Background.

The first attempts to create a reformed poor relief system in Elberfeld began in 1800, when, dissatisfied with existing conditions, the city appointed six visitors to investigate applications for relief. The visitors were increased to 12 the following year. In 1802 there was a great increase. The city was divided into eight districts and these districts into four sections, and a board of supervisors chosen.  At the time (the first half of the 19th century), the textile-manufacturing cities of Barmen and Elberfeld were pioneering the industrialization of Germany. Immigration swelled the population of Elberfeld from 16,000 to 19,000 in 1810 to 31,000 to 40,000 in 1840, and the two cities were among the most densely populated municipalities in Germany.  The 1802 system was further extended in 1841. In 1850, dissatisfaction having arisen in several quarters, the Lutheran church attempted to do the work. Matters were not improved. The population of poor people was disproportionately high. And the centrally managed system of urban poor relief that the two cities had inherited proved to be too expensive and inefficient to cope with the new scale of the problem.  The Elberfeld system was a new structure of care that attempted to adapt to the new conditions.

The system.

In 1852, a plan proposed by a banker, Daniel von Heydt, was put in operation. The administration of poor relief was decentralized. Working under a citywide poor office, subdepartments were established in smaller precincts - their relief workers worked on behalf of the central office.There were 252 precincts, each to care for four to 10 families.  Each precinct was in the care of an unsalaried almoner whose duty was to investigate each applicant for aid and to make visits every two weeks as long as aid was given. (Although, aid was not always extended - initial assistance was limited to two weeks and further services had to be approved again.) Fourteen precincts formed a district. The almoners met every two weeks under direction of an unpaid overseer to discuss the cases and to vote on needed relief. Those proceedings were reported to the directors, being the mayor as "ex officio" chairman, four councilmen, and four citizens (also unpaid), who met the day following to review and supervise the work throughout the city. In emergency cases the almoner might furnish assistance.  Relief was granted in money according to a fixed schedule for two weeks at a time, any earning the family may have garnered being deducted. Tools were furnished when advisable. The funds distributed to the poor came either from city coffers or from existing charitable foundations.  Key to the system was that the almoners and overseers served voluntarily. They came mostly from the middle class, being minor officials, craftsmen or merchants. Women were also accepted as almoners, giving them a rare (for the time) opportunity to participate in public life. The larger number of volunteers decreased both the number of clients per almoner, and the total system costs.  The system gave great satisfaction; the expenses in proportion to the population gradually decreased, and the condition of the poor is said to have improved. The essential principles of the Elberfeld system found application in the public-relief administration of the cities of the Rhineland, notably in Cologne, Crefeld, Düsseldorf, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Remscheid. A similar system had been employed in Hamburg. The Elberfeld system influenced the reorganization of relief systems in most of the German cities. Attempts to introduce the system in non-German cities were unsuccessful.  In the last third of the 19th century, however, immigration fuelled by industrialization once again increased the numbers of the needy, and the poor relief volunteers reached the limits of their capabilities. In the larger cities particularly, there was a return to greater centralization and professionalisation of poor relief.  In 1903, sculptor Wilhelm Neumann-Torborg (who was born in Elberfeld) created a bronze sculpture, The "Elberfeld Poor Relief Monument," to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Elberfeld system. The statue was mostly destroyed during the Second World War, when the bronze figures were melted down for metal. But in 2003, the granite pedestal of the monument was rediscovered during excavations at the Elberfeld Old Reformed Church, and placed on display in Blankstrasse, Wuppertal. In 2011, it was restored thanks to 24 private donations. The bronze figures were recast at the Kayser Art Foundry by sculptor Shwan Kamal in Düsseldorf.

The Elberfeld system was a system for aiding the poor in 19th-century Germany. It was a success when it was inaugurated in Elberfeld in 1853 and was adopted by many other German cities, but by the turn of the century an increasing population became more than the Elberfeld system (which relied on volunteer social workers) could handle, and it fell out of use.


History.

Pre-colonial history.

Chiengi and the area just to its north were ravaged by the slave trade and related ivory trade in the 18th Century. Numerous Arab and Swahili slave traders such as Tippu Tib operated around the north end of Lake Mweru, around Lake Mweru Wantipa and over to Lake Tanganyika.

Colonial history.

Chiengi boma was established during the race between Belgian King Leopold II's Congo Free State and the British South Africa Company (BSAC) of Cecil Rhodes to seize Katanga from its king, Msiri, in 1890-91. Alfred Sharpe was sent to obtain a treaty from Msiri by the BSAC from the British Commissioner's office at Zomba in Nyasaland in 1890, but he failed. On his way back to Nyasaland in early 1891 he passed the Chiengi rivulet and, since Chief Puta Chipalabwe who reigned as a Chief of the Bwile people between 1879-1909. Bwile people, five kilometres to the south, was amenable to a treaty, Sharpe decided to set up a boma there to secure the territory east of Mweru for the BSAC, and to act as a forward base for another attempt to wring a treaty out of Msiri. He left his second-in-command, Captain Crayshaw, with some African troops to build and staff the boma.  However, Leopold sent the Stairs Expedition to secure Katanga which they achieved in December 1891 after killing Msiri. On the way back to the east coast of Africa, the Stairs Expedition passed close to Chiengi and exchanged messages with Crayshaw regarding the position of the border dividing CFS and BSAC territory between Lake Mweru and Lake Tanganyika.  Chiengi Boma was probably the first colonial post in what was to be called North-Eastern Rhodesia (it was still referred to as part of 'Zambezia' at the time), and was one of the most remote outposts of the British Empire, a lonely posting which sent more than one colonial officer mad. For a number of years the boma was removed to the Kalungwishi River, and during this period the Belgian colonial authorities in Pweto, just across the border in DR Congo, controlled the northern end of the lake including the western extremity of Chiengi District, the so-called Lunchinda enclave west of the Lunchinda River. The British then re-established the boma at Chiengi but the eventual outcome of de facto Belgian control of the Lunchinda enclave led to it eventually being ceded to DR Congo by Zambia — see the article on the Luapula Province border dispute.  Chiengi Boma was finally closed in 1933 and superseded by Kawambwa and then Nchelenge bomas.  In addition to fishing in the lake, the chief trade of Chiengi in colonial times was in salt, which had been deposited in the dambo by streams running out of the hills, and there was a thriving trade.

History since.

Chiengi was restored as a sub-administrative administrative centre under Nchelenge District of independent Zambia in the 1970s and as a full administrative District in the 1990s. The area has been affected by conflict in the Congo several times, most recently in the Second Congo War, when tens of thousands of refugees arrived and were settled in UNHCR camps in Kawambwa and Mporokoso Districts. Most of these have been repatriated since the end of that war. Reports have also been made of Congolese soldiers harassing Zambians at the border and inside Zambian territory.

Roads.

Chiengi is reached by a gravel road, frequently impassable in the rainy season, from Nchelenge and Kashikishi 100 km south (the same journey can be done by boat). From Chiengi a dirt track runs along the flat northern lake shore to Pweto in DR Congo. A new gravel road has been constructed north-east to the border, around the Chipani Swamp and east to Kasongola from where (in the dry season) tracks connect to Kaputa in Zambia's Northern Province.

Chiengi or Chienghospital historic colonial boma of the British Empire in central Africa and today is a settlement in the Luapula Province of Zambia, and headquarters of Chiengi District. Chiengi is in the north-east corner of Lake Mweru, and at the foot of wooded hills dividing that lake from Lake Mweru Wantipa, and overlooking a dambo (marshy plain) stretching northwards from the lake, where the Chiengi rivulet (the origin of the name) flows down from the hills.


History.

Barbiturates were first discovered to have medical use in 1903, when a research at Bayer showed barbital to be an effective sedative for dogs. It was not until the mid 20th century that the habit forming nature of barbiturates and behavioral side effects were first noted  Benzodiazepines are more commonly administered today for their similar sedative and hypnotic properties, and reduced risk of physical dependence. Barbiturate drugs such as butabarbital sodium are used now for short-term and acute treatment under strict doctor supervision only

Treatment & Clinical Uses.

Barbiturates are non-selective depressants of the central nervous system, inducing drowsiness and mild sedative effects. Barbiturate hypnotics are used in the treatment of sleep and anxiety disorders for their calming and sedative properties, however are usually restricted to short term use due to risk of dependency.  Butabarbital, most commonly known as Butisol commercially, is an approved Schedule III drug in the US and Canada used in the short term treatment of anxiety disorders and as a pre-surgical sedative aid. Approved commercial forms are available in tablet or elixir forms. Recently, butabarbital was approved for medical use in 2007 under the brand name Butisol Sodium. Butisol sodium is manufactured by Meda Pharmaceuticals as a Schedule III controlled substance due to its high risk for abuse and dependence.

Administration.

It is most often administered orally as either sodium solution or tablet, however can also be given by intravenous injection. Tablets contain either 30 mg or 50 mg of butabarbital sodium, or 30 mg/5mL with 7% alcohol/vol in solution. For preoperative sedation, adults are administered 50–100 mg 60-90min prior to surgery, with varying doses for pediatric and geriatric patients.

Clinical Effects & Elimination.

Effects from oral doses often are felt within an hour of administration, lasting somewhere from six to eight hours in effect. A non-selective depressant of the CNS, Butabarbital sodium is used as a sedative hypnotic, depending on dose, to induce drowsiness or sleep, or reduce anxiety and tension. Butabarbital sodium can be used as a pre-surgical anesthetic aid or in the short-term treatment of sleep and anxiety disorders. For short term sleep maintenance and induction butabarbital sodium treatment is recommended to be limited to two weeks, after which it begins to lose efficacy. The half life is approximately 100hrs, eliminated primarily by hepatic microsomal enzymes and excreted in the urine.

Overdose & Abuse.

Butabarbital sodium is a Schedule III controlled substance in the US and Canada due to risk of abuse and dependence. A psychoactive substance, butabarbital drugs are often abused with risk of acute intoxication and addiction. Barbiturates such as butabarbital are thought to be habit-forming and addictive, and have severe risks from withdrawal including death. Due the high risk of dependence and overdose, use of butabarbital is highly regulated and has become less common in clinical application.

Side Effects.

Those taking Butabarbital are asked to watch out for signs of severe allergic reaction, such as swelling or difficulty breathing. Less serious side effects include dizziness or drowsiness, excitation, headache, nausea, vomiting, or constipation. Psychiatric disturbances (hallucinations, agitation, confusion, depression, or memory problems), ataxia, difficulty breathing, or slow heartbeat could be signs of serious adverse effects and should be brought to the attention of a doctor immediately.

Adverse Effects.

1-10%  <1%

Contradictions.

Those with a hypersensitivity to barbiturates or a history of porphyria should discuss with a doctor before using butisol sodium treatment. Butabarbital has also been shown to interact with some medicines; Talk to your doctor if taking Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), beta-blockers, oral-contraceptives, or other medications, as their efficacy may be affected. At low doses Butabarbital has been shown clinically to induce drowsiness, depressing the sensory cortex and motor activity. In some rare cases Butabarbital has been shown to produce small bursts of excitement or euphoria prior to the sedative effects. Butabarbital is a highly potent drug however, with addictive properties, and small variations in dose can result in significant escalation of effects.

Pharmacology.

Butabarbital is a sedative hypnotic member of the barbiturate family. It is relatively fast acting, with a short duration, producing a range of effects from mild sedation to hypnosis as a function of dosage. An overdose of butabarbital can result in deep coma or even death.

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion.

Butabarbituates are rapidly distributed and absorbed in the brain, liver and kidneys. One of the more lipophilic barbiturates, butabarbital crosses the blood brain barrier with relative ease, and is slightly more potent then other less lipophilic barbiturates such as phenobarbital. Butabarbital, a weak acid, is most commonly administered orally in its sodium salt form. 3–4 hours after oral administration butabarbital sodium reaches peak plama concentrations of 203 ug/mL for sedation, or 25 ug/mL to induce sleep, absorbed via the GI tract.  Once absorbed, butabarbital’s effects have a duration of 6–8 hours if orally administered, or 3–6 hours following intravaneous administration. General consensus has it with a half-life of approximately 100hr, however it has also been reported in one study to have a half life of 34-42 hr.  The primary way the body terminates activity is by oxidation of radicals at C5, with other biotransformations contributing to a lesser extent. Butabarbital is metabolized almost entirely by the liver, products including polar alcohols, ketones, phenols, or carboxylic acids, before it is renally excreted in the urine.  Half-Life: ~100 hr Duration: 6-8 hr Onset: 45-60 min Enzymes induced: CYP1A2, CYP2C9/10, CYP3A4 Excretion: Urine

Mechanism of Action.

The mechanism of action by which barbiturates exert their effect is not yet completely understood, however they are believed to be involved in the enhancement of GABA inhibitory neurotransmitter activity in the CNS via GABA receptors. Butabarbital, as a member of this drug class, acutely potentiates inhibitory GABAergic tone by binding with a specific site associated with a Cl ionopore at the GABA receptor. Butabarbital's binding causes the channel to remain open longer and thus prolongs post-synaptic inhibition by GABA. Less well characterized effects of barbiturates include direct inhibition of AMPA-type glutamate receptors, suppressing excitatory glutamatergic neurotransmission.

Butabarbital (brand name Butisol) is a prescription barbiturate sleep aid and anxiety medication. Butabarbital has a particularly fast onset of effects and short duration of action compared to other barbiturates, which makes it useful for certain applications such as treating severe insomnia, relieving general anxiety and relieving anxiety before surgical procedures; however it is also relatively dangerous particularly when combined with alcohol, and so is now rarely used, although it is still prescribed in some Eastern European and South American countries. Its intermediate duration of action gives butabarbital an abuse potential slightly lower than secobarbital. Butabarbital can be hydrolyzed to Valnoctamide.


Description and construction.

"Hero" displaced at standard load and at deep load. The ship had an overall length of, a beam of and a draught of. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of and gave a maximum speed of. Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. "Hero" carried a maximum of of fuel oil that gave her a range of at. The ship's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime, but this increased to 146 in wartime. In Canadian service, the crew numbered 10 officers and 171 men.  The ship mounted four 4.7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, "Hero" had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0.5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted; 20 depth charges were originally carried, but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began. By mid-1940, this had increased to 44 depth charges.  Ordered on 13 December 1934 from Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company, "Hero" was subcontracted to Vickers-Armstrongs and laid down by their High Walker Yard at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, on 28 February 1935. She was launched on 10 March 1936 and completed on 21 October 1936. Excluding government-furnished equipment like the armament, the ship cost £249,858.

Wartime modifications.

Most ships of "Hero"s class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12-pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940, but it is not clear if she underwent this refurbishment as she was deployed in the Mediterranean until 1943. Other changes made before her conversion to an escort destroyer in 1943 probably included exchanging her two quadruple.50-calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns, the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship's bridge. The ship's director-control tower and rangefinder above the bridge were most likely removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar during the conversion, as was the replacement of 'B' gun by a Hedgehog anti-submarine spigot mortar, and the addition of a Type 286 short-range surface search radar. Two QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns were fitted on the wings of her bridge to deal with U-boats at short ranges. The ship also received a HF/DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast. 'Y' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased. Late in the war, her Type 286 was replaced by a Type 291 radar.

Career.

"Hero" was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning. She patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non-Intervention Committee. "Hero" received a refit in June–July 1939 in the UK and rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet upon its completion. The ship remained in the Mediterranean until 5 October when she was transferred to Freetown, Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders. "Hero" returned to the UK in January 1940 and received a refit at Portsmouth from 15 February to 16 March. In the meantime, the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla had been assigned to Home Fleet and the ship rejoined them when her refit was finished. On 5 April "Hero" escorted the battlecruiser as she covered the minelayers preparing to implement Operation Wilfred, an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany. The ship and her sister pretended to lay a minefield off Bud, Norway on 8 April and reported its location to the Norwegians. "Hero" and the destroyer streamed their TSDS minesweeping gear in advance of the battleship and her escort as they steamed up the Vestfjord to engage the remaining German destroyers at Narvik on 13 April. The ship and four other British destroyers pursued the remaining German ships into the Rombaksfjorden (the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord), east of Narvik, where the lack of ammunition had forced the German ships to retreat. Most of the German destroyers had scuttled and beached themselves at the head of the fjord, but the scuttling charges on had failed to detonate properly and she was boarded by a small party from "Hero". They found nothing of any significance as she'd been abandoned by her crew and the destroyer put a torpedo into her to prevent any salvage.  "Hero" was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet on 17 May as part of the reconstituted 2nd Destroyer Flotilla. During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July, the ship escorted Australian light cruiser and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the together with the other escorting destroyers. "Hero", together with her sister,, and the destroyers and, were ordered to Gibraltar on 22 August where they were to join Force H. "Hostile" struck a mine en route on the early morning of 23 August off Cap Bon that broke her back. The explosion killed five men and wounded three others. "Mohawk" took off the survivors while "Hero" fired two torpedoes to scuttle her. The ship participated in Operation Hats in September, before refitting in Malta during November. She sortied into the North Atlantic when Convoy WS-5A reported that it had been attacked by the on 25 December to round up the scattered ships.  On 1 January 1941, "Hero" was one of the ships that intercepted a Vichy French convoy off Mellila and seized all four merchant ships of the convoy. The ship participated in Operation Excess in early January 1941 and was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet. On 27 February, she evacuated a few surviving commandos from the island of Kastelorizo who had attacked the island in Operation Abstention. In mid-April she escorted the fast transport and three battleships from Alexandria to Malta before going on to escort the battleships as they bombarded Tripoli on 20 April. After refueling in Alexandria on 23 April, "Hero" sailed for Greece to begin evacuating British and Australian troops from the beaches. During the evacuation of Crete, "Hero" and the destroyer evacuated the King of Greece and his entourage on the night of 22/23 May.  "Hero" escorted the LSI(L) as she conducted an amphibious landing in early June 1941 on the Lebanese coast during the opening stages of the Operation Exporter. She spent most of the rest of the year escorting convoys to Tobruk. Together with her sister and the destroyer, the ship escorted on 25 October whilst en route to Tobruk. They were attacked by Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive bombers of I./StG 1 that hit "Latona" and set her afire. "Hero" and "Encounter" came alongside and rescued the crew and passengers before "Latona"s magazine exploded, but "Hero" was damaged by three near misses whilst alongside. The ship returned to Alexandria for repairs and escorted a convoy to Malta in January 1942. She participated in the 2nd Battle of Sirte on 22 March whilst escorting a convoy to Malta. Together with the s and on 29 May, she sank the north-east of Tobruk, at, and rescued 42 survivors.  During Operation Vigorous in June, "Hero" formed part of the escort for the covering force of the Mediterranean Fleet for the Malta-bound convoy. At time the ship still had not been fitted for radar. After Panzer Army Africa occupied Mersa Matruh in late June, the Admiralty ordered the submarine tenders and the Greek transferred to Haifa, but "Medway" was torpedoed and sunk en route despite the strong escort. "Hero" and the destroyer rescued 1105 survivors between them. On 17 August, the ship rescued some 1,100 survivors of the torpedoed troopship. In conjunction with four other destroyers and a Wellesley light bomber of the Royal Air Force, "Hero" sank north-east of Port Said on 30 October. The ship was ordered back to the United Kingdom, via the Cape of Good Hope, to be converted to an escort destroyer late in the year.

Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy.

Her conversion at Portsmouth lasted from April to November 1943 and "Hero" was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy as a gift on 15 November 1943 and renamed HMCS "Chaudière". After working up, the ship was assigned to the Escort Group C2 in February 1944, based in Derry. On 6 March 1944, whilst defending Convoy HX 228 west of Ireland, the escorts forced to the surface where she surrendered after a 32-hour hunt. The submarine could not be towed to port and was torpedoed by the British destroyer. The ship was reassigned to the 11th Escort Group in May 1944 in preparation for Operation Overlord. The group was tasked to protect Allied shipping in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay and, together with the destroyers and, the ship sank in the Bay of Biscay near La Rochelle on 18 August. Two days later, the same ships sank in the Bay of Biscay west of Brest. In November, "Chaudière" was sent to Sydney, Nova Scotia for a refit.  The refit did not begin until late January 1945 and was still in progress when the war ended in May. She was found to be in the worst shape of any Canadian destroyer when inspected and was declared surplus to requirements on 13 June. She was paid off on 17 August 1945 and later sold for scrap to the Dominion Steel Company. Her demolition, however, was not completed until 1950.

Poetry.

The ship's completion on Tyneside in 1936 inspired the poet Michael Roberts to write a poem entitled ""H.M.S. Hero"". The poem of twelve lines in three stanzas, begins; ""Pale grey, her guns hooded, decks clear of all impediment, / Easily, between the swart tugs, she glides in the pale October sunshine..."".

HMS "Hero" was an H-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid-1930s. During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet. During the first few months of World War II, "Hero" searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and participated in the Second Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April–June 1940 before she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in May where she escorted a number of convoys to Malta. The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940, Operation Abstention in February 1941, and the evacuations of Greece and Crete in April–May 1941. The ship covered an amphibious landing during the Syria–Lebanon Campaign of June 1941 and began escorting supply convoys in June to Tobruk, Libya shortly afterwards. She was damaged by German dive bombers while rescuing survivors from the minelayer in October 1941 and resumed escorting convoys to Malta. "Hero" participated in the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 and in Operation Vigorous in June. She sank two German submarines whilst stationed in the Mediterranean in 1942, and was transferred back home late in the year to begin converting to an escort destroyer. The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) in 1943 and renamed HMCS "Chaudière". She became part of the Mid-Ocean Escort Force in early 1944 until her transfer back to British coastal waters in May to protect the build-up for Operation Overlord. Together with other ships, she sank three more German submarines during the year. "Chaudière" was refitting when the war ended in May 1945 and was in poor shape. The ship was paid off in August and later sold for scrap. The process of breaking her up, however, was not completed until 1950.


United States.

"Hash" of many forms was part of the American diet since at least the 18th century, as is attested by the availability of numerous recipes and the existence of many "hash houses" named after the dish. In the United States, September 27 is "National Corned Beef Hash Day."  Classic American corned beef hash originated in the New England region of the United States as a way to use up the leftovers from a traditional boiled dinner of beef, cabbage, potatoes, and onions. A red flannel hash is made with beets instead of potatoes. You can also find salt cod hash or fish hash in New England.  Corned beef and cabbage dinners is an Irish-American tradition from the 1800s that is now commonly observed across the United States on St. Patrick's Day. Corned beef hash is also commonly served on St. Patrick's Day, as well as around American Thanksgiving and Christmas.  In the Midwest it was common to bind a hash together with a white sauce thickened with flour.  Alternatively, in the southern United States, the term "hash" may refer to two dishes:  Some areas in the South also use the term "hash" to refer to meat, such as wild game, that is served as barbecue or pulled meat that is boiled first.

UK.

As early as the 14th century, English people were making hache or hachy. According to cookbook author Steven Raichlen, "The English diarist Samuel Pepys waxed grandiloquent about a rabbit hash he savored in 1662", and during World War I, American GIs consumed a steady diet of corned beef hash, which they christened “corned Willie.”

Other countries.

In Denmark, hash is known in Danish as "biksemad" (roughly translated, "tossed together food"), and it is a traditional leftover dish usually served with a fried egg, worcestershire sauce, pickled red beet slices and ketchup or Bearnaise sauce. The meat is usually pork, and the mixture is not mashed together into a paste, but rather the ingredients are coarsely diced and readily discernible in their cooked form.  In Sweden, there is a version of hash called pyttipanna and in Finland, pyttipannu and Norway, pyttipanne. It is similar to the Danish version. The Swedish variety Pytt Bellman calls specifically for beef instead of other meats and adding cream to the hash. It is named after Sweden's 18th century national poet Carl Michael Bellman.  In Austria and perhaps more specifically Tyrol, there exists a similar dish called "Gröstl", usually consisting of chopped leftover meats (often being pork sausage), potato and onions fried with herbs (typically marjoram and parsley) and then served topped with a fried egg.  In Slovenia it is called <nowiki>"haše"</nowiki> and very often used as a spaghetti sauce. It is made out of minced pork and veal meat, potato sauce, onion, garlic, flour and spices.  In Spanish, Portuguese and Latin American cuisines, there is a similar dish called picadillo (Spanish) or "carne moída" (Portuguese). It is made with ground meat (usually beef), tomatoes (tomato sauce may be used as a substitute), vegetables and spices that vary by region (the Portuguese and Brazilian version is generally "carne moída refogada", very heavy on garlic, in the form of an aioli sofrito called refogado, and often also heavy on onion and bell peppers). It is often served with rice (it can be fried in aioli sofrito if those who will eat have a strong fondness for garlic), as well as okra, in the form of "quiabo refogado"—okra fried in an aioli sofrito, just as the hash itself and the collard greens used in feijoada—, in Brazil, there constituting a staple) or used as a filling in dishes such as tacos, tostadas, or as a regular breakfast hash with eggs and tortillas (not in Brazil and Portugal). In Brazil and Portugal, it is used as bolognese sauce for pasta, and also used as a filling for pancake rolls, pastel (Brazilian pastry empanada), "empadão" and others (not with okra as it is far too perishable to be used in a fill for fast food and its consumption together with wheat flour-based foods often does not fit cultural tastes). The name comes from the West Iberian (Spanish, Leonese and Portuguese) infinitive verb "picar", which means "to mince" or "to chop".  In Germany, "Labskaus" is made with beef or corned beef minced with onions and boiled potatoes and fried in lard. Beetroot and herring may be added, or served as a side dish.

Hash is a culinary dish consisting of chopped up meat, potatoes, and onions fried. The name is derived from, meaning "to chop". It originated as a way to use up leftovers. By the 1860s, a cheap restaurant was called a “hash house” or “hashery.”


International Association of Students in Agricultural and Related Sciences

Aims.

Students that take an active role as leaders in their society, enter professional life with innovative ideas and contribute to a sustainable development in their field of activity.  IAAS’s Vision: “To promote the exchange of experience, knowledge and ideas, and to improve the mutual understanding between students in the field of agriculture and related sciences all over the world.” (Tunis 1957)  IAAS’s Mission:

Activities.

The principal aim of IAAS is to promote the exchange of knowledge, information and ideas among students, and to improve the mutual understanding between countries and cultures. To do this it organizes activities like seminars, working camps, international meetings, exchange weeks, an international exchange program, small-scale development projects.  Every year in July, a member country organizes the Annual Congress, which consists of sessions of the General Assembly and a seminar. During the General Assembly all decisions affecting the association are discussed during working groups, and subsequently voted upon. Furthermore, the participants take the chance of having such an international group to discuss in forums about (agricultural) hot topics together with their fellow students from all over the world. The seminar usually deals with a specific (agricultural) topic and includes excursions, visits, lectures, social activities and a round tour of an area in the organizing country.

Leadership.

The main element of IAAS are the National Committees (NC) and Local Committees (LC), groups and/or associations of students in universities all over the world working for the association. They organise and run activities like Seminars, Working Camps, Village Concept Projects.  The General Assembly (GA) is the supreme governing authority of the association. It gathers once a year during the Annual Congress, and consists of delegates from all the member countries, which are appointed by the National Committees (a). Decisions are taken by voting, with each member country having one vote.  The task of the President is to represent the Association to its external partners and to ensure that the whole EB functions properly.  The VP of Finances takes care of the finances, grant application and bookkeeping.  The VP of Communication keeps in contact with the members and takes care of communication matters within the association.  The VP of Partnership is the one to keep in contact with our sponsors and to search for new partnership opportunities. VP of Finances and VP of External Relations work closely together.  The VP of Exchange is responsible for the coordination of the IAAS Exchange Program. Since 2006 the Exchange Quality Board helps with the task of improving this important activity.

Membership.

There are currently members of IAAS in the following countries: Argentina, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Benin, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Cote d' Ivoire, Croatia, DRC, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Indonesia, Italy, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, Niger,Nigeria, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Rwanda, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Ukraine, Uruguay, United States, Zimbabwe.

Partner organizations.

Student organization partners.

In the frame of the Informal Forum of International Student Organisations (IFISO), IAAS cooperates with other students organizations in the field of project development, fundraising, strategic planning etc.

History.

IAAS was established in a decade in which nations all over the world were still recovering from the harsh devastation and suffering resulting from the Second World War. However, young people strongly fostered hope for progress, peace and stability. Students in the field of agriculture decided to come together and create a new international student platform by establishing IAAS more than half a century ago 1957 in Tunis, the same year when the Treaty of Rome has been signed to establish the European Community.  In this decade, students from all disciplines started to acknowledge their role as agents of change in society, and decided to come together to share values. They realised that only by sharing diversity, they could really cooperate to build a better world, a world in peace, harmony and freedom. Thus AIESEC, IAESTE, IFMSA, IVSA and IAAS have been established in less than one decade.

Year of establishment.

1957 was the real beginning of the IAAS, which was then called AIEA (Association Internationale des Etudiants en Agriculture) and had French as the working language.  Independent from the decisions made during the international meeting in Paris, the Students council from the Netherlands (NSR) also planned to organise an international seminar on agriculture from 22 till 29 June 1957. Around December 1956, NSR (Netherlands) and UGET (Tunis) got to know about each other's plans and this caused a conflict. UGET didn’t like the idea of having two international seminars so close to each other. However, several careful and diplomatic dialogues per mail, and a meeting in Leiden (the Netherlands) on 15–16 March 1957, resulted in a cooperation and a tight friendship between Tahar Belkhodja (president of UGET) and R. van den Berg (president of NSR). The NSR decided to cancel its congress in Wageningen in favour of the one in Tunis and to cooperate intensively with UGET. It seems to be just an anecdote, but there are reasons to believe that this cooperation between The Netherlands and Tunisia was crucial for the continuity of IAAS in the first years. When the Dutch cancelled their seminar, they asked all participants to come to the seminar in Tunis instead. This seminar turned out to be the "founding World Congress" of IAAS and Germany, Finland, The Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and of course Tunisia were the participating countries. A few other countries attended the congress as observers. Mr. Tahar Belkhodge (Tunisia) was elected as President and Mr. Fehr (France) was elected as Secretary General.  Also, the Dutch students were well prepared to organise a seminar in the Netherlands in 1958, which became the second world congress of IAAS.  New members: Belgium, Denmark, France and Sweden

Chronology of the annual World Congresses.

Special event: The exchange did exist in two parts: The exchange weeks and trainings that were organised by IAESTE. New member country: Israel New member countries: Austria, Great Britain, Nigeria, Portugal New member country: Yugoslavia  Special event: Executive committee of the association formed by the president, vice president and secretary general, working in headquarters in Leuven (Belgium), also Control Committee formed by four members and national representatives elected  New member countries: Italy and Spain  Special event: first issue of the JOINT, an IAAS Magazine edited by the Secretary General and a board; few issues every year New member country: Ireland Special Event: first time a "Responsible Meeting" held at half term in Wageningen  New members: Hungary and Poland New country: India Special event: Development fund created to assist member with fewer opportunities to attend our meetings, originally with support of the FAO New member: Uganda New member: Sudan New members: Kenya and Togo New member countries: Liberia New member country: Zambia New members: Ghana and Tanzania New member country: Egypt Special event: First time to mention the formation of permanent working groups New member: Benin New Member: Thailand Special event: WOCAs created as Working Camps aiming at linking the theoretical aspect of our academic education with more practical experience New member: Indonesia(Candidate Member). Special event: first WOCAs took place in Hungary and Portugal New member: Indonesia (Full member) New members: Guatemala, Armenia, Latvia, Croatia, Sri Lanka New Members: Angola and Sierra Leone (Candidate Members) New Members: Uruguay, Benin, United States, Ukraine, Belarus (Candidate members), Bulgaria, Paraguay, Yugoslavia (Full Members) New Members: Zimbabwe, Senegal (Candidate members), Benin, Liberia, Mexico, Zambia (full members) New members: Belarus, Zimbabwe, Senegal (full members) New members: Russia, Algeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka (Candidate Members)

The International Association of students in Agricultural and related Sciences (IAAS) is an international non-profit and non-governmental student society headquartered in Leuven, Belgium. It was founded in 1957 in Tunis by 8 countries. At the moment it is one of the world's biggest student organizations and one of the leading agricultural student associations. IAAS gathers students studying, majoring or researching in agriculture and related areas like environmental sciences, forestry, food science, landscape architecture etc. Its committees are spread in universities in over 50 countries worldwide.


History.

Alternative TV were formed by Mark Perry, the founding editor of "Sniffin' Glue", a punk fanzine, with Alex Fergusson. The name is a play on the name of Associated Television, a British broadcaster also known as ATV. Early rehearsals took place at Throbbing Gristle's Industrial Records studio with Genesis P-Orridge on drums (recordings from this period appeared, long afterwards, on the "Industrial Sessions" CD). The band's first live appearance was in Nottingham supporting The Adverts.  The band's debut on record was "Love Lies Limp", a free flexi disc issued with the final edition of Perry's "Sniffin' Glue" fanzine. For their first two singles Perry and Fergusson were accompanied by drummer John Towe (ex-Generation X) and Tyrone Thomas on bass; Towe later left to join The Rage and was replaced by Chris Bennett. This line-up was the most straightforwardly 'punk' version of ATV, although they combined short, fast songs with extended pieces such as "Alternatives to NATO", in which Perry read an anarchist political text and envisaged the possibility of a Soviet invasion of Britain. Shortly afterwards they released the "How Much Longer"/"You Bastard" 7" in December 1977. The A-side was a pointed critique of punk style: "How much longer will people wear/Nazi armbands and dye their hair?"  At the end of 1977, Perry sacked his chief collaborator and co-writer Fergusson. The latter went on to form the short-lived Cash Pussies and, a few years later, Psychic TV along with Genesis P-Orridge. Tyrone Thomas switched to guitar, later replaced by Kim Turner, while Dennis Burns joined on bass. A dub-influenced single, "Life After Life", was released, followed by the band's debut album, "The Image Has Cracked", both featuring Jools Holland guesting on piano.  By the end of 1978, only Perry and Burns remained from the previous line-up, although ATV used additional musicians live and in the studio. The band's second album, "Vibing Up the Senile Man (Part One)", saw the band take a more explicitly experimental direction, which alienated both the music press and audiences. A recording of one gig which ended in a violent stage invasion can be heard on the cassette-only release "Scars on Sunday". A live LP was released, documenting their tour with commune-dwelling progressive band Here & Now, marking the band's further movement away from the punk/new wave scene. A final single "The Force Is Blind" featured Anno from Here and Now on additional vocals.  Alternative TV soon evolved into the avant-garde project The Good Missionaries (taking the name from a track on the "Vibing" album), releasing one live album, "Fire From Heaven", in 1979. Perry also joined the experimental duo The Door and the Window, releasing some EPs and a studio album, "Detailed Twang". The following year, Perry released a solo album, "Snappy Turns", before he, Burns and Fergusson briefly reformed Alternative TV along with former members of Fergusson's Cash Pussies in 1981. The reconstituted ATV released one album, "Strange Kicks", a venture into light pop songs unlike any of their previous work, produced by Richard Mazda. The album was indifferently received, while a contemporary review by AllMusic panned the album, writing that the record, along with ATV's later work, "[falls] a little flat amidst the confusion and veer[s] closer to the new wave sound than most punks would dare to venture."  From 1981 to 1982 Perry had a new project, The Reflections, a band with Nag from The Door and the Window, Karl Blake (of Lemon Kittens) and Grant Showbiz, among others. They released one album, "Slugs and Toads", and a single, "4 Countries", before disintegrating.  Perry reformed ATV in 1985. This line up started with Karl Blake, Steve Cannell and Allison Philips. Martin 'Protag' Neish and then Clive Giblin featured later on guitar and ATV released further records over the following decade with varying line-ups, Perry being the only constant member. Another line-up followed with James Kyllo, Steve Cannell and Dave Morgan, which led to the release of "Sol" and "Dragon Love".  ATV's last studio album for over a decade, "Revolution", was released in 2001, followed in 2003 by the official bootleg album "Viva La Rock'n' Roll" – consisting of live performances recorded in the UK, France, Germany and the US. In 2004, Perry recorded the Ramones song "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue" for a single and an Argentinian Ramones tribute album.  Their first studio album in fourteen years, "Opposing Forces", was released through Lost Moment/Public Domain on 10 July 2015.

Legacy.

Unrecorded-at-the-time ATV lyric "Urban Kids" was released as a single by Chelsea in 1977. The Chameleons regularly closed their gigs with a cover of "Splitting in 2". Savage Republic covered "Viva La Rock n' Roll" on their 1988 LP "Jamahiriya Democratique et Populaire de Sauvage". Thee Headcoats recorded "Action Time Vision" for a single in 1993. Wild Billy Childish and the Musicians of the British Empire covered "Date With Doug" on their 2007 debut album.

Alternative TV (sometimes known as ATV) are an English band formed in London in 1977. Author Steve Taylor writes: "Alternative TV pioneered reggae rhythms in punk and then moved on to redefine the musical rules".


Early life.

Hodgman was born and raised in Brookline, Massachusetts, the son of Eileen (née Callahan), a nurse and educator, and John Francis Hodgman, the President and CEO of the Massachusetts Technology Development Corporation and a professor at Tufts University. He attended the Heath School and Brookline High School, where he edited the underground magazine "Samizdat", named for the grassroots dissident publishing movement produced under the Soviet Bloc. During his last year of high school, he hosted the weekly "Radio Consuelo" show on freeform station WMFO in Medford.  In 1994 Hodgman graduated from Yale University with a degree in literature, focusing on literary criticism. Before gaining fame as a writer, Hodgman worked as a literary agent at Writers House in New York City, where he represented Darin Strauss, Deborah Digges, and actor Bruce Campbell, among others. Hodgman has used his experience as an agent in his column “Ask a Former Professional Literary Agent” at "McSweeney's Internet Tendency."

Career.

Hodgman appeared on "The Daily Show" on November 16, 2005, to promote his book, "The Areas of My Expertise." Host Jon Stewart described the book as “very funny” and said that the section on hobo names in particular was written with “a certain kind of genius.” Hodgman has returned to the "Daily Show" numerous times for "resident expert" interview segments, and has been listed on the show's web site as a contributor.  In 2005, Hodgman played a character named "The Deranged Millionaire" in They Might Be Giants's "Venue Songs DVD/CD", narrating in between songs with dialog he co-wrote with the band. The Deranged Millionaire character also appeared on "The Daily Show" on April 2, 2014. He also narrated a number of "Venue Songs"-themed setlists during the band's live shows in 2005, and has introduced the band while in the role of The Deranged Millionaire up to May 16, 2007. Hodgman appeared again with They Might Be Giants on "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson", on December 11, 2009. Hodgman performed the spoken-word portions of the song "Why Does the Sun Shine?" In February 2006, Hodgman appeared on "Attack of the Show," a show that aired daily on G4, to share some insight with the host and promote his book "The Areas of My Expertise". In this appearance, Hodgman recounted the sad tale of the lobster (which he said were actually a small, furry, extinct species, killed and replaced by the creatures we think of as lobsters today) and brought along Jonathan Coulton, a frequent Hodgman collaborator and musical director of the Little Gray Book lectures. Coulton performed a song called "Furry Old Lobster." Also, on October 18, 2008, Hodgman appeared again on "Attack of the Show" to talk about his newest book, "More Information Than You Require."  Hodgman appeared in the North American Get a Mac advertising campaign for Apple Inc., which ran from May 2006 through 2010. In the ads he plays the personification of a PC alongside his Mac counterpart, played by actor Justin Long. In reality, however, Hodgman himself became a Mac user in 1984.  In 2007, Hodgman appeared in the "Bowie" episode of the HBO television series "Flight of the Conchords." He played the manager of a musical greeting card company who was considering using one of the band's songs for a greeting card.  On October 1, 2008, "Boing Boing"s Xeni Jardin announced the official debut of the web series "SPAMasterpiece Theater". Hodgman himself described it as "true tale[s] of romance, adventure, infamy, and low-cost prescription drugs, all culled from the reams of actual, unsolicited emails, received here by us and people like you – what we call SPAM."  Hodgman appeared in the episode "No Exit" of "Battlestar Galactica," appearing as the civilian neurosurgeon, Dr. Gerard. He had earlier visited the set in 2005 to write about the show for "The New York Times Magazine."  On June 19, 2009, Hodgman was the headline speaker at the 2009 Radio and Television Correspondents' Association dinner in Washington, D.C. Hodgman referred to this event as a "Nerd Prom." Many of his jokes were on the topic of President Barack Obama as the first nerd president, and quizzed the president on his knowledge of Frank Herbert's novel "Dune."  Hodgman appeared in the last two episodes of the first season of "Bored to Death," "The Case of the Stolen Sperm" and "Take a Dive," as a literary reviewer who wrote a bad review that offended the main character. He returned in the second and third seasons.  Hodgman voice-acted on "The Venture Bros." in the episode "Self-Medication" as Dale Hale, an ex-boy detective in therapy following the death of his father. He has since had multiple appearances in Season 5 as O.S.I. operative Snoopy, along with other roles.  Also, during the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards in September 2009, Hodgman provided color commentary with made up trivia about the winners. He reprised this role for the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards in August 2010.  Because of his continuing support for "QI," the BBC's intellectual comedy quiz, to be shown on BBC America, Hodgman was invited to appear on the show. He was the first “fifth panelist" on the program broadcast December 3, 2009 (the usual line-up being Stephen Fry as host, Alan Davies as regular panelist and three guests)—and won, continuing the tradition of a guest winning their "rookie" appearance on the show.  In 2012, Hodgman guest-starred in an episode of "Delocated" called "Reunion Show," acting as the host of a fictional show-within-a-show. Also in 2012, he appeared as a psychiatrist in an episode of "Community" called "Curriculum Unavailable."  Hodgman made a guest appearance on the sitcom series "Husbands" in its second season.  In 2013, Hodgman starred as "Special Agent Henry Topple" in "Wired"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s first scripted web series "Codefellas". Hodgman appeared as public radio personality August Clementine in the episode "Anniversaries" of "Parks and Recreation", which aired in February 2014.  Hodgman has a supporting role in the FX comedy "Married", which premiered in July 2014.  In December 2014, Hodgman appeared in three episodes of the Amazon Studios series "Mozart in the Jungle".  In 2014–2015, Hodgman appeared for three episodes as a fictionalized version of psychiatrist and medical doctor Henry Cotton on the Cinemax series "The Knick".  In 2016, Hodgman played the role of Travis, a local television station manager, in four episodes of the second season of Amazon's "Red Oaks" series.  In November 2017, Hodgman was named one of ""Portland Magazine's"" "10 Most Intriguing Mainers."

Netflix special.

Netflix, the American streaming media website, aired the comedy special "" on June 20, 2013, as a "Netflix Original". The special featured material from Hodgman's most recent book, "That Is All", and his December 21, 2012 show at The Bell House in New York.

Podcast: Judge John Hodgman.

In 2010, Hodgman began hosting a weekly, comedic court show podcast called Judge John Hodgman. The program features Hodgman acting as a judge (with Jesse Thorn as bailiff) adjudicating real-life disputes within a fictional courtroom setting. The cases answer questions like, "Should the kitchen sink's built-in dispenser be filled with dish soap or hand soap?" and "Can you stop family members from using your childhood nickname?"  In January 2020, the podcast aired its 450th episode. Judge John Hodgman is distributed online by Maximum Fun.

Other media appearances.

Podcasts and radio appearances.

Hodgman has been a guest on radio programs including WBEZ's "This American Life", and "The Sound of Young America", WFMU's "The Best Show on WFMU", NPR's "Wait, Wait, Don't Tell Me," North Carolina Public Radio's "The State of Things," Live Wire Radio (Episode 374), and BBC's "Museum of Curiosity."  Hodgman has been featured on podcasts including occasional appearances as "Judge John Hodgman" on "Jordan, Jesse, Go!" which led to a stand-alone podcast produced by Maximum Fun. Hodgman was a guest alongside Jonathan Coulton on episodes of "You Look Nice Today". Hodgman was a guest on "This Week In Tech" with Leo Laporte, "Stuff You Should Know", and has been featured on the podcast "Boing Boing TV". Hodgman appeared in person and on the NPR radio broadcast of "City Arts and Lectures", in a recorded interview by Dave Eggers, in front of a live studio audience on November 10, 2008, at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco, California. He was a guest on Neil deGrasse Tyson's radio show "StarTalk Radio" on February 27, 2011. He appeared again on "City Arts and Lectures", in front of a live audience at the Nourse Theater, interviewing Adam Savage on May 29, 2013.  Hodgman appeared on Ken Reid's "TV Guidance Counselor" podcast on September 23, 2016.

In print.

As contributor: As author:

John Kellogg Hodgman (born June 3, 1971) is an American author, actor, and humorist. In addition to his published written works, such as "The Areas of My Expertise", "More Information Than You Require", and "That Is All", he is known for his personification of a PC in contrast to Justin Long's personification of a Mac in Apple's "Get a Mac" advertising campaign, and for his work as a contributor on Comedy Central's "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart."


Synthesis and reactions.

The synthesis of "t"-BuCP entails the reaction of pivaloyl chloride and P(SiMe). The reaction proceeds via the intermediacy of a bis(trimethylsilyl)pivaloylphosphine, which undergoes a 1,3-silyl shift to form E- or Z-phosphoalkene isomers. Carrying out the phosphoalkene reaction at 120-200 °C in the presence of catalytic amounts of solid NaOH forms the final "t"-BuCP product.

Other phosphaalkynes.

Phosphaalkynes possessing a C≡P bonded to bulky aryl groups are also known, e.g. Mes*C≡P and P≡C(Tript)C≡P are known to possess C≡P bond lengths of 1.516 and 1.532 Å, respectively (see below). While "t"-BuCP possesses a carbon-phosphorus bond length of 1.536 Å and a first ionization potential (π MO) of 9.70eV, H-C≡P possesses a C≡P bond length of 1.5421Å and a first ionization potential (π MO) of 10.79eV. These physical properties produce characteristic reactivity differences between the two species: tert-butylphosphaacetylene is a stable volatile liquid (b.p. 61 °C), and phosphaacetylene readily reacts to form elemental phosphorus. It has been proposed that isophosphaalkynes (R-P≡C) are produced as intermediates during the syntheses of phosphaalkynes. Such isomeric species have never been isolated.

Reactions.

With their characteristic C-P triple bonds, the phosphorus atoms of phosphaalkynes such as "tert"-butylphosphaacetylene exhibit reactivities similar to nitriles, despite the significant differences between the radii of P (1.09 Å) and N (0.71 Å). At temperatures above 130 °C, the phosphaalkyne undergoes cyclotetramerization. To some extent its reactivity more closely resembles the reactions of alkynes.  "tert"-Butylphosphaacetylene can bind to metals via various coordination modes to give inorganic and organometallic complexes. These complexes utilize either the triple bond or the nonbonding electrons on P.  The higher electronegativity of carbon (2.5) over phosphorus (2.2) leads to polarized C≡P bonds, which induces protonation at its carbon center. Its variety of coordination geometries enable "tert"-butylphosphaacetylene to participate in several types of reactions, including 1,2-additions of halogenated compounds.  Organolithium compounds and enophiles can also react with C-P triple bonds, along with [2+1], [2+2], [2+3], and [2+4] cycloadditions. "tert"-Butylphosphaacetylene also undergoes a homo Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction.

"tert"-Butylphosphaacetylene is an organophosphorus compound. Abbreviated "t"-BuCP, it was the first example of an isolable phosphaalkyne. Prior to its synthesis, the double bond rule had suggested that elements of Period 3 and higher were unable to form double or triple bonds with lighter main group elements because of weak orbital overlap. The successful synthesis of "t"-BuCP discredited much of the double bond rule and opened new studies into the formation of unsaturated phosphorus compounds.


Early and personal life.

Kurt Ballou started playing saxophone in elementary school. He performed in jazz band, concert band and orchestra, dabbling between baritone saxophone, bassoon and bass clarinet. Ballou was accepted to join the Hartford School of Music, but he opted to study aerospace engineering instead. His father used to have a guitar that Ballou played occasionally, but it did not interest him until a school friend gave him Slayer tapes around the age of sixteen.  He is a vegan and follows a straight edge lifestyle.

Career.

Since 1990, Kurt Ballou has played in the metalcore band Converge. From 1996 to 2000 Ballou played in the hardcore punk band The Huguenots. From 1996 to 1999 Ballou and Stephen Brodsky played in the rock band Kid Kilowatt. In 1998 Ballou established GodCity Studio. From 1999 to 2002 Ballou and Ben Koller played in the hardcore punk band Blue/Green Heart.

GodCity Studio.

In the late 1990s, Kurt Ballou was working as a biomedical engineer when his then project got cancelled. Instead of selecting a different position within the same company that he had worked with for six years, Ballou opted to receive a severance package which he used to build his own recording studio. His experiences and knowledge in engineering carry over to his recording work. In regards to Ballou's technical precision as a producer Jacob Bannon (of Converge) has stated, "nothing gets by him—it is inspiring to watch him work."  Established in 1998, GodCity Studio is located in Ballou's home state of Massachusetts. One of the earliest recordings from the studio was Cave In's "Until Your Heart Stops". In the production of album Ballou deals with all production, engineering, and mastering.  Ballou has stated that collaborating on "Jane Doe" with co-producer Matthew Ellard was a huge learning experience for him as an engineer and producer. Ellard jokingly stated Ballou "watched him like a hawk" during the engineering and producing process.  In 2005 Ballou remixed and remastered Converge's Petitioning the Empty Sky and When Forever Comes Crashing. Ballou has stated that because of the quality of [Converge's] recordings has improved so much that the original recordings were "becoming distracting". Ballou has also produced and co-produced several Converge albums, including 2001's "Jane Doe", 2004's "You Fail Me" and 2006's "No Heroes". He has also produced a number of independent metal and hardcore bands, including Genghis Tron's "Board Up the House", Torche's "Meanderthal", Disfear's "Live the Storm" and Darkest Hour's "Godless Prophets & the Migrant Flora".  One reason Ballou claimed to get in to the studio side of music was to have "maximum control over [Converge's] music" he further stated, "When we were starting out, no one wanted to help us anyway, so if we didn't take control, nothing was going to get done." Ballou has claimed to admire producers such as Ken Andrews, Martin Bisi, Fred Drake, Steve Albini, and Don Zientara.

References.

General  Specific

Kurt Ballou (born February 1, 1974) is an American musician and producer based in Massachusetts, best known as the guitarist for hardcore band Converge and for his prolific recording and production work at his own GodCity Studio.


Early life, family and education.

Phoebe Ann Laub was born in New York City in 1950, and raised in a musical household in which Delta blues, Broadway show tunes, Dixieland jazz, classical music, and folk music recordings were played around the clock. Her father, Merrill Laub, an exterminator by trade, had an encyclopedic knowledge of American film and theater and was also an avid collector and restorer of antiques. Her mother, Lili Laub, was a dance teacher who had performed with the Martha Graham group. She was Jewish.  Snow was raised in Teaneck, New Jersey, and graduated from Teaneck High School in 1968. She subsequently attended Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois, but did not graduate. As a student, she carried her prized Martin 000-18 acoustic guitar from club to club in Greenwich Village, playing and singing on amateur nights. Her stage name came from an early 1900s fictional advertising character used by Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad. In the railroad's print ads, a young woman dressed all in white emphasized the cleanliness of Lackawanna passenger trains. (Its locomotives burned anthracite coal, which created less soot than bituminous coal.)

Career.

It was at The Bitter End club in 1972 that Denny Cordell, co-owner (with Leon Russell) of Shelter Records, was so taken by the singer that he signed her to the label and produced her first recording. She released an eponymous album, "Phoebe Snow", in 1974. Featuring guest performances by The Persuasions, Zoot Sims, Teddy Wilson, David Bromberg, and Dave Mason, Snow's album went on to sell more than a million copies in the United States and became one of the most acclaimed recordings that year.  The album spawned a Top Five 1975 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with "Poetry Man" and was itself a Top Five album in "Billboard", for which she received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best New Artist. The cover of "Rolling Stone" magazine followed, while she performed as the opening act for tours by Jackson Browne and Paul Simon. (She provided credited guest vocals backing Simon on the gospel-tinged hit single "Gone at Last" later in 1975—#23 on the Hot 100.) The same year, 1975, also brought the first of several appearances as a musical guest on "Saturday Night Live", on which Snow performed both solo and in duets with Simon and Linda Ronstadt. During the 1975 appearance, she was seven months pregnant with her daughter, Valerie. Her backup vocal is heard on Simon's hit song "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover," along with Valerie Simpson and Patti Austin, from 1975. Both "Gone at Last" and "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover" appear on Simon's Grammy-winning 1975 album "Still Crazy After All These Years."  Legal battles took place between Snow and Shelter Records. Snow ended up signed to Columbia Records. Her second album, "Second Childhood", appeared in 1976, produced by Phil Ramone. It was jazzier and more introspective, and was an RIAA Certified Gold Album for Snow, with the Gold Album awarded on July 9, 1976. She moved to a more rock-oriented sound for "It Looks Like Snow", released later in 1976 with David Rubinson producing. 1977 saw "Never Letting Go", again with Ramone, while 1978's "Against the Grain" was helmed by Barry Beckett. After that, Snow parted ways with Columbia; she would later say that the stress of her parental obligations degraded her ability to make music effectively. In 1979, she toured extensively throughout the US and Canada with noted guitarist Arlen Roth as her lead guitarist and musical director. Her January 1979 cover of the Paul McCartney song "Every Night" reached #37 in the UK. In 1981, Snow, then signed with Mirage Records, released "Rock Away", recorded with members of Billy Joel's band; it spun off the Top 50 hit "Games".  The 1983 "Rolling Stone Record Guide" summed up Snow's career so far by saying: "One of the most gifted voices of her generation, Phoebe Snow can do just about anything stylistically as well as technically.... The question that's still unanswered is how best to channel such talent."  Snow spent long periods away from recording, often singing commercial jingles for AT&T, General Foods International Coffees, Salon Selectives, Stouffer's, Hampton Bay Ceiling Fans, and others in order to support herself and her daughter. Snow's voice was also featured on commercials for Cotton Incorporated and their The Fabric of Our Lives campaign in 1990s. During the 1980s, she also battled her own life-threatening illness. Snow recorded the theme song for the first season of the TV series 9 to 5. (Dolly Parton's vocals were used for the rest of the show's run.) Snow also sang the theme song for NBC's "A Different World" during the show's first season (1987–88).  In 1988, a duet with Dave Mason, called "Dreams I Dream," reached #11 on the US adult contemporary charts. Snow returned to recording with "Something Real" in 1989 and gathered a few more hits on the Adult Contemporary charts. Also, Snow composed the Detroit's WDIV-TV "Go 4 It!" campaign in 1980. She sang "Ancient Places, Sacred Lands,""" composed by Steve Horelick, on "Reading Rainbow"'s tenth episode, "The Gift of the Sacred Dog", which was based on the book by Paul Goble and narrated by actor Michael Ansara. It was shot in Crow Agency, Montana, in 1983.  Snow performed in 1989 on stage at Avery Fisher Hall in New York City as part of "Our Common Future", a five-hour live television broadcast originating from several countries.  In 1990, she contributed a cover version of the Delaney & Bonnie song "Get Ourselves Together" to the Elektra compilation, which included Earth Wind & Fire guitarist Dick Smith. In 1992, she toured with Donald Fagen's New York Rock and Soul Revue and was featured on the group's album recorded live at the Beacon Theater in New York City. Throughout the 1990s, she made numerous appearances on the Howard Stern radio show. She sang live for specials and birthday shows. In 1997, she sang the "Roseanne" theme song "a cappella" during the closing moments of the final episode.  In 1995, Snow participated in "" at the Lincoln Center in New York City, singing a distinctive medley of "If I Only Had a Brain; a Heart; the Nerve". In addition, the concert featured performances by Jewel, Joel Grey, Roger Daltrey, and Jackson Browne, among others. An album of the concert was released on compact disc on Rhino Records as catalog number R2 72405.  Snow joined with the pop group Zap Mama, who recorded its own version of Snow's "Poetry Man" in an impromptu duet on the PBS series "Sessions at West 54th". Hawaiian girl group Nā Leo Pilimehana also had a hit on the Adult Contemporary chart in 1999 with its cover version of "Poetry Man".  In May 1998, Snow received the Cultural Achievement Award from New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani. She was also the recipient of a Don Kirshner Rock Award, several Playboy Music Poll Awards, New York Music Awards, and the Clio Award.  Snow performed for US President Bill Clinton, First Lady Hillary Clinton, and his cabinet at Camp David in 1999.  In 2003, Snow released her album "Natural Wonder" on Eagle Records, containing 10 original tracks, her first original material in 14 years. Snow performed at Howard Stern's wedding in 2008, and made a special appearance in the film "" as herself. Some of her music was also featured on the. Her "Live" album (2008) featured many of her hits as well as a cover of "Piece of My Heart".

Personal life and death.

Between 1975 and 1978 Snow was married to Phil Kearns (who later came out as gay). She had a daughter, Valerie Rose, who was born with severe brain damage. Snow resolved not to institutionalize Valerie, and cared for her at home until Valerie died on March 19, 2007, at the age of 31. Snow's efforts to care for Valerie nearly ended her career. She continued to take voice lessons, and she studied opera informally.  Snow resided in Bergen County, New Jersey, and in her later years she embraced Buddhism.  Phoebe Snow suffered a cerebral hemorrhage on January 19, 2010, and slipped into a coma, enduring bouts of blood clots, pneumonia and congestive heart failure. She died on April 26, 2011, at age 60 in Edison, New Jersey.

Phoebe Snow (born Phoebe Ann Laub; July 17, 1950 – April 26, 2011) was an American singer-songwriter and guitarist, known for her hit 1975 songs "Poetry Man" and "Harpo's Blues" and her credited guest vocals backing Paul Simon on "Gone at Last". She was described by "The New York Times" as a "contralto grounded in a bluesy growl and capable of sweeping over four octaves." Snow also sang numerous commercial jingles for many U.S. products during 1980s and 1990s including General Foods International Coffees, Salon Selectives, and Stouffer's.


Design and construction.

"Ward" was named in honor of Commander James Harmon Ward, USN, (1806–1861), the first U.S. Navy officer to be killed in action during the American Civil War. "Ward" was built at the Mare Island Navy Yard, California in a record of 171⁄2 days. Under the pressure of urgent World War I needs for destroyers, her construction was pushed rapidly from keel laying on 15 May 1918 to launching on 1 June and commissioning on 24 July 1918.

Service history.

"Ward" transferred to the Atlantic late in the year and helped support the trans-Atlantic flight of the NC flying boats in May 1919. She came back to the Pacific a few months later, and remained there until she was decommissioned in July 1921. She had received the hull number DD-139 in July 1920. The outbreak of World War II in Europe brought "Ward" back into active service. She was recommissioned in January 1941. Sent to Pearl Harbor shortly thereafter, the destroyer operated on local patrol duties in Hawaiian waters over the next year.

Pearl Harbor.

On the morning of 7 December 1941, under the command of LCDR William W. Outerbridge, "Ward" was conducting a precautionary patrol off the entrance to Pearl Harbor when she was informed at 03:57 by visual signals from the coastal minesweeper of a periscope sighting, whereupon "Ward" began searching for the contact. At about 06:37, she sighted a periscope apparently tailing the cargo ship whereupon she attacked the target. The target sunk was a Japanese "Ko-hyoteki"-class, two-man midget submarine, thus "Ward" caused the first American-caused casualties of World War II a few hours before Japanese carrier aircraft bombed in or near targets in Honolulu. The submarine was attempting to enter the harbor by following "Antares" through the antisubmarine nets at the harbor entrance. By entering territorial waters of a neutral country without signalling any intent to stop, the submarine was not entitled to "innocent passage" protections and the neutral party had a right to use whatever means to protect its territory. "Ward" fired several rounds from its main guns, hitting the conning tower of the submarine, and also dropped several depth charges during the attack. A minority of academics doubted whether the "Ward" had really sunk a Japanese mini-sub rather than some sort of false alarm incident until University of Hawaii scientists found the sunken remains of the Japanese vessel on 28 August 2002. The wreck was found in American waters beneath the sea about outside Pearl Harbor. The starboard side of the Japanese submarine's conning tower has one shell hole, evidence of damage from "Ward"s number-three gun. While her depth charges were sufficient to fully lift the, submarine out of the water, they did no apparent structural damage to the submarine, which sank due to water flooding into the vessel from shell holes.

After Pearl Harbor.

In 1942, "Ward" was sent to the West Coast for conversion to a high-speed transport. Redesignated APD-16 in February 1943, she steamed to the South Pacific to operate in the Solomon Islands area. She helped fight off a heavy Japanese air attack off Tulagi on 7 April 1943, and spent most of the rest of that year on escort and transport service. In December, she participated in the Cape Gloucester invasion. During the first nine months of 1944, "Ward" continued her escort and patrol work and also took part in several Southwest Pacific amphibious landings, among them the assaults on Saidor, Nissan Island, Emirau, Aitape, Biak, Cape Sansapor, and Morotai.

Fate.

As the Pacific War moved closer to Japan, "Ward" was assigned to assist with operations to recover the Philippine Islands. On 17 October 1944, she put troops ashore on Dinagat Island during the opening phase of the Leyte invasion. After spending the rest of October and November escorting ships to and from Leyte, in early December, "Ward" transported Army personnel during the landings at Ormoc Bay, Leyte. On the morning of 7 December, three years to the day after she fired the opening shot of the US involvement in the war, while patrolling off the invasion area, she came under attack by several Japanese "kamikazes". One bomber hit her hull amidships, bringing her to a dead stop. When the resulting fires could not be controlled, "Ward"s crew was ordered to abandon ship, and she was sunk by gunfire from, whose commanding officer, William W. Outerbridge, had been in command of "Ward" during her action off Pearl Harbor three years before.  In early December 2017, "Ward"s wreckage was located by in 686 ft (209 m) of water.  In the movie "Tora! Tora! Tora!", "Ward" was portrayed by.

Memorial.

"Ward"s number-three 4"/50 caliber gun was removed when she was converted to a high speed transport. In 1958, the year of the Minnesota Centennial, it was installed as a memorial at the Minnesota State Capitol in St. Paul, when the men who fired it on 7 December 1941 were members of the Minnesota Naval Reserve. A plaque containing a listing of the naval reservists from Saint Paul who served aboard "Ward" is now displayed in the St. Paul City Hall on the third floor between the council and mayoral offices, in an area also containing the ship's bell from the cruiser. The last surviving member of the gun crew from the morning of 7 December, Alan Sanford, died in January 2015.  As of 2012, no other ship in the United States Navy has borne this name, although sometimes confusion occurs with the three destroyers named.

USS "Ward" (DD-139) was a in the United States Navy during World War I, later APD-16 (see High speed transport) in World War II. She caused the first American-caused casualties in World War II, when she engaged a Japanese submarine before the attack on Pearl Harbor, and successfully sank her, killing the two crew on board.


Location.

Dusmareb is 511 km from Mogadishu, the capital city of Somalia. The highway that connects the north and the south of the country goes through the city. Dusmareb along with Adado, Guriceel, Godinlabe, Mareergur, El Dhere and many other cities and towns in the Galgaduud are rapidly developing with their economies booming due to their strategic position in the country. They sit in the heart of the country where all the goods across the country go through. All of the land transportation use these cities as transit hubs where they refurbish their goods at. Dusmareb has borders with El Buur to the east Guriceel to the south, Adado to north and Abudwak to the northwest.

Demographics.

As of 2016 the broader Dusmareb District had a population of 390,407 inhabitants. As with most of Galmudug, it is primarily inhabited by Somalis from the Hiraab sub-clan of the Hawiye, particularly the Yabardhowrkace, Absiye, and Ayanle sub clans of Ayr (clan), a Sub-clan of Habar Gidir.

Education.

There are many universities located across the City, the most prominent one being Dusmareb University which provides undergraduate degrees.

Transportation.

Air transportation in Dusmareb is served by Dusmareb Airport.

Hospitals.

Several health centers exist in the city, among them is Dusmareb General Hospital.

Sports.

There are many sports facilities in the city, among them are 2 training facilities and one stadium that hosts regional and local championships. in mid 2016 and early 2017 the Mayor of the city Noor elmi Abdulle inaugurated two new football (soccer) training facilities in the city in what was a campaign to restore and bring new sports facilities for the youth of the city.

Dusmareb (,, ) or Dhusamareb, is the capital of the Galguduud region and administrative capital of Galmudug state in central Somalia.


Origin of name.

The family name is pronounced "vilain quatorze", and written 'XIIII' and not, in the conventional style, 'XIV'. There are various theories as to why this is (according to Frans van Kalken). The intention was probably to distinguish two branches of the family – according to Piet Lenders, between a younger and an older branch of the Vilains. Van Kalken says that the 'XIIII' goes back to a certain Josse Vilain, a bastard son of Philippe Vilain, when his natural father gave him 14 acres of land. The suffix thus distinguished the illegitimate from the legitimate branch of the family.

Origins of family.

Old sources claim an origin for the family going back to the time of Emperor Otto I. Whether there is any basis for this or whether this is a mystification is unclear. The origin and tree given there are as follows (always from father to son):

From here on the tree seems to be confirmed by written sources.

Branch of Hugues II, son of Hugues (from the same non-trustworthy old sources):

De Gand, dite Vilain.

Without the XIIII, there was a family "Vilain de Gand":  Perhaps the earliest (no date, later than 1424) of these we find is Jean Vilain, lord of Sint-Jans-Steene, who married Marguerite de Grave dite de Liedekerke; their son Adrien Vilain was Lord of Sint-Jans-Steene and Baron of Assenede and married Jossine van Praet. Other sources already give this branch the "De Gand, dite Vilain" name, naming Adrien as Lord of St-Jans-Steene, Rassenghien, Liedekercke, Leeuwe (or Leeuw), Lombeke; he was a Counsellor and Chamberlain of Duke Jean I of Bourgogne. He died in 1449. Martin de Gand-Vilain is his son. Other sources list Jean de Gand dit Vilain, died 8 July 1449, Lord of Huisse/Huise/Huyse, Pamel, Leeberghe (Ledeberg), Borcht (Burcht) and Zwijndrecht, married to Goenele Raes; father of Jean de Gand dit Vilain (married Marguerite Gruuthuse) and Christophe de Gand dit Vilain (married Jeanne de Lannoy)  The family Vanden Steen kept the quarter of Gand-Vilain in their weapon, but dropped the name.

Older or unclear ones.

In 1466, we find in Ghent the death of a Joosyne Vilain, wife of Jacobs van Raveschoot, already with the armories of Vilain (and Raveschoot). The Van Raveschoots were a family of the Borluuts, so amongst the high nobility of Ghent.  An older branch (or older name of the same family?) is Vilain de Liedekercke (or Liedekerke; see the origin of the Vilain XIIII name above); around 1570, we find Jacqueline Vilain de Liedekercke, married to Philippe van Royen, knight, Lord of Gyseghem (Gijzegem); their daughter Marie van Royen (died 1595) married Philippe Triest, lord of Auweghem, mayor of Ghent ("premier echevin" of the Keure of Ghent), member of the very important Triest family of Ghent.

Vilain van der Moere.

This seems to be a very old branch of the Vilain family; including

Vilain dit Braem.

A less well-known branch of the family, with members:

Titles.

Lord of Sint-Jans-Steene.

This is supposedly the first title of the Vilain family, with origins lost in time (or alternatively given to the family at the time of Zegher I, Castellan of Ghent). Omitting the earlier, less certain bearers of the title, we have;

Lord of Welle.

In 1414, a Daniel Vilain was owner of the Castle of Welle  The title is kept in the Vanden Steen family for many generations afterwards, and adds many other titles as well  By 1369, this was no longer in the hands of the Vilain family

Lord of Kruibeke.

But:

Lord of Doel.

At one time, the Vilain family was Lords of Doel

Vilain and Vilain XIIII (pronounced "Vilain-Quatorze", sometimes written with the more standard Roman numerals Vilain XIV) is a Belgian noble family. Their coat of arms is basically "sable, au chef d'argent", a colour scheme that is present from the earliest Vilains in the 15th century, and is also seen in the Vilain XIIII arms, which have the "XIIII" added to it.


Taxonomy and systematics.

The four species of riflebirds are part of the bird-of-paradise family, Paradisaeidae, in the order Passeriformes (songbirds). The former genus, "Ptiloris" [pronounced TI-lo-ris], means “feather nose” from the Greek ptilon (feather or down) and rhis (nostril). It refers to the frontal feathers hiding the nostrils. The four species are the Magnificent Riflebird ("L. magnifica" (Vieillot 1819) – magnificent or splendid), Growling Riflebird ("L.intercedens" Sharpe 1882 – referring to its distribution between the two subspecies of "L. magnifica"), Paradise Riflebird ("L. paradisea," Swainson 1825 – paradise) and Victoria's Riflebird ("L. victoriae" Gould 1849 – after Queen Victoria). Two subspecies of "L. magnifica" are recognised: "L. m. magnifica" (Vieillot 1819) and "L. m. alberti" Elliot 1871; the Growling Riflebird is often considered a subspecies of "L. magnifica" as well. The subspecies have been named on the basis of distribution (see Habitat and Distribution), male attention-attracting call (see Behaviour and Ecology) and cladistic analysis.  The birds of paradise are thought to have originated 24 – 30 million years ago and belong to the radiation of passerines that occurred in Australia during the last 60 million years. As Australia become more arid over the last several million years, the birds of paradise withdrew to the regional rainforests of New Guinea and eastern Australia. "Ptiloris" arose from this residual stock in Australia, from which one member ("L. magnifica") has since spread to New Guinea. The separation in time of the Australian and the New Guinea "L. magnifica" determined genetically corresponds to the separation of Australia and New Guinea geographically (i.e. Torres Strait).

Description.

Riflebirds are stocky medium-sized passerines with a small head and a characteristic long slender decurved bill. Adults have short broad wings with rounded tips, short tails and long sturdy legs with long powerful toes and hooked claws. Like many of the birds of paradise, adult riflebirds are sexually dimorphic, with adult males being entirely velvety black and females being mostly shades of brown. Adult females are also slightly smaller and have longer bills. Adult males are larger in "L. magnifica" (31 cm long, 160g; "L.intercedens" is similarly sized), smaller in "L. paradisea" (28 cm, 135g), and smallest in "L. victoriae" (22 cm, 105g).  Adult male riflebirds of the four species are similar in appearance: all are entirely velvety black with lighter underparts, iridescence on the head, upper throat and centre of the tail and yellow mouth and gape. The iridescence on the paradise riflebird is blue, on the Victoria's riflebird blue-green, and on the magnificent and growling riflebirds green, blue, and purple. Males of the magnificent and growling riflebirds have more prominent grey-black underparts, black and yellow bands across their mid-breast and long thin curved plumes from the lower flanks that extend to the end of the tail in "P. magnifica" or just short in "P. intercedens".  Adult female riflebirds of the four species are also similar in appearance: all are largely brown above, have a prominent cream supercilium and whitish to buff with dark markings underneath. Female magnificent and growling riflebirds have thin blackish barring underneath, while paradise and Victoria's riflebirds have brown chevrons. Immature riflebirds resemble adult female birds and males do not achieve their full adult plumage until they are four to five years old.

Habitat and distribution.

Riflebirds are found in rainforests of eastern Australia and New Guinea up to 1500m above sea level. They also inhabit adjacent moist dense forests. Victoria's riflebird has been recorded in eucalypt and melaleuca-dominated wet sclerophyll forests and woodlands, the landward edges of mangroves and swamp woodlands and occasionally the temperate "Nothofagus" forests.  The four riflebird species are separated geographically, an easy characteristic for field identification. Magnificent Riflebirds are found on the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, Australia ("L. m. alberti") and the lowlands and foothills of western New Guinea ("L. m. magnifica"), while growling riflebirds are found in the lowlands and foothills of eastern New Guinea. Both species are largely absent from the highlands of New Guinea. Victoria's Riflebirds are found on the Atherton Tablelands of Queensland, Australia, from just south of Cooktown to just south of Townsville. Paradise Riflebirds are found in southeast Queensland and northeast New South Wales, Australia. Riflebirds are widespread throughout their ranges.

Behavior and ecology.

Diet and feeding.

The few published studies on the diet of riflebirds indicate that riflebirds are predominantly insectivorous but will take fruit and seeds when available. Riflebirds are mostly arboreal with a preference for lower strata but will forage on or close to the ground. They climb up and down tree trunks and hop along horizontal branches searching for insects and their larvae, which they extract from under the bark, in crevices and in epiphytes using their chisel-like bills. Riflebirds will swallow fruit whole or hold fruit between their foot and a branch and tear pieces off with their bill. While riflebirds are mostly solitary, small flocks can be seen on fruiting trees when in season. Victoria's riflebird has been reported to feed on 19 species of fruiting trees and vines. Only one reference has been made to riflebirds ("P. magnifica") as a seed disperser of rainforest plants including "Ficus" spp. and "Podocarpus" spp.  When feeding their young, female riflebirds will catch proportionally more arthropods than fruit to supply their growing young with foods rich in proteins and lipids. This has also been suggested as the reason for female riflebirds having larger bills than males. Nestlings have been reported as being fed crickets, grasshoppers, spiders, cockroaches, centipedes, cicadas, woodlice, beetles and insect larvae. Males may take proportionally more easily obtained and energy-rich fruit to allow them to display for longer.

Breeding.

Like most other birds of paradise, riflebirds are polygynous, with promiscuous males displaying to and mating with several different females. Birds of paradise are well known for their elaborate courtship displays. Unlike some however, male riflebirds display alone and have been seen during the breeding season to territorially defend displaying sites. Otherwise, male riflebirds are generally tolerant of other riflebirds. The breeding season for riflebirds is generally considered to be from June to February. During the breeding season, male Victoria's riflebirds have been reported to have home ranges of 0.6 to 2.8 ha, containing up to 5 display posts. Paradise and Victoria's riflebirds select the top of a broken-off vertical tree or tree fern 10–20 cm in diameter and 10–20 metres high to display on while magnificent and growling riflebirds display on a horizontal tree branch or bough. Males can use the same display sites for many successive years.  Male riflebirds appear to rigidly follow a progression of vocalisations, postures and movements when displaying to females. The first stage is to call from the display perch and expose their yellow gape to attract attention. Male paradise and Victoria's riflebirds make a sound like “yass," male magnificent riflebirds produce a series of low whistles, and male growling riflebirds make a growling sound (hence the name). Once a female arrives at the display site, the second stage involves the male turning to face the female, raising his wings above his head to form a circle, again exposing his gape and raising and lowering his body on his legs. If a female approaches, the male begins the third display stage directly in front of the female described as “alternate wing clap”, lowering one wing and hiding his head behind the other and then switching from side to side in quick succession. At this stage, male magnificent and growling riflebirds may start hopping sideways along the display branch. A female riflebird signals her receptiveness by briefly fluttering her wings and the male hops onto her back before copulation. Immature males may attempt to display during the breeding season as well but they appear clumsy and uncoordinated, like they need to learn to display correctly.  Female riflebirds are solely responsible for nest construction, incubation and feeding nestlings. They have also been observed defending their nests. The nests of Victoria's riflebirds may be parasitised by the Pacific koel ("Eudynamys orientalis"). The nest is a well-concealed open cup structure of leaves and twigs, at least 100mm internal diameter and lined with leaves, plant fibres and rootlets. Victoria's riflebird usually lays two eggs each weighing approximately 10g on consecutive days, incubated for 18 to 19 days and nestlings brooded and fed for 13 to 15 days. Little is known about the incubation and nestling of paradise, magnificent, and growling riflebirds. Nestlings hatch naked and with their eyes closed and stay on the nest until fledging (nidicolous). Victoria's riflebird nestlings are brooded for the first six to seven days until they open their eyes and can thermoregulate and they achieve pin-break on their primary and secondary feathers by day twelve. Nestlings are fed two to three times an hour, with the female away from the nest for longer with two nestlings. Victoria's riflebird fledglings become independent from their parent after 74 days, while this period is unknown for the other species.

Relationship with humans.

Like most birds of paradise, riflebirds have been hunted for their plumage in the past, including for millinery. More recently, they have occasionally been considered pests for damaging cultivated fruit. While riflebirds have been shown to use habitat adjacent to rainforest, their reliance on rainforest leaves them vulnerable to forest clearing. The four species of riflebird are classified as being of “Least Concern” according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The population trends for "L. paradisea" and "victoriae" are reported as declining but not approaching the threshold for vulnerable status.

The genus Ptiloris consists of four allopatric species of birds in the family Paradisaeidae. These birds of paradise are commonly known as riflebirds, so named for the likeness of their black velvety plumage to the uniform of the Rifle Brigade. Alternatively, the bird's cry is similar to a rifle being fired and hitting its target but a call like this is not commonly reported (see Behaviour and Ecology). They are distributed in the rainforests of New Guinea and Eastern Australia. Following recent taxonomic work, the members of "Ptiloris" have been moved into the genus "Lophorina," a genus belonging to the Superb and Vogelkop Superb Birds-of-Paradise ("L. superba" and "L. niedda", respectively).


History.

This train station was opened in January, 16th 1899. The first name was "Bock-Wallendorf". It was the new final destination of the railway line from Probstzella to Schmiedefeld (Lichtetal). Only much later, in October, 31st 1913 this terminal station was enhanced to an "express railway station", as the railway line from Probstzella was extended to Lauscha, and Sonneberg. However, with the reduction of goods to be dispatched to, respective exchanged with, the municipality of Lichte and the town Neuhaus am Rennweg, Lichte (Thuringia) east station became less important.  In 1963 the piece-goods and parcels dispatch was closed. And in the 1980s the station lost even more importance, because the number of steam locomotives used was declining and finally ceased, and as a result the local water filling station for steam locomotives was closed.  Further on the train station was unmanned. However, there was a stop for the semi-fast trains from Sonneberg to Leipzig, in distinction to the Lichte (Thuringia) station next to it.  Because of technical deficits the train service was ceased by surprise on January, 22nd 1997. In July, 1st 2006 the German Eisenbahnbundesamt agreed to the discontinuance of the train service.  In the meanwhile the "Deutsche Regionaleisenbahn" rent this rail line. Since 2008 tourist service by usage of rail-cycle draisines on the rail line from Schmiedefeld (Lichtetal) via Lichte (Thuringia) east station to Lichte (Thuringia) station has been established. The highlight of a draisine tour is the crossing of the "Viaduct Hammerwiesen" in Lichte (Wallendorf), close to the Lichte (Thuringia) east station.

See also.

Lichte (Thuringia) station

The Lichte (Thuringia) east station () was a Deutsche Reichsbahn station of the Thuringian municipality of Lichte (Wallendorf) in the district of Saalfeld-Rudolstadt.


History.

"Logos II"’s original name was "Antonio Lazaro". She was built by Union Naval Levante SA of Valencia, Spain in 1968, and owned by Compañía Trasmediterránea. The ship was designed to operate a ferry service to Morocco, carrying 400 berthed and 200 deck class passengers. She also had a cargo hold forward and side doors for the loading of vehicles. She later sailed between Spain and Spanish territories in North Africa.  Educational Book Exhibits Ltd. purchased the ship on 21 October 1988, and renamed her "Logos II". Extensive renovations and upgrades were carried out to prepare the ship for future service. "Logos II" welcomed more than 10 million visitors on board with stops in 350 ports of call in 81 countries. The ship was sold on October 2008, and the work is carried on by her replacement since February 19, 2009, "MV Logos Hope". The last port of call for Logos II was Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.

Mission.

GBA Ships' goal is to bring knowledge, help and hope to the people of the world. This is done by supplying vital literature resources, encouraging cross-cultural understanding, training young people for more effective life and service, providing needed relief, and sharing a message of hope in God wherever there is opportunity.  The ships visit each port for several weeks and open the gangways to hundreds and sometimes thousands of visitors each day. On average, over one million visitors have been welcomed onboard every year. The floating book fairs offer over 6,000 titles, providing many visitors their first-ever opportunity to purchase quality educational and Christian literature.  An international crew and staff of volunteers live and work on the ships. Teams from the ship go into surrounding areas to supply aid and community care. In each port, the ship's crew works with local authorities and community groups to bring knowledge, help and hope to people whatever their circumstances, culture or background.

The MV Logos II was a ship built in Spain, 1968, which was purchased in 1989 by Educational Book Exhibits Ltd., a private, non-profit, charitable organisation registered in the UK. "Logos II" was operated on behalf of EBE by GBA Ships, a second private, non-profit, charitable organisation registered in Germany. She entered service in 1990 and was active until October 2008 when she was sold. The work of "Logos II" is now being carried on by a replacement vessel "Logos Hope".