro", "Nube Viajera" and "Abrazame" became hits in Mexico and several countries of Latin America. That same year he recorded "Puedes Llegar", theme song for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, with singers Gloria Estefan, Jon Secada and Ricky Martin among others. In 1997, he recorded the album "Me Estoy Enamorando", produced by Emilio Estefan, Jr. The music of the album is a fusion of bolero, romantic ballad, orchestral arrangements and a touch of Mexican mariachi that became popular in the Latin music sector. "Si Tú Supieras" was the most outstanding hit of that production, and it was chosen as the theme of the hit soap opera of the time, ""Maria Isabel"". It also conquered the U.S. market, lasting seven weeks at the top of "Billboard" Hot Latin Tracks. He became the first Latin singer to hold first place with three hits: "Si tu supieras" was followed by "En El Jardín" (with Gloria Estefan) and "No Sé Olvidar". "Me Estoy Enamorando" sold 2.2 million copies worldwide and was nominated for Best Latin Pop Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards. In December 1998, he recorded "Christmas in Vienna VI" with the tenor Plácido Domingo and Patricia Kaas. His performance was praised by the critics but it did not achieve much popularity among the audience.

1999–2003: "Mi Verdad", "Entre Tus Brazos", "Orígenes".

With the album "Mi Verdad" of 1999, Fernández returned to ranchera music. Mi Verdad was nominated for Best Mexican-American performance at the 42nd annual Grammy Awards. "Si He Sabido Amor" became a big hit and was the theme of the hit soap opera "Infierno en el Paraíso".  In 2000, he released the album "Entre Tus Brazos", the eighth in his career and the second one with Emilio Estefan, Jr. as the producer. "Quiéreme" was the first single, a fast-tempo pop song that showed his musical versatility. For the first time in his career, he included a song from his own inspiration: "Entre Tus Brazos". The album contains mostly romantic ballads with energetic Latin rhythms. That same year, he and Julio Iglesias recorded the song "Dos Corazones, Dos Historias;" it appeared on Julio's album "Noche de Cuatro Lunas".  In 2001, he recorded "Orígenes". The single "Tantina Pena" (a flamenco-style mariachi bolero) became an international hit. In 2002, he launched his production "Un Canto De México", which contains twenty-two classic ranchera songs. It was recorded live at the Palacio de Bellas Artes. In 2003, Alejandro began a Latin American tour with his father Vicente, and recorded the show called """", which was witnessed by thousands of fans, culminating in Mexico City at the Foro Sol, with over five hours of music in front of nearly 60,000 spectators. That same year he recorded his next album "Niña amada mía". The title song became a hit and the theme of a popular soap opera of the same name. That same year, Alejandro toured Latin America and the United States. Later he participated in the Christmas special "En mi país", recorded in Puerto Rico and broadcast by Telemundo. Fernández and Ednita Nazario performed a duet of "Triste Navidad" ( "Sad Christmas").

2004–2006: "A Corazón Abierto, México – Madrid".

In 2004, he played the lead role in "", a movie about the Mexican revolutionary hero Emiliano Zapata by filmmaker Alfonso Arau. That same year, "A Corazón Abierto" reunited Alejandro with Grammy-winning producer and songwriter Kike Santander, who penned his greatest hits from "Me Estoy Enamorando". But he also tapped the talents of a new generation of songwriters, including Gian Marco, Leonel García (of pop duo Sin Bandera), Reyli Barba (former member of pop band Elefante) and Mexican group Tres De Copas.  ""Romanticism is something that will never die"", declared Alejandro Fernández, explaining his choice of songs on "A Corazón Abierto", his breakthrough recording about lost love, love that is never forgotten and the capacity to always love again. ""I'm super, ultra passionate. We're releasing an album that's an x-ray of myself. That's why it's titled "A Corazón Abierto" ("In Open Heart"). It was something very honest. Not naked, but something deeper than that"". The album released the singles: "¿Que voy a hacer con mi amor?", "Qué lastima", "Me dediqué a perderte" and the smash hit "Canta corazón".  In 2005, Alejandro released "" ("Mexico – Madrid: Nonstop"), featuring 13 tracks including one new song. Produced by Aureo Baquiero and filmed in front of a live audience at Spain's "Palacio de Congresos IFEMA", the production features Fernández performing some of his biggest hits accompanied by a 28-piece orchestra and some of Spain's most important voices on three of the songs: Amaia Montero from La Oreja de Van Gogh joins him on "Me dediqué a perderte"; Malú duets with him on "Contigo aprendí", and with flamenco star Diego El Cigala perform a fast-tempo version of "Como quien pierde una estrella", accompanied on cajón by famed flamenco guitarist Niño Josele. That same year, Alejandro was chosen to sing along with the tenors José Carreras and Plácido Domingo in a special concert celebrating the opening of the "Forum Internacional de las Culturas" in Monterrey. At first his father Vicente was invited but he turned it down. Alejandro showed his skilled vocals and operatic tenor range, singing pieces of opera such as "Granada"; his performance was praised by the audience. He also recorded a duet with the tenor Mario Frangoulis called "Hay más" from the album Follow Your Heart. After that, Alejandro went on tour with two Latin American stars: Marc Anthony and Chayanne, passing through several major U.S. cities. On 2 December 2005, Los Angeles, gave him a star on the legendary Hollywood Walk of Fame on Hollywood Boulevard.

2007–2010: "Viento a Favor", "Dos Mundos".

In 2007, he released Viento A Favor featuring tunes written by Leonel García and Noel Schajris (better known as emotive Latin-pop duo Sin Bandera) and Mexican singer Reyli Barba. The first two singles were "Te Voy A Perder", and "Amor Gitano", a duet with Beyoncé Knowles. After that "Cuando Estamos Juntos" and "No Se Me Hace Fácil" became hits; "Eres" was the last single of the album.  In 2008, Alejandro started a tour on Spanish land covering cities such as Madrid, Valencia and A Coruña. He released the album ""; it features classic romantic ballads and boleros such as "El Reloj" and "Regálame esta noche", songs that he recorded previously but never released.  In 2009, his voice was the theme of "Mañana es para siempre", the most successful Mexican soap opera of the year. The Grammy-winning singer, composer and producer Nelly Furtado invited Alejandro to perform in a duet for her album "Mi Plan". The song "Sueños" was recorded in Miami.  "Dos Mundos" ("Two Worlds"), is a double production, releasing two albums simultaneously: "". One of them is pop, produced by Aureo Baqueiro, and the other is ranchera and mariachi, produced by Joan Sebastian. No Latin artist had done anything similar before. On 11 November 2009 he simultaneously released the videos of the singles "Estuve" and "Se Me Va la Voz". He released the videos of the singles "Me Hace Tanto Bien" and "Bandida". On 22 November 2010, Alejandro released the live album "" that includes live versions of songs from his album " Dos mundos: Evolución / Dos mundos: Tradición", two unreleased tracks "Tu Sabes Quien", "Felicidades" and the song "Vamos a darnos tiempo" originally performed by the iconic singer José José.

2011–present: "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", "Confidencias, Rompiendo Fronteras".

Between June and August 2011, he went on his. On 1 August 2011, Alejandro released the song "Bajo un mismo sol" theme of the 2011 Pan American Games. He toured Latin America along with fellow singer Marc Anthony in a series of concerts named "Dos Mundos, un Concierto" "(Two Worlds, one Concert)". Alejandro collaborated with Christina Aguilera on a cover of the song "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", released as the theme song for the soap opera "La tempestad". After only 17 days, the song was certified Platinum in Mexico, for sales of 65,000 digital downloads. On 27 August 2013, he released the album "Confidencias", it includes the duet with Christina Aguilera "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", and duets with Vicente Fernández and Rod Stewart. In 2014, his song "Te Amare" was released as the theme song for the soap opera "Hasta el fin del mundo" replacing the original theme of Pedro Fernández. In 2015, Alejandro collaborated with Alejandro Sanz on a cover of the song "A que no me dejas", released as the theme song for the soap opera "A que no me dejas". In 2016, Fernández was inducted into the Billboard Latin Music Hall of Fame. On February 2017, he released the album "Rompiendo Fronteras" and the single "Sé que te duele" became an instant hit.

"Sony Music" controversy.

The international record label Sony Music was sued by Alejandro Fernández after they tried to release an album with some of his unreleased songs after his contract with the label had ended. Federal Police arrived at the Sony headquarters in Mexico City and seized about 6,000 copies of the album. The song "Diferente", was released on the internet as the first single of the album.

Artistry.

Following the steps of his father, Fernández began his musical career focused on ranchera music. Since his 1997 album "Me Estoy Enamorando" he branched out successfully into pop music. In his live presentations, he begins the show with his ranchera repertoire, then he removes the charro outfit to sing pop songs.  Fernández has a Baritone tessitura. His vocal ability and versatility have allowed him to perform romantic ballads, pop and ranchera music simultaneously. He has performed with artists such as Plácido Domingo, Marc Anthony, José Carreras, Chayanne, Amaia Montero, Joan Sebastian, Gloria Estefan, Malú, Ha*Ash, Julio Iglesias, Patricia Kaas, Miguel Bosé, Mario Frangoulis, Ednita Nazario, Yuri, Franco De Vita, Diego El Cigala, Nelly Furtado, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera and Rod Stewart.

Personal life.

Fernández was born in Mexico City and raised in Guadalajara. He studied to become an architect, but turned to singing in 1991 with the encouragement of his father. He is the youngest son of his family. He has two older brothers, Vicente, Jr. and Gerardo, and a sister, Alejandra. He and his brothers are known in Mexico as "Los tres potrillos" (The three colts).  In the late 1990s, Fernández's older brother Vicente, Jr. was kidnapped by a band of organized crime. The kidnappers cut off one of his fingers and sent it to his father as a warning. After Vicente Fernández allegedly paid a large sum of money, Vicente, Jr. was released. The exact amount was never announced.  Fernández is co-owner of a shopping center in Guadalajara called "Unicenter", containing various businesses, creating jobs for over 170 people. He collaborated with his family in the construction of Arena VFG, with a capacity for 11,000 people. The arena hosts mainly musical performances and charreria competitions. Fernández is an expert in horse riding and charreria. He is a supporter of the Mexican football team Atlas, and is good friends with iconic footballer Rafael Márquez.  Fernández has five children: three (Alejandro, Jr. and the twin girls América and Camila) with his ex-wife América Guinart, and two (Emiliano and Valentina) with Colombian model Ximena Díaz. In the mid-2000s, he claimed to have undergone a vasectomy.

Alejandro Fernández Abarca (; born 24 April 1971 in Guadalajara, Jalisco) is a Mexican singer. Nicknamed as "El Potrillo" (The Colt) by the media and his fans, he has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Alejandro is the son of the ranchero singer Vicente Fernández. He originally specialized in traditional, earthy forms of Mexican folk music, such as mariachi and ranchera, until he branched out into pop music with great success.


History.

As Prince Edward was primarily designed as a cross-platform interchange between the Kwun Tong and Tsuen Wan lines, although the Kwun Tong Line tracks had already been build in 1979, the station was not used until the opening of the Tsuen Wan Line on 10 May 1982. During the first week of operation, the station served only as an interchange with no exits to the concourse or street level. On 17 May 1982, all exits of the station opened.

Prince Edward station attack.

During the evening of 31 August 2019, amid the anti-extradition bill protests, the Hong Kong Police stormed Prince Edward station and were filmed beating passengers and firing pepper spray inside railway carriages. The MTR closed the station during the incident, while the police refused to let medics enter afterward. The station subsequently became a flashpoint for continued discord, with protesters petitioning MTR to release CCTV footage from the evening of 31 August. The incident at Prince Edward, as well as MTR's perceived kowtowing to Beijing (by closing stations near protests in the aftermath of criticism by Chinese state media for remaining operational), led to vandalism of other MTR stations. MTR condemned the vandalism and responded that the relevant CCTV footage would be kept for three years.

Location.

Prince Edward Station and Mong Kok Station are the two closest stations in Hong Kong. They are only about 400 metres apart and the train takes less than one minute to travel from one station to the other.

Station layout.

Prince Edward is an opposite-directional cross-platform interchange station for southbound Kwun Tong Line passengers going towards Tsuen Wan and southbound Tsuen Wan Line passengers going towards Tiu Keng Leng. Mong Kok serves as the cross-platform interchange station for passengers travelling in the same direction.

Livery.

The station's colour is light purple because of its association as a regal colour.

Entrances and exits.

All exits are within one block of Nathan Road, stretching from Prince Edward Road in the south to Playing Field Road in the north. Prince Edward Station is primarily an interchange rather than a destination since there are only seven exits; neighbouring Mong Kok has fifteen.

Transport connections.

Cross-border bus services.

There are stops of cross-border buses to Shenzhen, Dongguan, and Guangzhou on Playing Field Road (exit A) or Portland Street (exits C2 and D).

Prince Edward () is a station of the MTR rapid transit system in Hong Kong. It is located in Mong Kok, Kowloon, under the intersection of Nathan Road and Prince Edward Road West. The station is named after this road.


Description.

The outer margins of the wings are strongly and irregularly dentate, excavated and angulated. The upper side of the wings has a bright orange ground colour, decorated with brown marks and light spots on the edge. The reverse is marbled with brown. Folded, the butterfly looks like a dead leaf. The hindwings have on the reverse side a white spot usually in the shape of C.  The sexual dimorphism is slight and concerns the intensity of the coloration, the silhouette and the size, the male having a wingspan of 22 to 24 mm. and the female of 25 to 26 mm. The seasonal dimorphism is more marked: the first generation ( "hutchinsoni" form, May-June) has the upperside fawn orange and the underside brown-gold and the hindwing bears distally a broad dark red-brown area in which is situated a row of light brown hastate spots, the underside is dark, being either unicolorous or prominently marmorated., while the second generation (form "c-album" (July, in autumn and spring after overwintering) has a more reddish upper and dark brown underside (ground-colour is less bright). In the summer-form the wings are less dentate, and the hindwing has a narrow dark submarginal band, near which stands a row of light lunules proximally bordered by a band of brown arcs; the underside is of a paler colour, being less distinctly — sometimes, however, very prominently — marmorated and shaded.

Taxonomy and phylogeny.

The comma belongs to the family Nymphalidae, the largest family of butterflies with 13 subfamilies. Within the genus "Polygonia", a sister-group relationship between "P. c-album" and "P. faunus" is strongly supported by larval development analysis and synapomorphies. In both species, the adults and larvae have similar polyphagous habits. The genus "Polygonia" is also closely related to the genera "Kanisha" and "Roddia", each containing a single species: "K. canace" and "R. l-album".

Geographic range and habitat.

The comma inhabits areas including Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It is primarily a woodland butterfly, living in low-density forests with sunshine and moist soil. Specifically, the species is commonly found in the woodland, country lanes, and garden areas of Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain. As a food generalist, or polyphagous species, comma butterflies can feed upon a variety of host plants, leading to widespread ranges across continents. In response to climate change, they are also undergoing range expansion.

Subspecies.

The following subspecies are found in the indicated parts of the comma's range:

Food resources.

Larval host plant preferences and selection.

For comma butterflies, food resources consumed during development are the primary source of nitrogen and protein during adulthood. Because they feed exclusively on plants, making them a phytophagous species, the quality of plants upon which the larvae feed is strongly correlated with their future fitness. The larval form is often divided into five developmental stages known as instars. Although during the first three instars larvae are observed to remain almost entirely upon the underside of leaves, the fourth and fifth instar larvae are more active in obtaining food resources. The later instar larvae are specialized feeders and favor several host plants during the larval stage: "Urtica dioica", "Ulmus glabra", "Salix caprea", "R. uva-crispa", and "Betula pubescens". While pupal weight and overall larval survival rates are similar among larvae regardless of host plant, the larval development times differ significantly. As a result, larvae prefer feeding on plants that allow them to develop in the shortest amount of time. Larvae reared on "U. dioica" demand the shortest development time and is thus favored over other plants. On the other hand, "B. pubescens" is at the bottom of the host plant preference hierarchy. Favoring plants in the family Urticaceae is speculated to have originated from the species’ ancestors, providing an explanation for larval preference for "U. dioica". Within the "U. dioica" plant, larvae are not shown to differentiate between high quality (fresher) and low quality (wilting) nettles, a pattern expected of a polyphagous species.

Reproduction and life history.

Mating.

Mating system.

Comma butterflies have a polyandrous mating system where females mate with multiple males to receive the necessary amount of sperm to fertilize their eggs. The polyandrous female distributes her matings equally over her lifetime, so males' mating success increases proportionally to their lifespan. The mating success of both sexes is correlated to the duration of an individual's life, so no difference in mortality rates is observed between males and females.

Female mate choice.

Females exercise mate choice before, during, and after mating and can distinguish between males who were reared on high-quality versus low-quality host plants. The ability to recognize adults reared on higher quality host plants is selected for because males fed better plants during development provide superior nuptial gifts. In comma butterflies, nuptial gifts are edible spermatophores containing spermatozoa and nutrients. When comparing the two common host plants "U. dioica" and "S. caprea", females preferentially choose to mate with males reared on "U. dioica", because these males have higher protein content and increased spermatophore production.  Females preferentially mate with males which provide larger investments, in the form of nuptial gifts. When females mated with males with higher-quality nuptial gifts, they not only allocate more resources to egg production but also use the resources to improve their own reproductive success. The investments can be used to increase female life expectancy, female maintenance, and future reproduction. During each mating, males allocate a constant amount of investment towards each nuptial gift, indicating that male mate choice does not play a role in allocation of resources.

Oviposition.

Females recognize and select a host plant carefully before laying their eggs upon it, generally favoring host plants where larval development time is minimized. Akin to the preferred host plants for larvae, females prefer plants in the order Urticales. Despite the overall preference for plants leading to short larval development, host plant preference variation between females exists. Although the partiality for certain plant species appears to be inherited across populations, the pattern is not significant within a single population. This pattern of deviation results from the open population structure with high gene flow.

Parent-offspring conflict.

In theory, females would prefer host plants where their offspring performance is maximized, and the larvae would benefit from being able to feed on the best resources nearby their hatch site. However, this is not always observed in nature due to external factors such as predators, parasites, and pathogens. Instead, there is a trade-off between female host plant preference and larval fitness in many species of butterfly. In "P. c-album," instead of accepting the host plant that the female selected, first instar larvae leave their hatch site in search of alternative food sources. Larvae that stay on the inferior host are not only smaller, but also have lower survival and growth rates.

Egg mass.

Unlike female host plant preference, egg mass is not shown to be sex-linked. Instead, egg mass is most likely controlled by additive autosomal genes, where the egg sizes of offspring are intermediate compared to its parents. The type of host plant chosen during the larval stage is not correlated with their offspring's egg mass, indicating that egg size is not related to fitness.

Life history.

Egg.

Females lay their eggs on a variety of host plants, preferring those that minimize larval development time. Unlike some butterflies who lay their eggs in batches, comma females often lay their eggs singly. After each egg is laid, the female scouts out other possible host plants before determining the site of her next egg. The eggs are green when first laid, and gradually turn yellow and ultimately grey before hatching, which generally takes four to five days. Although the female can allocate more resources into egg production based on the nuptial gifts received by mates, the total number of eggs laid or the mass of the eggs are altered based on the host plant. A lack of correlation suggests that neither egg quantity nor egg mass indicate future fitness for the offspring.

Larva.

The larval period is separated into five distinct stages or instars. During the first three instars, the comma larvae have a cryptic appearance to avoid detection while they primarily stay on the underside of leaves. Fourth and fifth instar larvae search for food more actively. However, the beginning of the fourth instar also marks the development of black, white, and orange patterns. To avoid predation despite its conspicuous appearance, the larva develops strong spines along its body. The larvae have a continuous white marking along their backs to mimic bird droppings. In its final instar, the white colouration disappears but the spines persist.  Three possibilities describing why spines may develop during later instars are as follows: smaller larvae cannot sustain the spines, larger larvae benefit more from spines as their predators shift from invertebrates to vertebrates, or because an effective spine pattern cannot be achieved upon the surface area of the smaller larvae.  Aside from the formation of spines, no other defence against predators appears to be present. While fourth and fifth instar larvae are rarely preyed upon by the same predator, removal of the spines leads to repeated predation, indicating that no chemical defence mechanism exists to deter enemies.

Pupa.

"P. c-album" adults undergo one of two morphs: the directly developing morph or the diapausing (delayed development) morph. For both males and females, directly developing adults have a shorter pupal time of around 10 days, whereas the diapausing adults spend over 11 days pupating. Additionally, the pupae whose adult stage would enter the directly developing morph had larger pupal weights, consistent with the notion that the lighter morph allocates more resources towards maturation and reproduction.

Adult.

Full-grown comma butterflies have a wingspan of about 45 mm or 1.8 inches. The name comma butterfly derives from the small white 'C'-shaped marking resembling a comma on the underside of its wings. Commas can exhibit both mimicking and polyphenism, a phenomenon where multiple morphs exist in a population. Due to their orange and dark brown/black appearance, the butterflies resemble fallen leaves when their wings are closed. Adults can also undergo one of two morphs: the directly developing morph or the diapausing morph. During the directly developing morph, the butterflies mature sexually at a rapid rate. Females undergoing this morph oviposit in the summer, leading the phase to also be referred to as the summer morph. Butterflies portraying the summer morph have light coloured undersides. The diapausing morph, also known as the spring or winter morph, occurs when the female enters a reproductive diapause, a time when sexual maturity is postponed, and hibernates before ovipositing in the spring instead. During the diapausing morph, the undersides of the wings are much darker.

Predators, parasites, and diseases.

Predators.

Because of their wide distribution around the world, comma butterflies have a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate predators, including blue tits, chickens, and other birds.

Parasites.

The two main parasites that have been known to affect comma butterflies are "Glypta erratica", a type of stem borer in "Eupatorium", and "Pteromalus vanessae". "P. vanessae" often oviposit in the larvae of butterflies such as "P. c-album" and "Nymphalis antiopa".

Diseases.

"P. c-album" are known to be infected by cytoplasmic virus diseases. The disease infection usually starts in the cytoplasm of the midgut and progresses throughout the foregut and hindgut as well.

Antipredator adaptations.

Larva.

The first three larval instars are camouflaged, the dark colours making the larvae less vulnerable to detection. In the fourth instar, the appearance of the larval body is relatively more colourful with white, black, and orange aposematic patterns. A white stripe along its back mimics the pattern of bird droppings, further displaying protective colouration of the species. During the transition between the third and fourth instars, the larvae also develop strong spines along their backs. Decreased predation by birds on "P. c-album" third-instar larvae has been shown compared to other larval stages, indicating that the spines increase defence. However, this appears to provide limited protection as some birds were able to consume the larvae despite the appearance of spikes.

Adult.

Adults also make use of camouflage. The underside of adult wings mimic the patterns of a fallen leaf. The similarity is further exaggerated by the irregular wing edges, not resembling a typical butterfly, that are characteristic of the genus "Polygonia". The butterflies can also undergo one of two morphs: directly developing (summer) or diapausing (spring/winter). The diapausing morph is triggered when resources are allocated to survival, resulting in a less conspicuous, darker appearance of adults to avoid predation.

Physiology.

Diapause.

Under cold winter conditions, adults can undergo diapause, a period of delayed sexual maturation to maximize survival. The diapause morph is based upon the length of the day that the larvae experienced during the development stage of the life cycle. The diapausing morph is more commonly observed in "P. c-album" butterflies inhabiting south Europe, North Africa, and Asia. The threshold for the photoperiod triggering diapause is primarily due to autosomal genes but may also be influenced by sex-linked genes and/or parental effects. Females tend to enter a diapause based on a photoperiod that is intermediate to the parents, and males are more likely to enter diapause than females. This indicates that males and females have evolved different optimal lifecycles. Females profit from larger body size, because it is correlated with fecundity whereas male fitness is not related to size.

Thermoregulation.

Although dark appearances such as the early instars and the diapause morph are commonly seen in species as a means of thermoregulation, the behaviour of commas makes the theory unlikely for this species. During the first three instars, the cryptically coloured larvae spend most of their time under leaves, limiting their exposure to the sun. Although the later instar larvae are more dispersive in search of food resources, basking is very rarely observed. Thus, their body temperatures do not elevate dramatically in the presence of sunshine, decreasing the effect that dark exteriors customarily have on biological processes such as metabolism and development rate. However, "P. c-album" larvae are observed basking during the two later instars. This may be explained by the resemblance that the later instar larvae have to bird droppings, which would limit predation despite increasing exposure to predators. Thermoregulatory behaviours may have a much more pronounced effect on later instar larvae but do not appear to affect the first three larval stages.

Polyphenism.

Comma adults are dimorphic. The two phases are the directly developing morph (summer morph) and the diapausing morph (winter/spring morph). The two morphs are determined by autosomal genes, which determine which phase the adults will undergo based on the length of the day experienced during the larval stage. During winter, the length of the day is short, and butterfly survival rate is lower. To allow the adults to survive through the cold winter and oviposit during the spring, the adults go through the diapausing morph which feature darker wings for greater protective colouration during hibernation. When the photoperiods are longer during summertime, the adults go through the directly developing phase with a lighter appearance. The lighter appearance is attributed to fewer resources allocated to producing a protective appearance and more resources used to assist reproduction.

Interactions with humans.

Climate change.

Climate change has dramatically affected the habitat ranges of the comma, encouraging range expansion and feeding upon a wider variety of host plants. In Britain, comma butterflies have shown the greatest shift in habitat and feeding resources, altering its preferred host plant from "H. lupulus" to "U. glabra" and "U. dioica". The movement of the distribution appears to be following a change in climate. Although not a migrating butterfly species, the butterflies at the edges of the range show much higher dispersal tendencies than those living within the range.

Population change.

In the 19th century, the British population of the comma crashed, possibly as a result of reduced hop ("H. lupulus") farming. From about 1930 the population recovered, and the comma is now one of the more familiar butterflies in Southern England. It is also found in Scotland and in North Wales. Since the 1970s in Britain, specialist butterflies have decreased in population as their preferred habitat and host plants area becomes smaller. On the other hand, generalist species such as "P. c-album" have started to expand their range. In particular, comma butterflies have expanded along the northern edge of their range.

Polygonia c-album, the comma, is a food generalist (polyphagous) butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae. The angular notches on the edges of the forewings are characteristic of the genus "Polygonia", which is why species in the genus are commonly referred to as anglewing butterflies. Comma butterflies can be identified by their prominent orange and dark brown/black dorsal wings.


Style.

Montaigne wrote in a rather crafted rhetoric designed to intrigue and involve the reader, sometimes appearing to move in a stream-of-thought from topic to topic and at other times employing a structured style that gives more emphasis to the didactic nature of his work. His arguments are often supported with quotations from Ancient Greek, Latin, and Italian texts such as "De rerum natura" by Lucretius and the works of Plutarch. Furthermore, his "Essays" were seen as an important contribution to both writing form and skepticism. The name itself comes from the French word "essais", meaning "attempts" or "tests", which shows how this new form of writing did not aim to educate or prove. Rather, his essays were exploratory journeys in which he works through logical steps to bring skepticism to what is being discussed.

Content.

Montaigne's stated goal in his book is to describe himself with utter frankness and honesty (""bonne foi""). The insight into human nature provided by his essays, for which they are so widely read, is merely a by-product of his introspection. Though the implications of his essays were profound and far-reaching, he did not intend, nor suspect his work to garner much attention outside of his inner circle, prefacing his essays with, "I am myself the matter of this book; you would be unreasonable to suspend your leisure on so frivolous and vain a subject."  Montaigne's essay topics spanned the entire spectrum of the profound to the trivial, with titles ranging from "Of Sadness and Sorrow" and "Of Conscience" to "Of Smells" and "Of Posting" (referring to posting letters). Montaigne wrote at a time preceded by Catholic and Protestant ideological tension. Christianity in the 15th and 16th centuries saw protestant authors consistently attempting to subvert Church doctrine with their own reason and scholarship. Consequently, Catholic scholars embraced skepticism as a means to discredit all reason and scholarship and accept Church doctrine through faith alone.  Montaigne never found certainty in any of his inquiries into the nature of man and things, despite his best efforts and many attempts. He mistrusted the certainty of both human reason and experience. He reasoned that while man is finite, truth is infinite; thus, human capacity is naturally inhibited in grasping reality in its fullness or with certainty. Though he did believe in the existence of absolute truth, he believed that such truth could only be arrived at by man through divine revelation, leaving us in the dark on most matters. He finds the great variety and volatility of human nature to be its most basic features, which resonates to the Renaissance thought about the fragility of humans. According to the scholar Paul Oskar Kristeller, "the writers of the period were keenly aware of the miseries and ills of our earthly existence". A representative quote is "I have never seen a greater monster or miracle than myself."  Citing the case of Martin Guerre as an example, Montaigne believes that humans cannot attain certainty. His philosophical skepticism is best expressed in the long essay "An Apology for Raymond Sebond" (Book 2, Chapter 12) in which he embraced the philosophy of Pyrrhonism. Montaigne posits that we cannot trust our reasoning because thoughts just occur to us: we don't truly control them. Further, he says we do not have good reasons to consider ourselves superior to the animals. He is highly skeptical of confessions obtained under torture, pointing out that such confessions can be made up by the suspect just to escape the torture he is subjected to. In the middle of the section normally entitled "Man's Knowledge Cannot Make Him Good," he wrote that his motto was "What do I know?". The essay on Sebond defended Christianity. Montaigne also eloquently employed many references and quotes from classical Greek and Roman, i.e. non-Christian authors, especially the atomist Lucretius.  Montaigne considered marriage necessary for the raising of children, but disliked the strong feelings of romantic love as being detrimental to freedom. One of his quotations is "Marriage is like a cage; one sees the birds outside desperate to get in, and those inside desperate to get out."  In education, he favored concrete examples and experience over the teaching of abstract knowledge that is expected to be accepted uncritically. Montaigne's essay "On the Education of Children" is dedicated to Diana of Foix.  He opposed European colonization of the Americas, deploring the suffering it brought upon the natives.

Chronology.

Montaigne heavily edited "Essays" at various points in his life. Sometimes he would insert just one word, while at other times he would insert whole passages. Many editions mark this with letters as follows:  A copy of the fifth edition of the "Essais" with Montaigne's own "C" additions in his own hand exists, preserved at the Municipal Library of Bordeaux (known to editors as the "Bordeaux Copy"). This edition gives modern editors a text dramatically indicative of Montaigne's final intentions (as opposed to the multitude of Renaissance works for which no autograph exists). Analyzing the differences and additions between editions show how Montaigne's thoughts evolved over time. Remarkably, he does not seem to remove previous writings, even when they conflict with his newer views.

Influence.

The remarkable modernity of thought apparent in Montaigne's essays, coupled with their sustained popularity, made them arguably the most prominent work in French philosophy until the Enlightenment. Their influence over French education and culture is still strong. The official portrait of former French president François Mitterrand pictured him facing the camera, holding an open copy of the "Essays" in his hands.  English journalist and politician J. M. Robertson argued that Montaigne's essays had a profound influence on the plays of William Shakespeare, citing their similarities in language, themes and structures.

The Essays (, ) of Michel de Montaigne are contained in three books and 107 chapters of varying length. They were originally written in Middle French and were originally published in the Kingdom of France. Montaigne's stated design in writing, publishing and revising the "Essays" over the period from approximately 1570 to 1592 was to record "some traits of my character and of my humours." The "Essays" were first published in 1580 and cover a wide range of topics.


Gameplay.

"Panzer Dragoon" spans six levels, each lasting about five minutes, with a variety of boss battles. Over the course of the game, the plot is revealed through cutscenes using the game's own graphic engine. Gameplay consists of a player controlling a flying dragon and his rider through an aiming reticle that can be moved over the whole screen with the D-pad; the player must shoot a variety of enemies (ranging from machines to monsters) in a 3D post-apocalyptic fantasy environment of barren landscapes and mysterious ruins of a fallen civilization. Progression through the levels is made at a predetermined pace, as the player is constantly set along a rail of gameplay. The only time the game pauses is during boss battles. The field of vision can be directed with the aiming reticle on the x and y-axis, but the overall direction of travel is predetermined. The dragon follows the reticle movements, allowing the player to avoid enemy projectiles and obstacles.  The player has a full, 360-degree field of view, and can quickly look left, right, forward, and behind the dragon. Enemies come from all directions, varying in size and health, and also appear on an on-screen radar that monitors the dragon's surroundings. Two weapons are available: the rider's handgun, which can be fired with a single button press when an enemy enters the aiming reticle, and the homing laser fired by the dragon, which can lock on up to eight enemies by moving the reticle over them while holding down the fire button. Some situations with many enemies on screen require the use of the lock-on laser, while in others, quick gunshots to weak spots will prove more efficient.

Plot.

In the distant future, thousands of years after a great war between humans and their biologically engineered weapons, humans live in everything from small tribes to large nations. One nation, the Empire, has discovered a black tower in the middle of a lake near their capital, which gave them access to large amounts of ancient weapons which they used to beat back and control the ever present monsters in the world. The Imperials were corrupted by this power and became conquerors of others as opposed to liberators from a violent world.  The introduction movie opens with the protagonist, Keil Fluge (unnamed in the North American version), hunting in a canyon. After seeing an Imperial flying battleship in the sky, he is attacked by two creatures and chases one of them to a large, ancient complex built directly into the rock. He explores the ruin, and sees relics of old technology still hanging from the ceilings. Another gigantic creature suddenly attacks him, and though his weapon is useless against the armored creature, a rumbling triggers a cave in, which crushes the monster and saves Keil. From the newly created hole, an armored, blue dragon flies down the cavern with a rider across its shoulders, being chased by an even bigger black dragon as the cavern is destroyed in an explosion. Regaining consciousness outside, Keil sees the two dragons locked in combat in the air before him. Dodging a blast from the black dragon, the blue dragon's rider is then hit by single shot to the chest, and the black dragon flies away. The blue dragon flies towards Keil. A psychic connection is made between the rider and Keil, who is told not to let the black dragon reach the black tower. The rider then dies and Keil picks up his fallen gun, climbs atop the dragon and flies away, determined to finish the rider's quest.  During the first level of the game, Keil and his dragon fly through a drowned city, where they encounter a small Imperial patrol ship. That ship sends a report to a large fleet of ships flying above the clouds. It is revealed that the Imperial forces are specifically searching for the blue dragon. The second level is a desert, where Keil and the dragon encounter gigantic worm-like creatures. At the stormy edge of the desert, they are confronted by the Black Dragon, which is defeated and speeds away. The third level is a mountainous landscape at night-time where Keil and the dragon get reacquainted with the Imperial forces, which were exploring ancient ruins. These encounters illustrate the ongoing conflict between the Imperial forces and the ancient machines and creatures. The fourth level is an ancient facility in which Keil and the dragon are pursued by both Imperial airships and cybernetic sentinels left behind by the ancient civilization. During the fifth level, they defeat a large armada of the most powerful Imperial ships over a forested area. A cutscene then shows a fleet of dragon-like creatures coming out of the tower to attack the Imperial forces. The sixth level features the black dragon and Keil racing through the battle-scarred Imperial capital. During this, they are both waylaid by the creatures and machines seen attacking the Imperial fleet around the tower while also being fired on by Imperial defenses. The black dragon then reaches the Tower and is mutated into a gigantic super-dragon and begins a climactic battle with Keil and the blue dragon, after which the black dragon is defeated and falls into the ocean.  In the ending cutscene, Keil and the dragon enter the tower. While traveling down a long corridor, the dragon surrounds Keil in a force field, lifting him from the saddle and suspending him in the hallway. Keil watches as the dragon continues on to the core of the tower, then a blinding light is seen and the tower explodes. Keil wakes up some time later in a desert area abutting the ocean. Looking down, he sees the foot prints of the blue dragon around him, indicating that after the explosion, the dragon carried him to safety and flew away.

Development.

"Panzer Dragoon" was created in the early 1990s as the Japanese video game company Sega was preparing to release its Saturn console. In 1993, as the Saturn lacked third-party games, Sega asked its developers for game ideas; according to art director Manabu Kusunoki, Sega asked for shooting game ideas to add variety to the Saturn's launch library. Twenty-three-year-old Yukio Futatsugi, who had joined Sega only two years before, proposed several concepts, including "Panzer Dragoon". Futatsugi became the head of Team Andromeda, a development team that Sega assembled for the project in early 1994 and was built around the duo formed by Futatsugi and Kusunoki. Development lasted almost a year, with a staff of 15.  The project was designed as arcade-style, as core members of the team like Kusunoki came from Sega's arcade department. Team Andromeda wanted to create a fully 3D arcade game, having worked on similar games such as "Out Run" which were not truly 3D. With influences including "Space Harrier", "Starblade", "Star Fox", and "RayForce", the project became a 3D rail shooter. Usually, in 3D shooters, the player rides a 3D object like a jet fighter or a tank. Futatsugi and Kusunoki decided, however, that it would be more original for the player to ride an armored dragon, a living creature which would also allow for richer animations. The game's name originates from its original concept, referred to as "armored dragon" ("kiko-ryu" in Japanese), but Futatsugi, feeling that this was too bland, decided to translate it to German.  With this basic concept in mind, the creators had 3 months to define a visual identity and a setting for their game, prior to development. The game would be set in a post-apocalyptic science fantasy world, featuring ruins and relics of a fallen civilization and mankind struggling for survival, something typical in anime at that time. Futatsugi was particularly influenced by one of his childhood readings, "The Long Afternoon of Earth", a science-fiction novel by Brian Aldiss, in which one side of the earth became perpetually hot, the other perpetually cold. The first presentation video featured a green dragon, in line with traditional European/medieval depictions, however the team quickly decided to change it and make it "more sci-fi". In order for the dragon to be more original, it was made blue and covered in a white, bone-like armor. The dragon was supposed to come from the ancient times, so ruins and ancient flying technology also featured this white, shell-like material.  The overall fantasy look of the game's world, which mixed natural and technological elements, was also chosen in order to set it apart from classic science-fiction 3D games of the time. This world, as well as dragon and character designs, were mainly the work of Manabu Kusunoki, who took inspiration from various sources, including anime and manga, and who pushed the art direction toward a more Turkish/Ottoman style to avoid the European aesthetics of the early presentation video. Critics have noted similarities with the works of French artist Moebius (notably his comic book "Arzach",) of whom Kusunoki was a fan, as well as with Hayao Miyazaki's "Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind", and David Lynch's "Dune" movie. Kentaro Yoshida, texturing and modeling artist, described the creation process as similar in style to "Star Wars", in that it "made an unearthly world appear so real". Takashi Iwade, in charge of the opening cutscene and character models, designed the enemies using a lot of various influences: "I got inspiration from antique clocks and various industrial products from the era of the industrial revolution for mechanics, and myriapods, marine mollusks, ammonite, and a rusty fishing boat for creatures when I started thinking of the original battleship". The team wanted a famous artist to make the game's cover art. Manabu Kusunoki suggested Moebius, who accepted, and the team sent him designs that he was to interpret. The resulting illustration was used as the cover art for the Japanese release of the game.  The Saturn's hardware was new to the team, and it was their first attempt at creating an original environment. It was also Futatsugi's first year working as a full developer at Sega, so he was only able to do simple things while having a clear vision of what he wanted, which helped him to keep the overall style pure, with stark and minimalist cutscenes. Similarly, Iwade kept the enemies easy to understand visually, with simple shapes, and this overall simple style ended up fitting well with the Saturn's hardware. Then, Team Andromeda set to work on elaborating an extensive back story, and Futatsugi, to be original and to avoid using Japanese or English, went so far as to create a new language for the game: a mix of Ancient Greek, Latin and Russian. This was apparently inspired by the anime "The Wings of Honneamise", of which team members were fans and which also features an invented language.  After the story and art were established, the team set to work on the graphics. Working on new hardware proved difficult for the young team, and the game ended up missing the initial deadline given by Sega, which was the Saturn Japanese launch on November 1994. One of the problems was that the Saturn hardware was only finalized in mid-1994, and without actual Saturn prototype to test their progress, the programmers initially had to work with hypothetical hardware performance. Team Andromeda created its own graphics library and mapping tools instead of using Sega's, in order to make the most of their first game on the new system. The game's graphics and cutscenes were done with Softimage, and the 3D elements were programmed on SGI workstations using OpenGL. The programmers were eventually able to transition to the debug Saturn they had received, but the process was difficult and the game had a very low frame rate at first, before it could be locked at 20 FPS. The six levels of "Panzer Dragoon" are barren landscapes with ancient ruins, which is consistent with the "simple" style appropriate for the Saturn. The first two levels that the team programmed, a desert (level 2) and a forest (level 5), did not have any objects or anything besides sand and forest effects, again because the team was unsure how far the hardware could be pushed. Keeping CPU limitations in mind, simple tornado effects were added to level 2, so that it did not look too bland.  Work on the soundtrack began after completion of the game, similar to the way movie soundtracks are made. The idea was to create music that would specifically reflect each level art-style and events. As the game had an "on rail" progression system, the developers knew exactly where the player would be at any given time, so they showed videos to the composer and asked him to write specifically timed pieces that would match the player's progression in each level. The soundtrack was outsourced to Yoshitaka Azuma, who was composing music for NHK TV programs at that time. The music of "Panzer Dragoon" is a mix between orchestral and synthesizer tracks.  Sega of America made several alterations to the game to make the North American release more challenging. These alterations were retained in the PAL version.

Releases.

"Panzer Dragoon" was released in Japan on March 10, 1995, North America on May 11, 1995, and Europe on August 30, 1995, on the Sega Saturn console. It was followed by "Panzer Dragoon II Zwei" (1996) and "Panzer Dragoon Saga" (1998), both for Saturn, and "Panzer Dragoon Orta" (2002) for Xbox.  In 1996, "Panzer Dragoon" was ported to Windows. Identical to the Saturn version except with a higher resolution, this version was also included as a bonus in "Panzer Dragoon Orta". Aside from providing the source code, Team Andromeda had no involvement in the development of the Windows version.  An updated version of "Panzer Dragoon" was included in the Japan-only "Sega Ages 2500" collection for PlayStation 2 in 2003. The port was handled by development studio Land Ho!, and features the original Saturn game and an "arrange" version with anti-aliasing filter, better texturing, and improved 3D models for the dragon and some enemies. The "arrange" version also adds unlockable extras such as level selection and artworks, in the form of a "Pandora's Box" option menu.

Reception.

"Panzer Dragoon" received positive reviews, both in 1995 and in retrospective coverage. Though sales were not as high as Sega expected, possibly due to the success of Sony's PlayStation console over the Saturn, they were substantial enough for Sega to develop sequels.  As one of the first Saturn titles, the game was highly anticipated by journalists after its appearance in promotional material. A reviewer for "Next Generation" said the game "orchestrates incredible story animation with brilliant, 3D flight graphics to create what is, basically, the ultimate evolution of "Space Harrier"." He also highly praised the gameplay, particularly the variety of enemies, the difficulty slope, and the controls. Ed Semrad and Danyon Carpenter from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" praised the game for its "innovative game play" and its "awe-inspiring visuals" from the opening cinematic to the backgrounds and the dragon's animations. Al Manuel and Ken Williams criticized the game's lack of diversity in weapons and its predetermined progression; but the four "EGM" reviewers agreed that it was a must-have game for Saturn owners. Similarly, The Unknown Gamer from "GamePro" called the game a "masterpiece", highlighted its high-quality graphics and music, and described the story as "captivat[ing]". However, the journalist noted the game's overall difficulty "will single out all but advanced players" with its lack of power-ups or extra lives of any kind. Nevertheless, the game was seen as a good example of the Saturn's capabilities. In contrast, a reviewer from "Maximum" said that the game was much too easy even on the highest difficulty setting, greatly reducing its already low longevity. He also said the gameplay would be too simplistic for many players, with its on-rails shooting and selection of only two weapons, but was overall very positive in his assessment of the game, highly praising the 360 degrees of rotation and most especially the textured 3D graphics of the enemies, settings, and bosses.  Patrick Baggatta from "Game Players" stated that while the game may come off as "just a simple shooter", it is at least a "very good one" that "puts a twist on the tired formula", again praising the game play and the variety in camera angles. Chris Gore from "VideoGames & Computer Entertainment" named the game "the best shooter since "Star Fox"", and a must-have for fantasy and sci-fi fans, with its "eerie" atmosphere noted by editor Betty Hallock. While the story itself was said to be "somewhat typical" and editor Chris Bieniek criticized the on-rail aspect, Gore noted the game's "spectacular visuals", and presented it as one of the Saturn's system sellers. "Famitsu" magazine's Reader Cross Review gave the game a 9 out of 10 in April 1995, and it was named "Best Saturn Game of 1995" by "Electronic Gaming Monthly" in their 1996 "Buyers' Guide". The game's universe itself was deemed "coolly surreal" by Entertainment Weekly reviewer Albert Kim, who thought the game's seven-minute "movie-quality" introduction was "gorgeous" and "nearly overshadowed the game itself". Kim argued that "Panzer Dragoon" could be seen as a "lyrical and exhilarating epic", a "story, not just a game" which could pave the way for a "transformation" of the videogame industry. Film director Steven Spielberg approached Team Andromeda to say he was impressed by the game's presentation at the 1995 E3 show.  James Mielke from online game magazine 1UP.com gave "Panzer Dragoon" a retroactive review of 8/10 for what the game offered in 1995, but gave it a modern score of 6/10. Mielke highlighted the music as "one of the finest game soundtracks ever produced," but said that the game itself "staggers a bit under the glaring light of a critical rereview[sic]", arguing it is "little more than Space Harrier with a 3D camera and cut-scenes." By contrast, Levi Buchanan from IGN gave the game a retrospective score of 9/10, opining that "the fact that Panzer Dragoon holds up as well in 2008 as it did in 1995 is a just testament to the staying power of good art and tight gameplay." Kurt Kalata, in a Gamasutra retrospective, also praised its art and universe, but said the actual game looked "a bit cut and dried" compared to its sequels. "Panzer Dragoon" ranked 140th in "EGM"′s "The Greatest 200 Videogames of their time" feature published in 2006.

Remake.

A remake of "Panzer Dragoon" was developed by MegaPixel Studio and published by Forever Entertainment in March 2020 for Nintendo Switch. It was released on Google Stadia on 1 June, with a Windows version scheduled later in 2020.  The remake features updated graphics and an optional new control system that allows players to aim independently of movement with the second control stick. Switch reviewers criticized the updated controls and short length, and "Metro" felt the art direction was inferior, with "extraneous detail that ruins the mood and makes the fantasy world seem a lot more generic". "Nintendo Life" concluded that it was "a decent take on an all-time classic that goes some way to modernising it, but doesn't quite nail the landing".

As one of six games available at the Sega Saturn's surprise North American launch, "Panzer Dragoon" was the first game created by Team Andromeda. The game also marked the directorial debut of game designer Yukio Futatsugi, who was 25 years old at the time of the game's release.