Football.

The men's team currently plays in the Kreisliga C Köln which is the sixth division in Middle Rhine region. The women's squad played mostly second tier football with a few seasons in the third tier in between. Since the team left the club in 2008 TuS tried to establish a new women's football division of their own, and they did in 2010 after seeing an increase in their membership. The women's team restarted in the 1. Kreisklasse where they won all their games unbeaten to earn the championship but were not promoted, and entered next season's Kreisliga A, the lowest division, where they play since then.

Seasons.

TuS Köln rrh. had already had a women's team for several years when the women's football department of SSG Bergisch Gladbach joined the club in July 1996. The former team of Bergisch Gladbach had played in the Regionalliga where they continued to play at TuS. In 1999 the team was relegated to the Verbandsliga but managed promotion back to the Regionalliga immediately. Afterwards the club stayed for several seasons in the Regionalliga. When TuS qualified for the 2nd Bundesliga at its inception in 2004 the club was not able to meet the organizational requirements of a promotion. TuS qualified again in the following season and this time took advantage of their right for promotion. The team achieved mid-table results in the following three, but left the club at the end of June 2008, expecting better general conditions for promotion to the Bundesliga at Bayer Leverkusen.

TuS Köln rrh. is a multi-sports club from the Höhenberg district of Cologne. The club was founded in 1874 and offers football, track and field, swimming, tennis, gymnastics, karate, rugby, and volleyball. While the club's sports sections are mostly committed to amateur sports the club is best known for its former women's football department. TuS had taken over the women's team from the record champion SSG Bergisch Gladbach in 1996, but the team left the club in 2008 to join Bayer Leverkusen.


Definition.

Schottky defects consist of unoccupied anion and cation sites in a stoichiometric ratio. For a simple ionic crystal of type AB, a Schottky defect consists of a single anion vacancy (A) and a single cation vacancy (B), or v + v following Kröger–Vink notation. For a more general crystal with formula AB, a Schottky cluster is formed of x vacancies of A and y vacancies of B, thus the overall stoichiometry and charge neutrality are conserved.  Schottky defects are observed most frequently when there is a small difference in size between the cations and anions that make up a material. They can be produced as the result of the thermal incorporation of unoccupied lattice sites from the exterior of the crystal. The lattice undergoes thermal vibration and thermal expansion when the temperature is raised. When this happens a pair of vacancies is incorporated in the crystal and charge neutrality is maintained. The ion which is missing from the lattice point occupies an interstitial position.

Bound and dilute defects.

The vacancies that make up the Schottky defects have opposite charge, thus they experience a mutually attractive Coulomb force. If sufficient thermal energy is available the vacancies may migrate through the crystal lattice, and form bound clusters.  The bound clusters are typically less mobile than the dilute counterparts, as multiple species need to move in a concerted motion for the whole cluster to migrate. This has important implications for numerous functional ceramics used in a wide range of applications, including ion conductors, Solid oxide fuel cells and nuclear fuel.

Examples.

This type of defect is typically observed in highly ionic compounds, highly coordinated compounds, and where there is only a small difference in sizes of cations and anions of which the compound lattice is composed. Typical salts where Schottky disorder is observed are NaCl, KCl, KBr, CsCl and AgBr. For engineering applications, Schottky defects are important in oxides with Fluorite structure, such as CeO, cubic ZrO, UO, ThO and PuO.

Effect on density.

Since the total number of ions present in the crystal with this defect is less than the theoretical number of ions for a crystal of its volume, the density of the solid crystal is less than the theoretical density of the material.

A Schottky defect is a type of point defect in a crystal lattice named after Walter H. Schottky. In non-ionic crystals it refers to lattice valency defects.


History.

The parish of Ølen was established as a municipality on 1 July 1916 when it was split off from the large municipality of Fjelberg. Initially, Ølen had 1,715 residents. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the neighboring municipality of Vikebygd was dissolved and the eastern half of it (population: 578) was merged into the municipality of Ølen.  On 1 January 2002, the municipality of Ølen was transferred administratively from Hordaland county to Rogaland county. On 1 January 2003, the people of Ølen and the neighboring municipality of Vindafjord held a merger referendum which was successful. On 1 January 2006, Ølen and Vindafjord merged, forming a larger municipality called Vindafjord. Before the merger, Ølen had a population of 3,426. The coat of arms of the new Vindafjord municipality bears the design of the old Ølen arms and the colours of the old Vindafjord arms.

Government.

All municipalities in Norway, including Ølen, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elects a mayor. The municipality fell under the Haugaland District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council.

The municipal council of Ølen was made up of 21 representatives that were elected to four-year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council of Ølen was as follows:

Ølen is a former municipality in the Vestlandet region of Norway. The municipality existed from 1916 until 2006, and originally it was a part of Hordaland county, but in 2002 it was transferred to Rogaland county prior to its dissolution in 2006. The municipality was located on the south side of the Bjoafjorden and east of the Ålfjorden. The administrative center of Ølen was the village of Ølensjøen. The municipality of Ølen makes up the northern part of the present-day Vindafjord Municipality in Rogaland county.


Design.

"Nürnberg" was long overall and had a beam of and a maximum draft of forward. She displaced at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of two steam turbines and four MAN two-stroke double-acting diesel engines. Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine-type double-ended oil-fired boilers. The ship's propulsion system provided a top speed of and a range of approximately at using only the diesel engines. "Nürnberg" had a crew of 25 officers and 648 enlisted men. She was fitted with a catapult and a crane to handle two Heinkel He 60 floatplanes, though these were later replaced with Arado Ar 196 models.  The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets. One was located forward, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft, all on the centerline. They were supplied with between 1,080 and 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for between 120 and 166 shells per gun. The ship was also equipped with eight 8.8 cm SK C/32 anti-aircraft guns, eight 3.7 cm SK C/30 anti-aircraft guns, and several 2 cm anti-aircraft guns, though the number of the latter changed over her career. "Nürnberg" also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships; they were supplied with twenty-four torpedoes. She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was thick amidships and an armored belt that was thick. The conning tower had thick sides.

Modifications.

After the outbreak of war, the ship was fitted with a degaussing coil to protect her against magnetic mines. In 1942, the ship's aircraft handling equipment and aft torpedo tubes were removed. Throughout the war, her radar suite was upgraded; in March 1941, she was equipped with FuMO 21 radar and in early 1942, a FuMO 25 radar set was installed. The latter was a search radar for surface targets and low-flying aircraft at low range. The FuMO 21 set was replaced by the short-range FuMO 63 "Hohentwiel" 50-centimeter radar. "Nürnberg" was also fitted with four Metox radar warning receivers.  The ship's anti-aircraft battery was improved over the course of World War II. In late 1942, a pair of Army-variant 2 cm "Flakvierling" quadruple mounts were installed, one on the navigating bridge and the other on top of the aft superfiring turret. In May 1944, the navy proposed installing several Bofors 40 mm guns, but most of these weapons were diverted to other uses, and only two guns were installed. One was mounted on the bridge and the other where the catapult had been located. Two Navy-pattern "Flakvierling"s were added; one replaced the Army model atop the aft superfiring turret, and the other was placed in front of the anti-aircraft fire director. The Army-pattern "Flakvierling"s were moved to the main deck. In December 1944, another revised anti-aircraft plan was proposed, this time incorporating the new 3.7 cm FlaK 43 gun, of which there were to be eight, along with two "Flakvierling"s and ten 2 cm twin mounts. Germany's wartime situation by the end of 1944 prevented these changes from being made, however.

Service history.

"Nürnberg" was laid down in 1934 at the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel. She was launched on 6 December 1934 and completed in less than a year, being commissioned on 2 November 1935. The ship thereafter worked up in the Baltic Sea until April 1936, when she joined and for a training cruise into the Atlantic. At this time, she was made the flagship of the reconnaissance forces of the German Navy. The three cruisers then returned to the Baltic for additional maneuvers. "Nürnberg" participated the non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39. On her initial deployment in 1936, she flew the flag of "Konteradmiral" Hermann Boehm. Over the course of the conflict, "Nürnberg" conducted four patrols off Spain, but did not encounter any belligerent forces, with the exception of a claimed attack by an unidentified submarine south of the Balearic Islands on 16 July 1937.  In September 1937, "Nürnberg" took part in fleet maneuvers with the heavy cruisers and, the light cruisers "Leipzig" and, and several destroyers. The first three months of 1938 were spent in the Baltic, after which "Nürnberg" went into dock for a periodic refit. In June, she went on a training cruise to Norway and returned to Germany the following month. In August, she was present at the fleet review held in Kiel for Adolf Hitler and the visiting regent of Hungary, Miklós Horthy. "Nürnberg" joined the fleet that was sent to Memel in March 1939 to seize the region. After completing the occupation, "Nürnberg" joined "Admiral Graf Spee", "Leipzig", and "Köln" for a training cruise to the Mediterranean Sea, which included several stops in Spanish ports. After returning to Germany in May, she resumed training in the Baltic.

World War II.

At the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939, "Nürnberg" was assigned to the blockade force that was intended to prevent the Polish Navy from escaping from the Baltic. Despite the Germans' efforts, several Polish destroyers and submarines escaped to Britain, where they continued the war. On 3 September, "Nürnberg" and the rest of the cruisers were withdrawn to the North Sea to lay a series of defensive minefields to protect the German coastline. She returned to the Baltic for training exercises in October. The following month, she was transferred back to the North Sea, where she was tasked with escorting destroyers laying minefields off the British coast. On 4–6 December, the ship conducted a mining operation off Kristiansand, Norway.  On 13 December, while escorting a group of destroyers returning from a mine-laying operation off the British coast, the Royal Navy submarine launched a spread of torpedoes at the German flotilla. Two torpedo tracks were spotted heading toward "Nürnberg", and the ship turned hard to port in an attempt to evade them. One passed harmlessly ahead of the ship, but the second struck her in the bow. "Nürnberg" reduced speed to to allow her crew to inspect the damage, when three more torpedo tracks were spotted to port. The ship immediately accelerated to full speed and turned to starboard; the torpedoes exploded in the cruiser's wake. The hit caused some minor flooding and minimal damage, but her watertight bulkheads held. The Germans spotted "Salmon" and briefly engaged her with "Nürnberg"s rearmost main battery turret, but to no effect. "Nürnberg" thereafter got underway at a speed of and made for port. unsuccessfully attacked the damaged cruiser the following day, just before she entered the Kiel Canal at Brunsbüttel. After arriving in Kiel, "Nürnberg" went into drydock at Deutsche Werke for repairs, which lasted until April 1940.  In early June 1940, "Nürnberg"s commander, "Kapitän zur See" ("KzS") Otto Klüber, was informed that the ship would not participate in Operation Juno, a sortie by the battleships and. Instead, she was transferred to Norway, departing Kiel on 10 June under the escort of the torpedo boats and. On 12 June, the torpedo boats were sent to Stavanger for fuel, and in the meantime, "Nürnberg" steamed a zig-zag course at to evade any submarines that might be in the area. The following day, the 2nd Minesweeper Flotilla took over her escort duty off Trondheim. On 17 June, "Nürnberg" reached Narvik, which was to be her base for the next month. During this period, one of her Arado Ar 196 floatplanes unsuccessfully attacked a British submarine. This was the only action the ship saw while in Norway. On 25 July, "Nürnberg" and several destroyers and torpedo boats escorted the damaged battleship "Gneisenau", which had been torpedoed by a British submarine, from Trondheim, Norway, to Kiel. The flotilla arrived in Kiel on 28 July.  On 8 August, "KzS" Leo Kreisch replaced Klüber as the ship's commander. "Nürnberg" spent the rest of the year in the Baltic. The Italian Admiral Mavagini visited the ship while she was in Gotenhafen in September. A short refit was conducted at Deutsche Werke in October and November. On 15 February 1941, she was reclassified as a training cruiser and assigned to the Fleet Training Squadron, along with the other surviving light cruisers. These ships were tasked with training the crews for the U-boat arm, which was expanding rapidly to wage the Battle of the Atlantic. At the start of this period, many of her crewmen were themselves transferred to the U-boat fleet. After the outbreak of war with the Soviet Union in June 1941, "Nürnberg" was reassigned to the Baltic Fleet, which was centered on the new battleship. After it became clear that the Soviet Baltic Fleet did not intend to sortie, the German ships were dispersed. "Nürnberg" returned to her training duties for the remainder of the year. Another refit was conducted in January 1942; during this period, her aircraft equipment and aft torpedo tubes were removed, and her light anti-aircraft armament was increased. Allied air raids caused some damage, which delayed her return to service until 23 August.  She thereafter conducted sea trials until October, after which she was deployed to Norway. On 11 November, "Nürnberg" left Gotenhafen, bound for Trondheim. She arrived there on 18 November, and remained there until she was transferred to Bogen Bay outside Narvik on 2 December. There, she joined the fleet in being, which was, again, centered on "Tirpitz". "Nürnberg" saw no action during this period. On 27 April 1943, "Nürnberg" left Narvik for German waters via Trondheim. After arriving in Kiel on 3 May, she had her machinery overhauled. After the work was completed in late May, she was assigned to the Training Squadron in the Baltic. Frequent crew changes kept the ship at a very low state of readiness. She remained in this duty through 1944, and she saw no action. She was not assigned to the shore bombardment units that supported the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front, unlike most of the other ships of the Training Squadron.  At the start of 1945, she was assigned to mine-laying duty in the Skagerrak, and was based in Oslo, Norway. She completed only one mine-laying operation, Operation Titus, on 13 January. The forces assigned to the operation included two destroyers, two torpedo boats, and a mine-layer; "Nürnberg" herself carried 130 mines. Severe fuel shortages prevented any further operations. On 24 January, she steamed to Copenhagen, where she remained until the end of the war, as she had only of synthetic fuel oil aboard. On 5 May 1945, she received the ceasefire order, and on 22 May, the British cruisers and arrived to take over "Nürnberg".

Post-war service.

On 24 May, "Nürnberg" and the heavy cruiser sailed from Copenhagen under escort by "Devonshire", "Dido", and several other warships. The flotilla arrived in Wilhelmshaven on 28 May, and the German vessels remained there while their fates were determined at the Potsdam Conference. The Allies eventually decided to award "Nürnberg" to the Soviet Union. To prevent the Germans from scuttling their ships as they had done in 1919, the Allies formally seized the vessels on 19 December, while "Nürnberg" was in drydock. That day, the ship's Soviet crew came aboard. On 2 January, the Soviets took their seized warships, which also included the target ship, "Hessen"'s radio-control vessel "Blitz", the destroyer Z15 "Erich Steinbrinck", and the torpedo boats "T33" and "T107", to Libau in present-day Latvia.  The Soviet Navy examined the ship in great detail after she arrived in Libau. The cruiser was then renamed "Admiral Makarov" and assigned to the 8th Fleet, based in Tallinn. In late 1948, she became the flagship of the 8th Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral F. V. Zozulya. In the early 1950s, three new s entered service, which prompted the Soviet Navy to withdraw "Admiral Makarov" from front line duties. She returned to her old job as a training cruiser, this time based in Kronstadt in mid-1954. During this period, most of her light anti-aircraft armament was removed, and new radars were installed. Her ultimate fate is unclear; she appears to have been placed out of service by May 1959, and was scrapped some time thereafter, reportedly by mid-1960. Nevertheless, she was the longest-surviving major warship of the Kriegsmarine, and the only one to see active service after the end of the war.

Nürnberg was a German light cruiser of the built for the Kriegsmarine. She was named after the city of Nuremberg and had one sister ship,. "Nürnberg" was laid down in 1934, launched in December of that year, and completed in November 1935. She was armed with a main battery of nine guns in three triple turrets and could steam at a speed of. "Nürnberg" was the longest-serving major warship of the Kriegsmarine, and the only one to see active service after the end of World War II, though not in a German navy.


About the cave.

The Eberstadt Stalactite Cave is a dripstone cave in Bauland at the transition of Southeastern Odenwald in the North of Baden-Württemberg. It is near Eberstadt, a District of Buchen, around east of Heidelberg and north of Stuttgart.  The cave is long, its width varies between, and the height between. The cave temperature is constant at year-round, with a humidity of approximately 95%. The age of the cave is estimated at between one and two million years. During this time, all forms of sintering on the walls or on the cave floor have been created, including stalactites (dripping stones hanging from the cave ceiling) and stalagmite drips that grow up from the cave bottom.  Visitor access to the cave is by trails, and it is accessible for wheelchair users. It was adapted for high numbers of visitors, with a large parking lot at the foot of the cave, including for tourist buses. In 2011 a small visitor center openend with its architecture intending to symbolize the crevices and distortions of the Muschelkalk. It informs about landscape development in the karst of the area and the development of the cave. The city staffs tourguides, who lead groups through the cave for about an hour year-round between March to the end of October every day, during the winter months only on weekends and holidays. In 1995, a less than one-kilometer-long geological trail (0.6-mile) was created into the mining areas of the neighboring quarry. Information panels explain about the origin of the dripstone cave and the most important geological formations in Baden-Württemberg on the basis of exposed rock patterns.

History.

The cave owes its discovery to chance in a limestone quarry: On December 13th, 1971, a larger cavity was drilled in preparation of a blasting. After part of the demolished material had been cleared, a fresh cave wall running east to west, about eight meters high above the quarry floor and about ten meters below the upper level, showed a cavern opening about two meters wide and one meter high.  The floor of the cave covered a layer of clay about one to one and a half meters thick. The water was 10 to 15 centimeters above loamy-soft ground. The visit was therefore laborious at first. The most difficult passage was at Vesuvius, where a rock stage with a rope ladder, later with wooden ladders, had to be overcome.  The press was informed how preliminary explorations revealed the beauty of a natural monument, unique in southern Germany. On the same day the news of the cave discovery spread in the village. Many inhabitants went to the quarry to get a personal impression. Photographs still show intact dripping stones which were later damaged. On 14 December, the press and television reported on the discovery. On the following days the television broadcast several special transmissions, which made the cave widely known. In January 1972 the TV stations made further records of the cave, which showed it in its original, still untouched state. Immediately after the discovery, rumors spread that the cave was not stable and was to be closed again. In order to procure souvenirs, several people pushed into the cave and knocked dripping stones off.  Because the cave was particularly large and beautiful, and the dripping stones had a great variety of forms, it was found worthy for preservation and development. The Landratsamt Buchen presented them with an interim injunction under nature protection, and 6 years later it was classified as a natural monument (FND).  On 15 December 1971 the District Office of Buchen ordered the demolition of the stone quarries. Later, investigations of the stability of the cave ridges and the drip stones showed that quarrying could be maintained at the same time as the cave was used. The explosions in the quarry resumed at a minimum distance of 50 meters to the cave and an important employer of the municipality remained. On December 16, 1971, the town council decided to expand the dripstone cave into a show cave. In order to protect it against further damage, first the entrance was walled in and a door installed. This, too, proved unsuccessful as thieves descended from above and broke the door. Only barbed wire guards above and below the entrance and an additional state police patrol service each night succeeded. Geologists and cave explorers traveled to visit the cave. Experts from the Geological Land Office, the Association of German Cave and Karst Researchers and the Nature Conservation Commissioners advised on the expansion of the cave.

The Eberstadt Stalactite Cave (or Eberstadter Tropfsteinhöhle) is a German show cave located in Bauland at the transition of Southeastern Odenwald forest in the North of Baden-Württemberg. It is near Eberstadt, a District of Buchen, around east of Heidelberg and north of Stuttgart. The cave is around long, lies above sea level and is estimated to be 3 to 5 million years old. It was discovered in December 1971 after blasting operations in a Muschelkalk quarry, and opened to the public in 1973. Since then it has been used as a show cave and is one of the attractions of the "Geo-Nature park Bergstrasse-Odenwald".


Principles of Operation.

These antennas operate in 3 ways: traveling wave, fast wave, and leaky wave.  The traveling wave, formed on spiral arms, allows for broadband performance. Fast wave is due to mutual coupling phenomenon occurring between arms of spiral. Leaky wave “leaks” the energy during propagation through the spiral arms to produce radiation.  Ring theory (band theory) explains the working principle of spiral antenna. The theory states that spiral antenna radiates from an "active region" where the circumference of spiral equals the wavelength.

Design.

Different design parameters are to be considered while designing a square spiral antenna. The parameters include spacing between the turns formula_1, width of arm formula_2, inner radius formula_3 and outer radius formula_4. The inner radius is measured from center of the spiral to center of the first turn while the outer radius is measured from center of the spiral to center of the outermost turn. Other than these design parameters, spiral antennas have lowest (formula_5 and highest formula_6 operating frequencies. Here formula_7 corresponds to speed of light. In an formula_8 coordinate system, the spiral grows along the formula_9-axis and formula_10-axis simultaneously. All spirals satisfy formula_11 equation where formula_12 corresponds to growth factor and formula_13 corresponds to multiplication factor.  Different designs of spiral antenna can be obtained by varying number of turns it contains, the spacing between its turns and the width of its arm. A dielectric medium is used with a specific permittivity and dimensions over which the spiral is printed. Dielectric mediums like Rogers RT Duroid help in reducing the physical size of antenna. Thin substrates with higher permittivity can achieve the same result as thick substrates with lower permittivity. The only problem with such materials is their less availability and high costs.

Applications.

A spiral antenna transmits EM waves having a circular polarization. It will receive linearly polarized EM waves in any orientation, but will attenuate signals received with the opposite circular polarization. A spiral antenna will reject circularly polarized waves of one type, while receiving perfectly well waves having the other polarization.  One application of spiral antennas is wideband communications. Another application of spiral antennas is monitoring of the frequency spectrum. One antenna can receive over a wide bandwidth, for example a ratio 5:1 between the maximum and minimum frequency. Usually a pair of spiral antennas are used in this application, having identical parameters except the polarization, which is opposite (one is right-hand, the other left-hand oriented). Spiral antennas are useful for microwave direction-finding.

Elements.

The antenna includes two conductive spirals or arms, extending from the center outwards. The antenna may be a flat disc, with conductors resembling a pair of loosely nested clock springs, or the spirals may extend in a three-dimensional shape like a screw thread. The direction of rotation of the spiral defines the direction of antenna polarization. Additional spirals may be included as well, to form a multi-spiral structure. Usually the spiral is cavity-backed, that is there is a cavity of air or non-conductive material or vacuum, surrounded by conductive walls; the cavity changes the antenna pattern to a unidirectional shape. The output of the antenna is a balanced line. If one input or output line is desired, for example a coaxial line, then a balun or other device is added to so transform the signals.

In microwave systems, a spiral antenna is a type of RF antenna. It is shaped as a two-arm spiral, or more arms may be used. Spiral antennas were first described in 1956. Spiral antennas belong to the class of frequency independent antennas which operate over a wide range of frequencies. Polarization, radiation pattern and impedance of such antennas remain unchanged over large bandwidth. Such antennas are inherently circularly polarized with low gain. Array of spiral antennas can be used to increase the gain. Spiral antennas are reduced size antennas with its windings making it an extremely small structure. Lossy cavities are usually placed at the back to eliminate back lobes because a unidirectional pattern is usually preferred in such antennas. Spiral antennas are classified into different types; archimedean spiral, square spiral and star spiral etc. Archimedean spiral is the most popular configuration.


History.

An earlier Romanesque basilica from the 12th century stood in the place of the current church as part of an ensemble of ecclesial buildings, including a graveyard and administrative structures. This was a "Probstei" of the Benedictinians of Saalfeld Abbey. The existing St. Moriz church dates from the 14th century, which makes it Coburg's oldest existing church. Construction began around 1310. The earliest surviving section is the eastern choir, completed in 1330. In the 15th century, the west portal with its two towers was demolished and replaced by the current structure with its two dissimilar towers.  Reformation came early to Coburg, with preaching there in 1518. With Reformation, ownership of the church passed to the town, who took on the cost of operation. During the Easter week of 1530, Martin Luther gave several sermons at the Morizkirche.  In the late 17th century,, a writer of hymns, was parson and deacon at St Moriz.  The interior of the late Gothic hall church was refurbished in Baroque style in the middle of the 18th century. Thus most of what is visible of the interior today dates from the 1740-2 renovation. Architect Johann David Steingruber created the current structure with two galleries. In this refurbishment, much of the Gothic interior was destroyed or changed substantially. Most of the rich medieval features, such as 15 altars and valuable figures, had already been lost during the Reformation, however.  The church served as the burial place of the Ducal family until it became too small and a new mausoleum on the " was constructed in the 1850s, with financial support from the Royal houses of Belgium and the United Kingdom.  On 20 October 1932, Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden and Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the parents of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, were married at St. Moriz.  On 7 July 2018, Princess Stephanie of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, only daughter of Andreas, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha married at St. Moritz to Jan Stahl, an engineer with BMW.

Architecture and art.

The church contains the tomb of the Ducal family. It is dominated by the 13 m (47ft) high Renaissance alabaster epitaph for Duke Johann Friedrich II, by sculptor Nikolaus Bergner (finished in 1598).

Organ.

The organ by " was installed in 1989 into a reconstructed frame originally built by Wolfgang Heinrich Daum (1740).

Today.

The church is owned by the town of Coburg, but serves as main church of the Protestant congregation of St. Moriz.  As of early 2016, the church is closed for renovation.

Morizkirche (or "Stadtkirche St. Moriz") is a Protestant church dedicated to Saint Maurice in Coburg, Bavaria, Germany, and is the town's oldest church. Its earliest remaining structures date back to the 14th century, which superseded a church from the 12th century. Martin Luther is known to have given several sermons there in 1530 A.D. This church currently houses the family tomb of the Dukes of Coburg. In modern times, Morizkirche serves as the main church for the congregation of St. Moriz. Due to the height of its towers, the church is one of the landmarks of Coburg. It is also one of the most important Luther memorial sites in southern Germany.


Early life.

Joseph McGinty Nichol was born in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and grew up in Newport Beach, California. As his uncle and grandfather were also named Joe, his mother nicknamed him "McG" to avoid confusion.  McG attended Corona del Mar High School, where he met Mark McGrath. Initially he wanted to become the lead singer of a band he formed with McGrath. However, he failed as a front man and persuaded McGrath to take over. Instead he worked behind the scenes as producer and marketer for the band until he was 22. He then obtained a Bachelor of Arts in psychology from UC Irvine. The band had several hit singles as Sugar Ray, signed with a label, and went on tour. McG worked as a still photographer, shooting local bands and musicians. This led him to form a record label known as G Recordings in 1993.

Career.

Early work.

In 1995, McG produced Sugar Ray's first album and co-wrote several songs on their second, including their smash hit "Fly". His music career included directing over fifty music videos such as Smash Mouth's "All Star", The Offspring's "Pretty Fly (For a White Guy)", and directing documentaries on Korn and Sugar Ray. In 1997, he was awarded the Billboard's Pop Video of the Year Award for Smash Mouth's "Walking on the Sun" and the Music Video Production Association's Pop Video of the Year Award for Sugar Ray's "Fly". Eventually, this landed him in the television commercial business, directing advertisements for Major League Baseball and Coca-Cola. A notable one was a commercial for Gap, which was honored at the 1999 London International Film Festival.

2000–2007.

Impressed with McG's music videos, Drew Barrymore approached him about directing a "Charlie's Angels" film. He accepted, wanting to take on bigger projects, and pitched the movie to the studio executives, who were initially reluctant but later approved the project after much persistence. The film, for which he was paid $350,000, was released in 2000 and went on to gross over $250 million worldwide with mixed critical reception from critics and fans alike. However, he won the Hollywood Breakthrough Award at the 6th Annual Hollywood Film Festival held in 2002. Proving himself to be quite bankable, Sony paid him $2.5 million to helm the military action-drama "Dreadnought" for Red Wagon Entertainment. He was also set to develop a sequel to "Charlie's Angels" and present his film producing debut with "Airshow", the latter of which has yet to be made.  In February 2002, Jon Peters and Lorenzo di Bonaventura attached him onto the fifth installment in the "Superman" film series that was in development hell, thus putting his previous projects on hold. McG and Peters hired J. J. Abrams to pen a new script for the film entitled "Superman: Flyby", which was submitted in July 2002. Bailing out of the project in favor of "" in September 2002, McG was replaced by Brett Ratner. Meanwhile, he developed and co-created a television series with John McNamara called "Fastlane" (2002), which was eventually canceled after one season due to the high costs of each episode. Josh Schwartz approached him and his producing partner, Stephanie Savage, about another television series as well, "The O.C." (2003), which revolved around the lives of several teenagers based in McG's hometown of Newport Beach. McG was set to direct the pilot, but because of scheduling conflicts with "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle", he was replaced by Doug Liman. The show ended after four seasons in 2007.  The sequel to "Charlie's Angels" followed in 2003, and although not as successful as the first, "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" (2003) also made over $250 million worldwide. Shortly thereafter, Sony extended its first-look production deal with Wonderland Sound and Vision for an additional three years, with "Hot Wheels", "Airshow", and "Radiant" on their film slate. Since then, none of those films have been developed with the former, which was previously supposed to be a directing vehicle for him in 2003 (he later chose to produce instead in 2006), being put into turnaround in 2009.  Warner Bros., still satisfied with his bankability, re-hired him to direct "Superman: Flyby" in April 2003 after Ratner had dropped out due to casting and pre-production difficulties. During his tenure, McG and the producers spent more than $15 million planning storyboards, concept art, and locations, as well as having script revisions and the film completely pre-visualized. However, McG later left the project, citing his fear of flying to Sydney. This eventually brought Bryan Singer on board in July 2004, resulting in "Superman Returns". McG produced the television series, "The Mountain" (2004), on the same year, also getting canceled after one season.  His next television work was "Supernatural" (2005), for which he served as an executive producer until 2013. The following year saw Warner Bros. allowing McG, who "looked to improve as a storyteller and wanted to get more substantial material," to direct "We Are Marshall" (2006), a sports drama film. Although the film received mixed critical reception, McG was complimented for his ability of emotional storytelling. Jessica Reaves of the "Chicago Tribune" noted that "McG shows new maturity. Scenes that could have been played for ghoulish effect, like the plane crash and its fiery aftermath, are handled with skillful efficiency." At a budget of $35 million, the film only made $43.5 million. He had also produced the horror film "Stay Alive" (2006), which received largely negative reception.  Along with Adam Brody, McG was next set to produce a remake of the cult comedy hit "Revenge of the Nerds", planned for a release in 2007 with a budget of $12.5 million and filming to begin at Emory University. However, after reviewing the script, university officials backed out two weeks before filming, citing it as "too bawdy." This led the film to be shot at Agnes Scott College for two weeks, but producers Fox Atomic shelved it due to the "lack of wide open space Emory's campus would have afforded them and [the fact that] winter was fast approaching making the prospect of shooting the movie's many outdoor scenes problematic." Furthermore, studio executive Peter Rice was disappointed with the dailies.  In 2007, McG worked mostly on television, producing "" (2007) and "Chuck" (2007). Co-created by Josh Schwartz, his partner on "The O.C.", he directed the latter's pilot and continues to be an executive producer on the ongoing series. Fox had also given a script commitment to "Invisible", a television pilot written by Ari Eisner about a criminal who becomes invisible he was supposed to produce, and "We Are Marshall" writer Jamie Linden was working with him on a TV pilot called "Flash Back". However, as of 2011, there have been no updates on these shows.

2007–present.

On August 2, 2007, McG signed a three-year first-look production deal for his Wonderland Sound and Vision company with Warner Bros., planning to "produce three movies a year" and directing "one of them every year." The first four films set up were "Nightcrawlers" (now known as "Monster Squad"), an untitled spy project, "Yucatan", and "Maintenance". The former, about an aberrant father who must confront his childhood tormentor to rid of his fear of monsters and the dark, was arranged to start in November 2007, but McG dropped out and was later replaced by Mike Mitchell; the untitled spy project was rewritten by Phil Alden Robinson and was to be produced by Basil Iwanyk; "Yucatan", based on Steve McQueen's leftover notes and storyboards of his passion project, is an epic adventurous heist film, though Warner Bros. has now placed the project under Team Downey; and "Maintenance" was a film adaptation of Jim Massey's comic book series of the same name about two janitors who work for a weapons manufacturer that supply to the world's most evil super villains, but the rights of the film has moved to DreamWorks Animation. As a result, none of them will feature the involvement of McG.  On October 30, 2007, Fox approved a pilot for an American remake of the British cult show "Spaced", which McG served as an executive producer, even though Simon Pegg and fans were outraged at the prospect of having a remake without the original creators' involvement. Nonetheless, the pilot, written by Adam Barr, was panned before its airing, resulting in Fox scrapping the series. McG then executive produced "" (2008). The "Pussycat Dolls Present" series was canceled afterward. He was the executive producer for the WB Television Network's online series, "Sorority Forever" (2008) and "Exposed" (2010), as well.  McG's next film project was "Terminator Salvation" (2009), the fourth installment of the "Terminator" film series that introduces the future war fought between humanity and Skynet. After the Halcyon Company purchased the rights, they signed McG onto the project, for which he was paid $6 million. Although he promised fans that he would bring back credibility to the saga, with the casting of Christian Bale and a personal talk with James Cameron, the film, released on May 21, 2009 in the United States and Canada, received mixed reviews. It grossed $371 million worldwide, well below industry expectations considering its high budget.  Following "Terminator Salvation", he was expected to direct a remake of "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" for Disney, for which he was interested in casting Sam Worthington for Captain Nemo. However, after spending nearly $10 million on pre-production work, Walt Disney Studios' movie chief Rich Ross put the project on hold indefinitely due to creative concerns, and McG is no longer attached. Subsequently, he went into negotiations with 20th Century Fox to direct "This Means War", a spy comedy project about two best friends who go to war against each other after falling for the same girl. Though initially troubled with numerous casting dropouts, including Bradley Cooper, Seth Rogen, and Sam Worthington, the film was finally filmed in Vancouver and was released in 2012. Since then, he has been in negotiations for the directing duties for Universal Pictures' "Oujia" (a film based on the Hasbro board game of the same name,) and has been attached to Lorene Scafaria's pitch based on a "Rolling Stone" article about the true life events of Esther Reed named "The Girl Who Conned the Ivy League," along with Amanda Seyfried, and a high-profile untitled space adventure project written by David Callaham for 20th Century Fox. McG was also in discussions to supervise development and direct the fifth installment of the "Terminator" film series, having made a $10 million right-of-first-refusal deal with the Halcyon Company, but with the rights of the series transferred to hedge fund Pacificor, his further involvement is unlikely. The film adaptation of Peter M. Lenkov's graphic novel series "R.I.P.D." was another project he was circling, but because of his commitment to "This Means War", he was replaced by Robert Schwentke. He produced "The Duff" (2015), a teen comedy based on a book.  McG has also delved into comics with Wonderland set to publish the original "Haunted City", written by Chap Taylor, that will expand into a feature film, which he plans to direct, a television show, and a video game.  He has been actively developing a film adaptation of the rock musical "Spring Awakening", planning to independently produce and film it in six weeks for $25 million, with additional producing duties for: a film adaptation of Jon Stock's "Dead Spy Running" novel that is meant to reinvent the spy genre; "I Am A Genius of Unspeakable Evil and I Want to be Your Class President", a film adaptation of the book of the same name by Josh Lieb; "Medieval", a film he was previously set to direct but is now being helmed by Rob Cohen; "Elysium", a modern retelling of a classic Greek myth written by Matt Cirulnick for New Regency; "Medallion", an action thriller starring Nicolas Cage about a former master thief on the search for his kidnapped daughter; "Tink", a live action romantic comedy based on Disney's Tinkerbell; and CBS Films' "Face It". Other projects he has expressed interest in include a World War II film and an adaptation of "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", which was previously filmed by Ridley Scott as 1982's "Blade Runner".  For his television work, Wonderland Sound & Vision sold three pilots for the 09–10 season: "Thunder Road", a reality show described as an automobile version of "Wipeout", for CBS; "Limelight", a contemporary version of "Fame" based on the life of Pharrell Williams, who was also executive producing, for ABC; and "Human Target", loosely based on the comic book of the same name about a bodyguard hired to protect his clients, for Fox. Only the latter ended up airing on network TV, debuting on January 17, 2010, and ending after two seasons. On the same year, The CW gave a series order to "Nikita", a remake of "La Femme Nikita", which premiered on September 9.  Since 2009, McG and Wonderland Sound & Vision have been lined up to produce numerous shows for a variety of networks: the Josh Friedlander-developed "Camp Morningwood"; "Our Show", an NBC comedy project co-developed with Larry Charles about "a disparate group of people who begin making episodes of their favorite sci-fi show after it ends"; the Danny Comden-penned "The Intruders"; an untitled space Western conceived by Scott Rosenbaum; and "Clive Barker's Hotel" for ABC, about "a series of ghoulish incidents at a haunted hotel." However, like the majority of shows that get green-lit every season, none of them has actually aired or picked up for a full season.  The recent line-up of shows he's been attached to are "Zombies vs. Vampires", a buddy cop series about two officers, one of whom is a vampire, that deal with "zombie crimes"; a private eye series named "I, PI" he co-developed with Paul Scheuring; and the web series "Aim High", premiered on October 18, 2011 on Facebook.  On December 11, 2008, he was awarded the Kodak filmmaker of the year by CineAsia.  In October 2011 McG was set to direct "Puzzle Palace" for the Summit Entertainment.  On January 22, 2016, Deadline reported that McG will direct the reboot film for "Masters of the Universe" and will also oversee a rewrite of the script. It was announced on April 26, 2017, that McG would no longer be directing or involved with the film.

Personal life.

McG has suffered from agoraphobia. He was unable to board a plane going to Australia to shoot "" and dropped from the film as a result. McG told people he suffered from fear of flying despite the issue being persistent agoraphobia. "It was easier to say it was a fear of flying because, while it might make me look weak, people can understand it and I don't have to say, 'Well, I'm kind of crazy,'" he told Fast Company.  His brother died of a cocaine overdose in 2007, which he says has kept him grounded and reminds him not to take life for granted.  He and actress Bridget Moynahan dated for a time, starting in late 2010, after having met on an airplane.

Filmography.

Film.

Producer only

Television.

Executive Producer only

Joseph McGinty Nichol (born August 9, 1968), known professionally as McG, is an American director, producer, and former record producer.


Latin.

Latin was the language of the Romans from the earliest known period. Writing under the first Roman emperor Augustus, Virgil emphasizes that Latin was a source of Roman unity and tradition. In Virgil's epic "Aeneid" about the founding of Rome, the supreme deity Jupiter dictates that the refugee Trojans who have come to settle in Italy will use the language of the native Latini as a means of unification: "they will keep the speech "(sermo)" and "mores" of their fathers... and I will make them all Latins with one mode of expression" "(uno ore," literally "with one mouth"). The Julio-Claudian emperors, who claimed descent from the Virgilian hero Aeneas, encouraged high standards of correct Latin "(Latinitas)", a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin, and favored Latin for conducting official business.  Latin became the language of conquered areas because local people started speaking it, and not because the population was displaced by Latin-speakers. Latin was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule. Saint Augustine observed that Romans preferred for Latin to be adopted "per pacem societatis", through a social pact. This language policy contrasts with that of Alexander, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language. Latin was not a requirement for Roman citizenship, and there was no state-supported schooling that privileged it as the

Greek.

Koine Greek had become the common language of the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Lucian even imagines that Greek is the universal language of the dead in the underworld. In late antiquity, a Greek-speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands, major cities of the East, western Anatolia, and some coastal areas. Greek continued as the language of the Eastern Roman Empire, and developed into a distinctive medieval Greek that gave rise to modern Greek. The emperor Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek, and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin. Even

Language reform movements.

Atticism was a trend of the Second Sophistic. Intellectuals such as Aelius Aristides sought to restore the standards of classical Greek characteristic of the Attic dialect, represented by Thucydides, Plato, Demosthenes, and other authors from the Classical period. Prose stylists who aspired to Atticism tried to avoid the vulgarisms of koine—an impractical goal, but this linguistic purism also reflected the 2nd-century flourishing of grammarians and lexicographers. Expertise in language and literature

Regional languages.

The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral. In areas where Syriac, Coptic, Hebrew and Aramaic were spoken, they coexisted with Greek.

Aramaic and Syriac.

Aramaic was the primary language of Syria and Mesopotamia, with several dialects. Syriac was in use around Antioch, one of the three largest cities of the Empire, and particularly by Christians. Syriac literature is known from the latter 2nd century, spreading from the Christian community in Edessa. Early Syriac literature was produced in a largely Greek intellectual milieu until the 4th century, but was distinctive for its use of rich symbolism and emphasis on verse forms, and influenced Greek writers such as Eusebius, Basil and Theodoret. Among the earliest Syriac literature was the "Diatessaron" of Tatian, and translations of sections from the Bible.

Coptic.

"Coptic" is the modern term for the form of ancient Egyptian that had developed in late antiquity. Written Coptic as a literary language seems to have resulted from a conscious effort among Egypt's educated class to revive their cultural heritage.  In the 4th century, Coptic script—based on the Greek alphabet with additional characters from Egyptian demotic to reflect Egyptian phonology—is found in documents in several dialects, including Old Bohairic, Fayumic, Achmimic, and Sahidic. At this time Coptic

Punic.

Punic, the Semitic language of the Carthaginians, continued to be used in North Africa during the Imperial period. Before the Roman conquest in 146 BC, nearly all Punic inscriptions had been votive to the deities Tanit and Ba'al or funerary commemorations, but during the Roman era a broader range of content is found in Neo-Punic, often appearing with parallel texts in Latin or Greek. A striking occurrence of Neo-Punic is found at the otherwise thoroughly Roman temple of Roma and Augustus, built 14–19 AD

Celtic.

Celtic languages at the beginning of the Imperial period include Gaulish, spoken in Gaul ("Gallia," present-day France, Belgium, Switzerland and northern Italy); Celtiberian, in parts of Hispania (Spain and Portugal); Brittonic in Britannia (Roman Britain), and Galatian, a branch of Celtic brought to Anatolia by the Gallic invasions of the 3rd century BC. The place name Galatia, a Roman province, derives from the Greek word for "Gauls" or "Celts", "Galatai". Loanwords from Gaulish are recorded in Latin as early as the time of Ennius (ca. 239–169 BC), due to the presence of Celtic settlements on the Italian peninsula. By late antiquity, some Gaulish words had become so Latinized that their origin was no longer recognized as such. Celtiberian is documented as a written language only after contact with the Romans in the 2nd century BC. Of 103 Celtiberian inscriptions, thirty in Iberian script are hospitality tokens "(tesserae hospitales)", twenty of which are in the shape of animals. The social custom of pledging mutual support among families or communities was compatible with "hospitium" in Roman culture, and the Celtiberians

Germanic.

Next to nothing is recorded of the Germanic languages spoken in the Empire, with the exception of Gothic. A phrase of Gothic is quoted in an elegiac couplet from the "Latin Anthology", and more substantially parts of the Gospels were translated into Gothic and preserved by the 6th-century Codex Argenteus. While Latin gained some Germanic loanwords, most linguistic influence ran the other way. Bilingualism in a Germanic language and Latin was especially important in the military for officers

Multilingualism.

Trilingualism was perhaps not uncommon among educated people who came from regions where a language other than Latin or Greek was spoken. The Latin novelist Apuleius also wrote in Greek, and had learned Punic from his mother. The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of practical multilingualism. These papyri, named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governor, however, was written in Greek.  One striking example of multilingualism as well as multiculturalism in the Empire is a 2nd-century epitaph for a woman named Regina, discovered in 1878 near the Roman fort at South

Geographical distribution.

Italian peninsula and Sicily.

In Italy, the written use of Latin had replaced Oscan—like Latin, an Italic language—and Etruscan by the end of the 1st century AD. Oscan graffiti are preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which was in the Oscan region, and a couple may date before or after an earlier regional earthquake in AD 62. In the mid-1st century, the emperor Claudius, who had keen antiquarian interests, knew Etruscan and wrote a multi-volume history of the Etruscans, but the work has not survived.

Western provinces.

In the Western Empire, Latin gradually replaced the Celtic languages, which were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin. Mediterranean Gaul (southern France) had become trilingual (Greek, Latin, Gaulish) by the mid-1st century BC. The importance of Latin in gaining access to the ruling power structure caused the rapid extinction of inscriptions in scripts that had been used to represent local languages on the Iberian peninsula "(Hispania)" and in Gaul. Among other aspects of a distinctive Gallo-Roman culture was the creation of Gallo-Latin text. In Latin commemorative inscriptions, individuals with Celtic names rarely identify themselves as "Celtic" or "Gallic"; they are much more likely to name the people of their "civitas" (such as Aedui, Remi, Pictones) or their voting tribe "(tribus)" as Roman citizens. Several major writers of Latin came from the Iberian peninsula in the Imperial period, including Seneca, Lucan, Quintilian, Martial, and Prudentius. However despite acquisition of Latin, Gaulish is held by some to have held on quite a long time, lasting at

African provinces.

In the provinces of Africa westwards of Cyrenaica (a region colonised by Greeks since the 7th century BC), the people of Carthage and other Phoenician colonies spoke and wrote Punic, with Latin common in urban centers. Other Roman Africans spoke Afroasiatic languages (Libyan, Numidian), debatably early versions of Berber.  Punic was used for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD), and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin. Inscriptions might also be trilingual: one pertaining to Imperial cult presents "the official Latin, the local Punic, and the Greek of passing traders and an educated or cosmopolitan elite".  Inscriptions in Libyan use a script similar to "tifinagh", usually written vertically from the bottom up. The 23 characters are "of a rather rigid geometric form". Bilingual examples are found with either Punic or Latin, and indicate that some people who

Egypt.

In Egypt, Coptic predominated, but Greek had been in use since the conquest of Alexander, and Latin and Greek were the administrative languages during the Roman Imperial period. Alexandria, founded in 331 BC under Greek rule and one of the three largest cities of the Roman

Eastern empire.

Although Greek was in common use around the Mediterranean and into Asia Minor even beyond Imperial borders, linguistic distribution in the eastern part of the Empire was complex. Now-extinct languages in Anatolia included Galatian (the form of Celtic introduced by invading Gauls in the 3rd century BC), Phrygian, Pisidian, and Cappadocian, attested by Imperial-era inscriptions. Christian sources also mention the survival of Galatian, Cappadocian, Mysian, and Isaurian in Asia Minor.

Danubian provinces and Balkans.

The Danubian provinces lay within a geographical area encompassing the middle and lower Danube basins, the Eastern Alps, the Dinarides, and the Balkans. Provinces in this general region include Noricum, Dacia, Dalmatia, Moesia, Thrace, Scythia, and Pannonia. The relative influence of Latin versus Greek and vice versa in this area and in the Balkans in general, is sometimes demarcated by the Jireček Line.  Greek had been in use in the southern part of the Balkans since the late 4th century BC, as a result of the Macedonian

Jewish diaspora.

Inscriptions in Greek and Latin set up by Jews attest to Jewish bi- or multilingualism, and their distribution in the Empire reflects the Jewish diaspora. These may have the Hebrew tag "shalom" at the end. Evidence for Jews in Egypt is preserved by papyri until the Jewish revolt of 116–117. In the first half of the 5th century, Greek coexisted with Hebrew and Jewish Aramaic in the Jewish communities of Palaestina Prima and Secunda, and is found in mosaic inscriptions even in synagogues.  Like

Christian communities.

The "Epistle to Diognetus" states that language was not a determining factor in Christian identity; Christians might speak any language. By late antiquity, at least some Christian literature had been created for virtually every language in regular use throughout the Empire. The international use of Greek was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul. Constantine, the first emperor to actively support Christianity, presumably knew some Greek, but Latin was spoken in his court, and he used an interpreter to address Greek-speaking bishops at the Council of Nicaea. In the Christian Latin West, Greek became associated with "paganism" and regarded as a foreign language ("lingua

Ritual language.

The form of private or personalized ritual characterized as "magic" might be conducted in a hodgepodge of languages. Magic, and even some therapies for illnesses, almost always involved incantation or the reciting of spells "(carmina)", often accompanied by the ritualized creation of inscribed tablets "(lamellae)" or amulets. These are known from both archaeological artifacts and written texts such as the Greek Magical Papyri, a collection of spells dating variously from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. Although Augustus attempted to suppress magic by burning some 2,000 esoteric books early in his reign, magical practices were disseminated widely throughout the Greco-Roman world, and attest to an awareness of multilingualism among the peoples of the Empire. Spells were not translated, because their efficacy was thought to reside in their precise wording; a language such as Gaulish thus may have persisted for private ritual purposes when it no longer had everyday currency. The Greek Magical Papyri "(PGM)" reflect Greco-Egyptian syncretism, incorporating not only Egyptian and Hellenistic religion, but

Legal language.

Roman law was written in Latin, and the "letter of the law" was tied strictly to the words in which it was expressed. Any language, however, could be binding in more general verbal contracts and procedures grounded in the "ius gentium" or international law. The "ius gentium" was not a written legal code, but was thought to exist among all peoples as a matter of natural law. Roman jurists show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application

Linguistic legacy.

After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, Catalan, Sardinian, Aromanian, African Romance, Mozarabic, Dalmatian, and Venetian, among others. As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present.  Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, but never replaced certain languages with which it had long coexisted, such as Coptic in Egypt, and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia.

Latin and Greek were the official languages of the Roman Empire, but other languages were important regionally. Latin was the original language of the Romans and remained the language of imperial administration, legislation, and the military throughout the classical period. In the West, it became the lingua franca and came to be used for even local administration of the cities including the law courts. After all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD, a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin, though they were expected to acquire at least a token knowledge, and Latin remained a marker of "Romanness".


Early life.

Asmussen, the son of a headmaster, Jes Georg Asmussen, attended high school in Flensburg. His family came from a conservative, pious roots and was influenced greatly by Pastor Emil Wacker, a charismatic revival pastor. While in high school, he studied military combat in the tactics of the First World War until 1917. It was then his eldest brother was killed in the war, and he enlisted in the army. After serving until the war's end, he went on to study Protestant theology at the University of Kiel and University of Tübingen. While at Keil he, and a number of students, formed the “League of Lutheran Brethren” in opposition to the rising popularity of liberal theology. While at Tübingen the group was known as “the archconservatives from Flensburg”.  He then, in 1921, became vicar and later curate at the Deaconess House in Flensburg. In 1925 he took a pastorate in Albers village (Dithmar), from where he later moved in 1932 to the pastorate of the Church of St. Trinity in Altona. While at Albers, he worked to reform the local church to bring in a greater portion of the populace. The conservative local populace found his views appealing, as they shared a mutual distaste in the Weimar Republic. The local populace was insistent in its refusal to fly Republic flags, and thus Asmussen's choice to fly old Imperial flags gained him considerable rapport.

Ecclesiastical resistance to Nazi Party.

After the Altona Bloody Sunday incident in July 17, 1932 where eighteen people were killed in street fighting between the Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS), the Prussian police, and Communist Party (KPD) Asmussen attempted to calm tempers by holding the funerals and stressing that vengeance was not the solution. However Hitler declared that the Nazi dead were “Christian martyrs”, released a pamphlet titled "Wöhrden’s Bloody Night and Its Consequence" and used the incident to spark more demonstrations. Asmussen wrote letters to the Nazi party and Hitler himself first begging for them to end the violence, later denouncing their action.  Asmussen was one of the main authors of a piece published on January 11, 1933 from Altona pastors stressing their concern with the affairs of Germany, which became known as the "Altona Confession" in the story. It denounced Hitler's use of the event for political gain and stated that the Church was not sided with the National Socialists, nor did it side with the Communists. It declared that no political party could claim to be ruled by the word of God. Its mission was also to bring both sides to peace and resolve their conflicts without violence. This declaration is considered a harbinger of the later and more famous "Barmen Theological Declaration".  Hitler soon rose to power and intended to consolidate the German clergy into a single Church that supported the Nazi party. He established the German Christians, a group of pro-Nazi clergy who had government backing. After the victory of the German Christians in the church elections of 1933 in the Schleswig-Holstein church, Asmussen, as its avowed opponent, was suspended and sent into early retirement in 1934. Asmussen moved to Berlin and took over leading functions in September 1933 of the Pastors out Confessing Church. He belonged to the Reich Fraternal Council, and along with Karl Barth and Thomas Broad, drafted the Barmen Declaration and presented it at the first Barmer Confessional Synod of 1934 as the introduction speech.  In 1935 Asmussen founded, and was the director for, the Church University of Berlin-Dahlem which was opened on 1 November 1935 where he taught Practical Theology. However, in 1937 Heinrich Himmler decreed any training and tutelage of young theologians was prohibited for non-party clergy. Asmussen was a signatory of the Evangelical Church memorandum in the spring of 1936 and held a memorial service on 19 February 1937 at the Sachsenhausen concentration camp for the murdered chief legal advisor to the Provisional church leadership, Friedrich Weissler. In 1939, a wide-ranging speech and sermon ban was imposed on Asmussen and other non-state clergy, who were on the lists of BK for the persecuted Christians.  By 1941, Asmussen was a member of the faculty circle and the audit committee, the examinierte theological chaired by Martin Albertz candidates. In addition, he served as pastor in the Berlin parrish. In May 1941, Asmussen was arrested at Albertz, along with Günther Dehn and vicar Elisabeth Gray and sentenced on 22 December 1941 by the Berlin Special Court I to imprisonment. In 1943 Bishop Theophil Wurm brought him into the Württemberg church.

Theological career after 1945.

In 1945 he was elected as Chairman of the Council of the EKD brotherhood. When church leaders held a conference in Treysa (today Schwalm City) in August 1945, he represented the emerging Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) and was elected to head the church office, which he built at his home in Schwäbisch Gmünd. After the surrender of Nazi Germany, he sought to publicly apologize on behalf of all Evangelical Christians for the complicity of much of the clergy to the Nazi regime. Drafted by Asmussen and Martin Niemöller, a written apology was published on 19 October 1945 in Stuttgart by the Council of the EKD.  The Declaration states in part: In the following years Asmussen fell increasingly out of favor with the EKD Council, because he called for a more autonomous role of Lutheranism within the EKD Council. He had become rather critical of the church policy of Karl Barth and Niemöller and their desire to politicize the church, particularly with the Darmstadt edict of 1947. In 1948 he was relieved of his post as president of the church office and not re-elected on the Council of the EKD. From 1949 to 1955 he was a provost in Kiel.  In the 1950s Asmussen, who had also become a member of the CDU, criticized the Church's stance against nuclear weapons; a widely held view among the church. Asmussen was highly critical of the Soviet Union believing its aspirations of spreading its influence or conquering the west would entail the deprivation of rights and freedoms of Germans and Christians. He therefore believed nuclear weapons might be needed to deter this and that it was not the place of the Church to denounce the NATO government's defense efforts.

Later life.

In the last decade of his life, he became increasingly involved in Ecumenism and progressively closer to the Roman Catholic Church.

Honors.

Asmussen received honorary doctorates from the universities of St. Andrews in 1939 and Kiel in 1949.

Death.

Asmussen died on 30 December 1968 and was buried in the Park Cemetery Eichhof in Kiel.

Hans Christian Asmussen (born 21 August 1898 in Flensburg — died 30 December 1968 in Speyer) was a German Evangelical and Lutheran theologian.


Personal life.

At 18, he gained control of his $1.5 million trust fund, which he accused his parents of squandering by purchasing themselves a mansion. His mother, Candy Bennici, stated in 2015, "Of course we didn't touch his money... It was in a trust fund. We couldn't have touched it if we wanted to. They were trying to get it when he was 17, and we were trying to protect it. Luckily the Marin courts were very good about it and didn't give it to them". He later said, "I'd gotten out of the teenage phase and realized my parents weren't doing anything wrong but were trying to protect me."  In 2001, Smith was quoted as saying, "I started "Home Improvement" when I was seven, and the show ended when I was 16. I never had the chance to decide what I wanted to do with my life. When I was 16, I knew that I didn't want to act anymore." At the age of 17, Smith married Heidi van Pelt on April 27, 2001. The marriage sparked much controversy due to the couple's age difference, as van Pelt was 16 years older. The couple filed for divorce on February 2, 2007.  In 2005, Smith and his then-wife formed a California-based non-dairy cheese manufacturer and restaurant, Playfood, specializing in vegan and organic foods. In 2014, he volunteered doing disaster relief with Communitere in the Philippines.  Smith is also the Technical Manager for the Community Submersibles Project, where he teaches people how to pilot submarines.  Smith is a vegan.

Taran Noah Smith (born April 8, 1984) is an American former actor widely known for his role as Mark Taylor on the sitcom "Home Improvement".


History.

The company was established in 1960 by Cologne City Council as the public utility company of the city.  On 29 August 2010 the company celebrated its 50th anniversary.

Company structure and subsidiaries.

Stadtwerke Köln is 100% owned by the city of Cologne; it acts as a holding company for six main group companies: GEW Köln AG (energy and water supply through the subsidiary RheinEnergie AG), KVB ("Kölner Verkehrs-Betriebe AG"); urban transportation, AWB ("AWB Abfallwirtschaftsbetriebe Köln GmbH & Co. KG"); refuse collection, HGK ("Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln AG"); port operation and industrial railway, WSK ("Wohnungsgesellschaft der Stadtwerke Köln mbH"); housing, and "KölnBäder GmbH"; operator of the municipal swimming pools.

RheinEnergie AG.

The origins of the company GEW Köln AG ("Gas-, Elektrizitäts- und Wasserwerke Köln AG") date to the 19th century. In 2002 the assets of the business were transferred to "GEW RheinEnergie AG" and GEW Köln became the holding company, also incorporated into the firm was RGW ("Rechtsrheinische Gas- und Wasserversorgung AG"). In 2004/5 the operating company was renamed RheinEnergie AG.  The company's three main business areas are electricity, water and natural gas supply. In 2009 the company supplied of electricity, of gas, and had a supply capacity of of energy in the form of steam and of heat energy. The company operates four combined heat and power plants which use waste heat energy to provide heating to suburbs of Cologne, and also supplies some factories with steam.  Water supplied by the company in 2009 was 77.4 million litres of drinking water.

Kölner Verkehrs-Betriebe AG.

City rail transport in Cologne dates back as far as 1877 when the first horse-drawn railway was operated, by the 1900s electric trams had been introduced. During the first half of the twentieth century the network expanded in all directions, further expansion occurred in the second half of the century; in particular underground railways; by 1974 over 40 km of underground track and 13 km of overhead track had been built. In 1960 the company became an "aktiengesellschaft" (limited company) owned by the City of Cologne and Stadtwerke Köln.  In 1992 the "Köln-Bonner Eisenbahn" (KBE) and "Köln-Frechen-Benzelrather Eisenbahn" (KFBE) merged into the "Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln" (HGK) to form a new freight company; the KVB took over the passenger tram lines 16 and 18 of the KBE. A tram museum "Straßenbahn-Museum Thielenbruch" was opened in 1997 in the former 1926 wagon shed at Thielenbruch.  The Kölner Verkehrs-Betriebe AG (KVB) operates the city's urban light railway system and buses, as well maintenance of vehicles and infrastructure work related to the mass transit system.  The light rail system consists of lines radiating from the city centre as well as ring lines; as of 2010 both high and low floor trains are operated, depending on route.  The company operates over 350 trains and ~300 buses, with more than 800,000 people transported each day.

Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln AG.

The Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln was founded in 1992 by the merger of the " Häfen Köln GmbH." with the "Köln-Bonner Eisenbahn" and "Köln-Frechen-Benzelrather Eisenbahn".  The company operates four ports in Cologne; Niehl I, Niehl II, Godorf, and Deutz, as well as rail linked container terminals in Hürth, Bergisch Gladbach and Düren and further afield; ~500,000 TEU of containerised traffic and nearly 12 million tonnes of cargo were handled in 2009, making the port of Cologne the second largest in Germany after Duisburg. In total the ports have 14.5 km of quay length and an area of.  Niehl I is the primary container port with ~450,000 TEU of container traffic in 2009 and equipped with 36m reach gantry cranes allowing side stacked vessels up to 4 deep to be unloaded, other cargos handled include general dry bulk, fuel oils and paper. Niehl II handles cars, liquid goods including dangerous liquids and hydrocarbon gases. Deutz handles low value non-hazardous goods including sand, gravel, animal feed, grain, lumber and liquid chalk. Godorf handles bulk aggregates at Godorf I including salt, gravel, limestone; at Godorf II chemical and hydrocarbon products are handled.  The company's rail system has over 250 km of track with over 100 km of sidings, over 90 km of which is used for commuter trains. For rail freight the company operates its own trains. Along with over 500 wagons the main traction is by MaK DE 1002, Vossloh G 1000 BB, Vossloh G 1700 BB and GM-EMD JT42CWR diesel locomotives, as well a leased electric locomotives of TRAXX type. The company runs long distance trains as well as port operations.

Other subsidiaries.

Abfallwirtschaftsbetriebe Köln GmbH & Co. KG is the city's waste collection and street cleaning company.  KölnBäder GmbH is the subsidiary responsible for operating and running the city's swimming pools.  Wohnungsgesellschaft der Stadtwerke Köln mbH is the subsidiary which provides housing for city employees.

Stadtwerke Köln GmbH is the infrastructure and services company of the City of Cologne. The company undertakes water supply and electrical, gas, heat and steam energy supply through the subsidiary RheinEnergie. Other subsidiaries provide waste management and housing services for the city, in addition to operating the public baths. The subsidiaries Kölner Verkehrs-Betriebe (KVB) and Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln (HGK) operate the city's urban and industrial transportation systems respectively.


History.

The group was founded in September 2003, as an umbrella organization for guerrillas, with former members of Ansar al-Islam who had fled to Iran after a 2003 joint operation by Iraqi and US forces. Their goal was to expel U.S. occupation forces from Iraq.  Following the twin Sunni and Shiite uprisings of the spring and summer of 2004, and the subsequent decrease in U.S patrols and the creation of "no-go" areas in the Sunni Triangle, Ansar al-Sunna was believed to be part of a loose coalition of insurgent groups (also including guerrillas from al-Tawhid wal Jihad) controlling the Sunni cities of Fallujah, Ramadi, Samarra, and Baquba (U.S. offensives later largely wrested control from Baquba, Fallujah, and Samarra, although underground guerrilla resistance forces still had a strong presence in those cities).  The United States and Iraqi Interim governments linked Ansar al-Sunna with Abu Musab al-Zarqawis, Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad (al-Qaeda in Iraq). In October 2004 Ansar al-Sunna released a video beheading of a Turkish truck driver on its website. The kidnappers on the video identified themselves as members of al-Tawhid wal Jihad (Source: MERIA). However a letter intercepted by the American military in January 2007 revealed the two groups had begun feuding.  In July 2007 representatives of the Jaish Ansar al-Sunna were instrumental in forming an alliance of Sunni militant groups to prepare for the withdrawal of American and allied forces. The new alliance was composed of seven groupings explicitly excluding al-Qaeda and the Baath-party. This delimitation revealed a split between al-Qaeda and Ansar al-Sunna over tactics, alleged attacks on Iraqi Shia civilians being a main point of difference.  In December 2007, the leader of the Ansar al-Sunnah, Abu Abdullah al-Shafi, issued a communique acknowledging that the group was simply another name for Ansar al-Islam. The communique went on to state that from that point on, they would return to operating under the name of Ansar al-Islam.  A small group still using the name "Jamaat Ansar al-Sunna" has been active in the surge of militant activity in 2014.

Suicide bombings.

Jaish Ansar al-Sunna claimed responsibility for several suicide bombings in Iraq, including the devastating attacks on the offices of two main Kurdish political parties, KDP and PUK, in Irbil on February 1, 2004, that killed at least 109 people. The strikes were one of the bloodiest attacks launched by insurgents since the start of the war.  It produced tapes and CDs that marked the "last testaments" of six bombers from previous attacks, three of whom appeared non-Iraqi. Its name also appeared with eleven other insurgent groups on leaflets passed out in the Sunni Triangle cities of Ramadi and Fallujah from January 31, 2004 to February 1, 2004. The leaflets detailed the insurgency's plan for seizing Iraqi cities following the departure of coalition forces.  It also had a strong presence in Mosul where it launched an offensive in November 2004 along with other foreign fighters and militant groups. After the Battle of Mosul (2004) the group maintained pockets of resistance in the western part of the city. It continued to clash with units such as the 1st Battalion, 25th Infantry Regiment and it claimed responsibility for a major suicide bombing of the dining hall at the US base in Mosul on December 21, 2004 that killed 22 people, including 14 American soldiers. The attacker was reportedly a suicide bomber wearing an explosive vest under the uniform of an Iraqi security officer. The suicide bomber's name was Abu Museli.

Jamaat Ansar al-Sunnah ( "Jama'at 'Anṣār as-Sunnah", "Assembly of the Helpers of Sunnah"), also known as Jaish Ansar al-Sunna, was an Iraqi Sunni insurgent group that fought against US Troops and their local allies during the Iraq War. The group was primarily based in northern and central Iraq, and included mostly Iraqi (Both Sunni Arab and Sunni Kurdish) fighters. In 2007, it split into two groups; one began operating under the name Ansar al-Islam, and the second group called itself Ansar al-Sunnah Shariah Committee, before changing its name to Ansar al-Ahlu Sunnah in 2011.


Signs and symptoms.

The most common symptoms in impingement syndrome are pain, weakness and a loss of movement at the affected shoulder. The pain is often worsened by shoulder overhead movement and may occur at night, especially when lying on the affected shoulder. The onset of the pain may be acute if due to an injury or insidious if due to a gradual process such as an osteoarthritic spur. The pain has been described as dull rather than sharp, and lingers for long periods of time, making it hard to fall asleep. Other symptoms can include a grinding or popping sensation during movement of the shoulder.  The range of motion at the shoulder may be limited by pain. A painful arc of movement may be present during forward elevation of the arm from 60° to 120°. Passive movement at the shoulder will appear painful when a downward force is applied at the acromion but the pain will ease once the force is removed.

Causes.

When the arm is raised, the subacromial space (gap between the anterior edge of the acromion and the head of the humerus) narrows; the supraspinatus muscle tendon passes through this space. Anything that causes further narrowing has the tendency to impinge the tendon and cause an inflammatory response, resulting in impingement syndrome. Such causes can be bony structures such as subacromial spurs (bony projections from the acromion), osteoarthritic spurs on the acromioclavicular joint, and variations in the shape of the acromion. Thickening or calcification of the coracoacromial ligament can also cause impingement. Loss of function of the rotator cuff muscles, due to injury or loss of strength, may cause the humerus to move superiorly, resulting in impingement. Inflammation and subsequent thickening of the subacromial bursa may also cause impingement.  Weight training exercises where the arms are elevated above shoulder height but in an internally rotated position such as the upright row have been suggested as a cause of subacromial impingement. Another common cause of Impingement syndrome is restrictions in the range movement of the scapulo-thoracic surfaces. Commonly, a rib (or ribs) between rib 2 and rib 7/8 on the side of the impingement, may jut out slightly and/or feel hard when the person springs on it/them. When this occurs, the scapula is raised and anteverted (angled forwards). This in turn pushes the acromion and the humeral head out of its usual anatomical position placing pressure downwards at the head of the humerus at the position of the nerve thus causing the impingement syndrome. This is visibly demonstrated by a slightly raised and protracted shoulder girdle. Note: the humerus anteverts in this position causing a more protrusive section of the humerus to press upwards towards the acromion.

Mechanism.

The scapula plays an important role in shoulder impingement syndrome. It is a wide, flat bone lying on the posterior thoracic wall that provides an attachment for three different groups of muscles. The intrinsic muscles of the scapula include the muscles of the rotator cuff- the subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres minor and supraspinatus. These muscles attach to the surface of the scapula and are responsible for the internal and external rotation of the glenohumeral joint, along with humeral abduction. The extrinsic muscles include the biceps, triceps, and deltoid muscles and attach to the coracoid process and supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, and spine of the scapula. These muscles are responsible for several actions of the glenohumeral joint. The third group, which is mainly responsible for stabilization and rotation of the scapula, consists of the trapezius, serratus anterior, levator scapulae, and rhomboid muscles and attach to the medial, superior, and inferior borders of the scapula. Each of these muscles has their own role in shoulder function and must be in balance with each other in order to avoid shoulder pathology.  Abnormal scapular function is called scapular dyskinesis. One action the scapula performs during a throwing or serving motion is elevation of the acromion process in order to avoid impingement of the rotator cuff tendons. If the scapula fails to properly elevate the acromion, impingement may occur during the cocking and acceleration phase of an overhead activity. The two muscles most commonly inhibited during this first part of an overhead motion are the serratus anterior and the lower trapezius. These two muscles act as a force couple within the glenohumeral joint to properly elevate the acromion process, and if a muscle imbalance exists, shoulder impingement may develop.  The scapula may also be misplaced if a rib deep to it is not moving correctly. Often in the case of Shoulder Impingement Syndrome, the scapula may be anteverted such that the shoulder on the affected side appears protracted. The ribs that may cause such an anteversion of the scapula include ribs 2–8.

Diagnosis.

Impingement syndrome can be diagnosed by a targeted medical history and physical examination, but it has also been argued that at least medical imaging (generally X-ray initially) and/or response to local anesthetic injection is necessary for workup.  On physical exam, the physician may twist or elevate the patient's arm to test for reproducible pain (the Neer sign and Hawkins-Kennedy test). These tests help localize the pathology to the rotator cuff; however, they are not specific for impingement. Neer sign may also be seen with subacromial bursitis.

Response to local anesthetic.

The physician may inject lidocaine (usually combined with a steroid) into the bursa, and if there is an improved range of motion and decrease in pain, this is considered a positive "Impingement Test". It not only supports the diagnosis for impingement syndrome, but it is also therapeutic.

Imaging.

Plain x-rays of the shoulder can be used to detect some joint pathology and variations in the bones, including acromioclavicular arthritis, variations in the acromion, and calcification. However, x-rays do not allow visualization of soft tissue and thus hold a low diagnostic value. Ultrasonography, arthrography and MRI can be used to detect rotator cuff muscle pathology. MRI is the best imaging test prior to arthroscopic surgery. Due to lack of understanding of the pathoaetiology, and lack of diagnostic accuracy in the assessment process by many physicians, several opinions are recommended before intervention.

Treatment.

Impingement syndrome is usually treated conservatively, but sometimes it is treated with arthroscopic surgery or open surgery. Conservative treatment includes rest, cessation of painful activity, and physical therapy. Physical therapy treatments would typically focus at maintaining range of movement, improving posture, strengthening shoulder muscles, and reduction of pain. NSAIDs and ice packs may be used for pain relief.  Therapeutic exercises might be favorable intervention compared to passive treatment approaches, electroherapy and placebo, Exercises may helps to regain the scapulo-humeral rhythm and scapular control which may reduce pain.

Steroids.

Therapeutic injections of corticosteroid and local anaesthetic may be used for persistent impingement syndrome. The total number of injections is generally limited to three due to possible side effects from the corticosteroid. A 2017 review found corticosteroid injections only give small and transient pain relief.

Surgery.

A number of surgical interventions are available, depending on the nature and location of the pathology. Surgery may be done arthroscopically or as open surgery. The impinging structures may be removed in surgery, and the subacromial space may be widened by resection of the distal clavicle and excision of osteophytes on the under-surface of the acromioclavicular joint. Damaged rotator cuff muscles can be surgically repaired.  A 2019 review found that the evidence does not support decompression surgery in those with more than 3 months of shoulder pain without a history of trauma.

History.

Impingement syndrome was reported in 1852. Impingement of the shoulder was previously thought to be precipitated by shoulder abduction and surgical intervention focused on lateral or total acromionectomy. In 1972, Charles Neer proposed that impingement was due to the anterior third of the acromion and the coracoacromial ligament and suggested surgery should be focused on these areas. The role of anteriorinferior aspect of the acromion in impingement syndrome and excision of parts of the anteriorinferior acromion has become a pivotal part of the surgical treatment of the syndrome.

Criticism.

Subacromial impingement is not free of criticism. First, the identification of acromion type shows poor intra- and inter-observer reliability. Second, a computerized three-dimensional study failed to support impingement by any portion of the acromion on the rotator cuff tendons in different shoulder positions. Third, most partial-thickness cuff tears do not occur on bursal surface fibers, where mechanical abrasion from the acromion does occur. Fourth, it has been suggested that bursal surface cuff tears could be responsible for subacromial spurs and not the opposite. And finally, there is growing evidence that routine acromioplasty may not be required for successful rotator cuff repair, which would be an unexpected finding if acromial shape had a major role in generating tendon lesions. In summary, despite being a popular theory, the bulk of evidence suggest that subacromial impingement probably does not play a dominant role in many cases of rotator cuff disease.

Shoulder impingement syndrome is a syndrome involving tendonitis (inflammation of tendons) of the rotator cuff muscles as they pass through the subacromial space, the passage beneath the acromion. It is particularly associated with tendonitis of the supraspinatus muscle. This can result in pain, weakness, and loss of movement at the shoulder.