Foreign relations of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi

Timeline.

Beginning in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi determined Libya's foreign policy. His principal foreign policy goals were Arab unity, elimination of Israel, advancement of Islam, support for Palestinians, elimination of outside influence in the Middle East and Africa, and support for a range of "revolutionary" causes.  After the 1969 coup d'état, U.S.-Libyan relations became increasingly strained.  Gaddafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized all foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya.

1970s.

Export controls on military equipment and civil aircraft were imposed during the 1970s.  On 11 June 1972, Gaddafi announced that any Arab wishing to volunteer for Palestinian armed groups "can register his name at any Libyan embassy will be given adequate training for combat". He also promised financial support for attacks. In response, the United States withdrew its ambassador.  Gaddafi played a key role in promoting the use of oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West—especially the United States—to end support for Israel. Gaddafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism because he believed that communism was a violation against religion and capitalism was a violation against humanity.  In 1973 the Irish Naval Service intercepted the vessel "Claudia" in Irish territorial waters, which carried Soviet arms from Libya to the Provisional IRA.  In 1976 after a series of terror attacks by the Provisional

1980s.

In May 1981, the U.S. government closed the Libyan "people's bureau" (embassy) in Washington, D.C. and expelled the Libyan staff in response their conduct generally violating internationally accepted standards of diplomatic behavior.  In August 1981, in the first incident of the Gulf of Sidra, two Libyan jets fired on U.S. aircraft participating in a routine naval exercise over international waters of the Mediterranean Sea claimed by Libya. The U.S. planes returned fire and shot down the attacking Libyan aircraft. On 11 December 1981, the State Department invalidated U.S. passports for travel to Libya (a "de facto" travel ban) and, for purposes of safety, advised all U.S. citizens in Libya to leave. In March 1982, the U.S. government prohibited imports of Libyan crude oil into the United States and expanded the controls on U.S.-origin goods intended for export to Libya. Licenses were required for all transactions, except food and medicine. In March 1984, U.S. export controls were expanded to prohibit future exports to the Ra's Lanuf

1990s.

In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by prosecutors in the United States and United Kingdom for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772 over Chad and Niger. The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of Security Council Resolution 748 on 31 March 1992, imposing international sanctions on the state designed to bring

2000s.

As of January 2002, Libya was constructing another chemical weapons production facility at Tarhuna. Citing Libya's support for terrorism and its past regional aggressions the United States voiced concern over this development. In cooperation with like-minded countries, the United States has since sought to bring a halt to the foreign technical assistance deemed essential to the completion of this facility. See Chemical weapon proliferation#Libya.  Following the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in 2003, Gaddafi decided to abandon his weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion euros in compensation to the families of Pan Am

2010s.

During the start of the Arab Spring, Gaddafi condemned the Tunisian revolution in January 2011, saying protesters were misled by WikiLeaks and voicing solidarity with ousted President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.  The progress made by Gaddafi's government in improving relations with the Western world was swiftly set back by the regime's authoritarian crackdown on protests that began the following month. Many Western countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and eventually Italy condemned Libya for the brutal crackdown on the dissidents. Peru became the first of several countries to sever diplomatic relations with Tripoli on 22 February 2011, followed closely by African Union member state Botswana the following day.  Libya was suspended from Arab League proceedings on 22 February 2011, the same day Peru terminated bilateral relations. In response, Gaddafi

Relations with the West.

In 2003 Libya began to make policy changes with the open intention of pursuing a Western-Libyan détente. The Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost $3 billion in compensation to the families of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772.  Starting in 2003, the Libyan government restored normal diplomatic ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, "The Libya Model", an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.  On 30 August 2008, Gaddafi and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi signed a historic cooperation treaty in Benghazi. Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former military occupation. In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat illegal immigration coming from its shores and boost investments in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to Tripoli by Berlusconi.  On 31 October 2008, Libya paid $1.5 billion, sought through donations from private businesses, to a fund that would be used to compensate both US victims of the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 and the 1986 bombing of the La Belle disco in Germany. In addition, Libyan victims of US airstrikes that followed the Berlin attack will also be compensated with $300 million from the fund. US state department spokesman, Sean McCormack called the move a "laudable milestone... clearing the way for continued and expanding US-Libyan partnership." This final payment under the US-Libya Claims Settlement Agreement was seen as a major step towards improving ties between the two, which had begun easing after Tripoli halted its arms programmes. George Bush also signed an executive order restoring Libya's immunity from terror-related lawsuits and

International incidents.

1986 West Berlin discotheque bombing.

On 13 November 2001, a German court found four persons, including a former employee of the Libyan embassy in East Berlin,

Lockerbie bombing.

In November 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, were charged with the December 1988 Lockerbie bombing. Libya refused to extradite the two accused to the U.S. or to Scotland. As a result, United Nations Security Council Resolution 748 was approved on 31 March 1992, requiring Libya to surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. The UN imposed further sanctions with Resolution 883, a limited assets freeze and an embargo on selected oil equipment, in November 1993. In 1999, six other Libyans who had been accused of the September 1989 bombing of Union Air Transport Flight 772 were put on trial in their absence by a Paris court. They were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.  The Libyan government eventually surrendered the two Lockerbie bombing suspects in 1999 for trial at

Benghazi hospital affair.

In the late 1990s, a Benghazi children's hospital was the site of an outbreak of HIV infection that spread to over 400 patients. Libya blamed the outbreak on five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor, who were arrested and eventually sentenced to death (eventually overturned and a new trial ordered). The international view is that Libya has used the medics as scapegoats for poor hygiene conditions, and

Dispute with Switzerland.

On 15 July 2008 the fifth eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, Hannibal Gaddafi, and his wife were held for two days and charged with assaulting two of their staff in Geneva, Switzerland and then released on bail on 17 July. Hannibal Gaddafi has a history of violent and aggressive behaviour having been charged with battery by his later wife and having attacked Italian police officers.  The government of Libya subsequently put a boycott on Swiss imports, reduced flights between Libya and Switzerland, stopped issuing visas to Swiss citizens, recalled diplomats from Bern, and forced all Swiss companies such as ABB and Nestlé to close offices. General National Maritime Transport Company, which

Schengen Area visa ban.

In February 2010, the dispute with Switzerland spread, with Libya refusing to issue entry visas to nationals of any of the countries within the Schengen Area, of which Switzerland is a part. This action was apparently taken in retaliation for Switzerland blacklisting 188 high-ranking officials from Libya.  As a result of the ban, foreign nationals from certain countries were not permitted entry into Libya at Tripoli airport, including 22 Italians and eight Maltese citizens, one of whom

Support for rebel and paramilitary groups.

The government of Libya had in the past received criticism and trade restrictions from Western countries

Africa.

Libya has in the past claimed a strip along their border of about in northern Niger and part of southeastern Algeria. In addition, it is involved in a maritime boundary dispute with Tunisia.  As with all other African countries, Libya is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. As with most international organizations to which Tripoli is a party, NAM recognizes it under the name Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.

Algeria.

Algeria–Libya relations have generally been amicable. Libyan support for the Polisario Front in the Western Sahara facilitated early post independence

Chad.

Libya long claimed the Aouzou Strip, a strip of land in northern Chad rich with uranium deposits that was intensely involved in Chad's civil war in the 1970s and 1980s.  In 1973, Libya engaged in military operations in the Aouzou Strip to gain access to minerals and to use it as a base of influence in Chadian politics. Libya argued that the territory was inhabited by indigenous people who owed allegiance to the Senussi Order and subsequently to the Ottoman Empire, and that this title had been inherited by Libya. It also supported its claim with an unratified 1935 treaty between France and Italy, the colonial powers of Chad and Libya, respectively. After consolidating its hold on the strip, Libya annexed it in 1976. Chadian forces were able to force the Libyans to retreat from the Aouzou Strip in 1987.  A cease-fire between Chad and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, followed by unsuccessful negotiations over the next several years, leading finally to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad sovereignty over the Aouzou

Egypt.

After the neighboring countries of Egypt and Libya both gained independence in the early 1950s, relations were initially cooperative. Libya assisted Egypt in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Later, tensions arose due to Egypt's

United States.

In early 2004, the U.S. State Department ended its ban on U.S. citizens using their passports for travel to Libya or spending money there. U.S. citizens began legally heading back to Libya for the first time since 1981.  On 15 May 2006 David Welch, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs, announced that the U.S. had decided, after a 45-day comment period, to renew full diplomatic relations with Libya and remove Libya from the U.S. list of countries that foster terrorism. During this announcement, it was

Asia and Oceania.

Indonesia.

Beginning in 1989, Libya supported the Free Aceh Movement through GAM's second

Pakistan.

Since gaining independence from their respective colonial powers, both

Vanuatu.

Vanuatu and Libya established official diplomatic relations in 1986, at the initiative of the former. The aim, for Vanuatu, was to

International recognition.

As of 18 October 2011, at least 100 UN member states have explicitly recognised the National Transitional Council, as have all international organisations to which Libya is a member. Only the 8 countries of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and the African countries of Namibia and Zimbabwe have explicitly continued to denounce the NTC and insist on Gaddafi's legitimacy.

The foreign relations of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1969–2011) underwent much fluctuation and change. They were marked by severe tension with the West (especially the United States, although relations were normalised in the early 21st century prior to the Libyan Civil War) and by other national policies in the Middle East and Africa, including the Libyan government's financial and military support for numerous paramilitary and rebel groups.


Recording.

Clinton Heylin places the writing of "Visions of Johanna" in the fall of 1965, when Dylan was living in the Chelsea Hotel with his pregnant wife Sara. Heylin notes that "in this déclassé hotel...the heat pipes "still" cough", referring to a line from the song. Greil Marcus reports that when the song was first released, "the story was that the song had been written during the great east coast blackout of November 9, 1965." Dylan first recorded this song, backed by The Hawks, in the CBS New York recording studio, on November 30, 1965, announcing his new composition with the words: "This is called 'Freeze Out'." Andy Gill notes that this working title captures the "air of nocturnal suspension in which the verse tableaux are sketched...full of whispering and muttering." According to Marcus, Dylan introduced the song in live performances in 1966 with the words, "Seems like a freeze-out."  Some of the New York recordings were uptempo and contain in the fifth verse the additional line "He examines the nightingale's code". Historian Sean Wilentz, for his book "Dylan In America", listened closely to full studio tapes of the "Blonde on Blonde" sessions, and describes how Dylan guided the New York backing musicians through fourteen takes, trying to explain how he wanted "Visions of Johanna" played. At one point, Dylan says: "It's not hard rock, The only thing in it that's hard is Robbie." Analyzing the evolution of the song in the New York recording session, Wilentz writes that Dylan "quiets things down, inching closer to what will eventually appear on "Blonde on Blonde"—and it is still not right." Several complete takes of the song were recorded on November 30, including one with an uptempo rock beat, containing harpsichord accompaniment, and another with a march-like tempo, which was released on "" in 2005.  "Visions of Johanna" fell into place when Dylan was persuaded by his producer, Bob Johnston, to move the recording sessions to Nashville, Tennessee. During his first day in the CBS Nashville studio, on February 14, 1966, the "Blonde on Blonde" version of the song was recorded. In an interview with Andy Gill, Al Kooper has said that he and guitarist Robbie Robertson became sensitive to the nuances of Dylan's vocal. Kooper added that "it's very important what Joe South's bass is doing in that"; Kooper described it as "this throbbing...rhythmically amazing bass part". Other backing musicians were Charlie McCoy, guitar, Wayne Moss, guitar, and Kenneth Buttrey on drums.

Live performances and studio outtakes.

Dylan first performed "Visions of Johanna" in public on December 4, 1965, at the Berkeley Community Theatre. Present at this concert was Joan Baez, who believed the lyrics referred to her. She said, "He'd just written 'Visions of Johanna', which sounded very suspicious to me...he'd never performed it before and Neuwirth told him I was there that night and he performed it." Heylin suggests that if Dylan performed it for anyone that night it was Allen Ginsberg, who was also present. Heylin argues Dylan considered Ginsberg to be an important influence on his songwriting at this juncture, and was keen to showcase the song for the Beat poet.  All live versions of the song recorded during Dylan's 1966 tour of England have been released. Dylan's performance of the song at London's Royal Albert Hall on May 26, 1966, appeared on "Biograph", released in 1985. Asked by Cameron Crowe, for the liner notes for "Biograph", how he could remember the words of such a complex song in live performance, Dylan responded, "I could remember a song without writing it down because it was so visual." A performance of the song recorded at the Manchester Free Trade Hall on May 17, 1966, was released on "" in 1998. In addition, a May 6, 1966, performance of the song, recorded in Belfast, was included on "Live 1962-1966: Rare Performances From The Copyright Collections", released in 2018.  On November 11, 2016, Legacy Recordings released a 36-CD boxed set, "The 1966 Live Recordings", which comprises every known recording of Bob Dylan’s 1966 concert tour. The recordings commence with the concert in White Plains, New York on February 5, 1966, and end with the Royal Albert Hall concert in London on May 27. The set contains 18 live performances of "Visions of Johanna", all featuring Dylan solo on acoustic guitar. (The May 26, 1966, performance was included on the separately released album "The Real Royal Albert Hall 1966 Concert".)  The "Visions of Johanna" studio recording sessions were released in their entirety on the 18-disc Collector's Edition of "" on November 6, 2015, with highlights from the November 30, 1965, outtakes appearing on the 6-disc and 2-disc versions of that album. The 18-disc version contains 14 takes of "Visions of Johanna" recorded in New York on November 30, 1965, and 4 takes of the song recorded in Nashville on February 14, 1966, the last being the "Blonde on Blonde" version of the song.

Interpretation.

Noting how popular "Visions of Johanna" remains among "hardcore Dylanophiles," Andy Gill suggests it is the enigmatic quality of the song that is responsible for its popularity—"forever teetering on the brink of lucidity, yet remaining impervious to strict decipherment". Gill writes that the song begins by contrasting two lovers, the carnal Louise, and "the more spiritual but unattainable" Johanna. Ultimately, for Gill, the song seeks to convey how the artist is compelled to keep striving to pursue some elusive vision of perfection.  Clinton Heylin has described what he construes as the strange circumstances surrounding the song. Written around the time of Dylan's marriage to Sara Lownds, Heylin describes it as "one of the oddest songs ever written by a man who has just tied the knot and is enjoying a brief honeymoon in the city". Noting that the song is an elegy for a past lover, Heylin speculates that "it is awfully tempting to see Johanna as his muse," who, in the song, is "not here". For Heylin, the triumph of the song lies in "the way Dylan manages to write about the most inchoate feelings in such a vivid, immediate way".  Dylan critic Michael Gray also praises the subtlety of the song. Gray acknowledges that it is difficult to say what this song is "about", since it is at once indefinable and precise. For Gray, its principal achievement lies in the way it confuses categories, using language to be simultaneously serious and flippant, delicate and coarse, and mixing up "abstract neo-philosophy and figurative phraseology".  Robert Shelton called "Visions of Johanna" one of Dylan's major works. He writes that Dylan's technique of throwing out "skittering images" evokes "a mind floating downstream"; these "non-sequential visions" are the record of a fractured consciousness. Shelton argues that the song explores a hopeless quest to reach an ideal, the visions of Johanna, and yet without this quest life becomes meaningless. He suggests that the same paradox is explored by Keats in his "Ode on a Grecian Urn".  Mike Marqusee situates the song in New York City, "a flickering, electric, ghostly, cityscape". Dylan describes himself stranded in a fog of detachment which provides a haven, and at the same time is pained by a piercing clarity: an unmediated response that is "too concise and too clear". For Marqusee, Dylan describes his predicament, suspended between freedom and slavery, yet hungry for an authentic experience. Johanna and Louise are objects of desire and yearning. "It is their elusiveness and unreality that's the point."  Guitarist and critic Bill Janovitz also emphasizes the urban, unreal quality of "Visions of Johanna", calling it a "sprawling epic". "The journey takes Dylan through lofts, the D train, a museum, empty lots, and through snippets of overheard conversation, as well as a discussion with some 'little boy lost', who 'takes himself so seriously', and who is'so useless and all/muttering small talk at the wall'." For Janovitz, this could "possibly be a swipe at a critic".  Literary critic Christopher Ricks, in his study of Dylan's work, pinpoints the emotional effect of these same lines:  Ricks writes that the phrase "and all" turns a mood of helplessness into a sense of "aggression and baffled anger".  Trying to unravel the mystery of the song, Greil Marcus writes that the song is concerned with internal questions, rather than external ones: "Line by line, 'Blowin' in the Wind' is pious, or falsely innocent—isn't it obvious that whoever wrote "Yes, 'n' how many seas must a white dove sail / Before she sleeps in the sand?" already knows the answer, assuming he, or anyone, can actually bring themselves to care about such a precious question? But 'Visions of Johanna' is asking different sorts of questions. Such as: Where are you? Who are you? What are you doing here?" Evoking the drugged, urban milieu of the song, Marcus writes of "People wandering from one corner of a loft to another, doped, drunk, half-awake, fast asleep, no point to the next breath, let alone the next step." For Marcus, "'Visions of Johanna' makes a narrative solely out of atmosphere."

Legacy.

The song has been described by several critics as a masterpiece. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" magazine placed the song at No. 404 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, commenting that Dylan "never sounded lonelier than in this seven-minute ballad, cut in a single take on Valentine's Day 1966." (When "Rolling Stone" updated their list in 2010, the song dropped to No. 413.) In 1999, Britain's Poet Laureate, Andrew Motion, chose it as his candidate for the best song lyric ever written. Motion praised "the concentration and surprise" of Dylan's lyrics, and said that, although he distanced himself from some of the singer's views about women, the "rasp of his anger" was a part of his greatness. In 2017, the International Observer named the song the second best ever recorded, stating, "The 24 year old Dylan was beginning to realize that no matter how many perfect songs he wrote he could not achieve immortality through his art as he perhaps once believed, because even if people were still listening to the music in 500 years, he would still be dead." In an interview with "The Independent" in 1992, cult British musician Robyn Hitchcock described the song by saying "it's pretty much the reason I'm a singer". Commenting on the song in a 1985 interview, Dylan said, "I still sing that song every once in a while. It still stands up now as it did then, maybe even more in some kind of weird way."

Cover versions.

The Grateful Dead played "Visions of Johanna" in concert a number of times between 1986 and 1995, and both they and Jerry Garcia solo each released a live version on record. There is also a 16-minute studio version of the song on Jerry Garcia's "All Good Things Redux", a bonus CD provided with the "" box set of Garcia's studio recordings.  Other artists who have covered the song include Marianne Faithfull, Robyn Hitchcock, Lee Ranaldo, Chris Smither, former Flamin' Groovies guitarist Chris Wilson, Julie Felix, Maggie Holland, and Old Crow Medicine Show. The jazz trio Jewels and Binoculars, who named themselves after a phrase from "Visions of Johanna", recorded an instrumental treatment of the song on their album "The Music of Bob Dylan". Foreign language versions of the song include a recording by Jan Erik Vold, Kåre Virud and Telemark Blueslag in Norwegian, Gerard Quintana's and Jordi Batiste's version in Catalan, Steffen Brandt's in Danish, and Ernst Jansz's in Dutch.

"Visions of Johanna" is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan on his 1966 album "Blonde on Blonde". Several critics have acclaimed "Visions of Johanna" as one of Dylan's highest achievements in writing, praising the allusiveness and subtlety of the language. "Rolling Stone" included "Visions of Johanna" on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 1999, Sir Andrew Motion, Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, listed it as the greatest song lyric ever written.


Beliefs.

The Hutaree have claimed, "We see the end of the age coming quickly, and with it some very rough times ahead, as foretold by God's word". The militia describe his goals "The only thing on earth to save the testimony and those who follow it, are the members of the testimony, until the return of Christ in the clouds. We Hutaree are prepared to defend all who belong to Christ and save them. those who are not. We will still spread the word and fight to keep it, until the time of the great coming.  According to some sources, the group is described as practicing survivalism. Most of the members were active voters with unidentified political party affiliations.  The Hutaree has been known to lend assistance to other militias in the past, with such things as searching for missing persons.  Many videos posted on the Hutaree's website have supported several right-wing organizations, politicians, and news commentators. A former fiancée of Hutaree leader David Stone, has claimed that he was a "Ron Paul fanatic."  The Hutaree insignia includes a sword, crossed spears, and the letters "CCR" which stand for "Colonial Christian Republic." Hutaree members use a unique system of paramilitary ranks with titles from highest to lowest: Radok, Boramander, Zulif, Arkon, Rifleman (three grades), Lukore, and Gunner (three grades). University of Pennsylvania linguistics professor Mark Liberman commented: "I don't see basis in biblical or military history for Radok, Boramander, Zulif, Arkon, and Lukore."  The group remained exclusively Christian but attempted to maintain relationships with individuals and groups that adhere to other beliefs, especially within the militia movement. One militia associate of the group, named Matt Savino, was denied membership in the Hutaree when he revealed that he was a Muslim. Savino was referred to join the Michigan Militia by the Hutaree who declined his membership but maintained contact with Mr Savino. Savino eventually was elected to be a "Colonel" in the Michigan Militia. Savino later provided information to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) which appears to have assisted them in capturing the last indicted Hutaree at large, Joshua Stone.

Criminal investigation.

From March 28 to March 30, 2010, nine people thought to be Hutaree members were arrested in police raids in Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana (in Hammond), for their alleged involvement in a plot to kill various police officers and possibly civilians using illegal explosives and/or firearms. An undercover agent played a role in the investigation that led to indictments. Grand jury testimony by a law enforcement officer referred to an "undercover FBI agent" who worked on the case; the FBI declined to comment, but infiltration is a common tactic for law-enforcement officials targeting domestic militia groups. The FBI informant was later revealed to be Hal Turner.  The group was allegedly preparing for what they believed would be an apocalyptic battle with the forces of the Antichrist, whom they believed would be supported and defended by local, state, and federal law enforcement.  On May 3, 2010 a federal judge ordered that all nine members be freed on bond until their trial, saying that prosecutors were not able to demonstrate that the defendants would pose a danger if released.  The United States Attorney's Office stated that the Hutaree allegedly planned "to kill an unidentified member of local law enforcement and then attack the law enforcement officers who gather in Michigan for the funeral". The press release further stated that nine had been indicted by a federal grand jury in Detroit on charges of seditious conspiracy, attempted use of weapons of mass destruction, teaching the use of explosive materials, and possessing a firearm during a crime of violence. The indictment said that the Hutaree planned to attack unspecified law enforcement vehicles during the funeral procession for an unspecified officer or officers they planned to kill on an unspecified occasion, using unspecified explosively formed penetrator improvised explosive devices (which under federal law are considered "weapons of mass destruction").  Some articles suggested the Hutaree had not yet determined whom in law enforcement they would kill, or even that they wished to kill a law enforcement officer in order to begin a war with law enforcement, while not having any specific target. The FBI was aided in its investigation by members of another militia group.

Members taken into custody.

Nine members of the group that were arrested:  On May 3, 2010, U.S. District Judge Victoria A. Roberts ordered all nine defendants to be released on bond, over the objection of Federal prosecutors. "The order is silent as to any financial aspects of the bonds. In federal court, defendants are normally released on $10,000 unsecured bonds, meaning they do not have to put up any money." The court ruled that five of the Hutaree remain in custody. The ruling applies to David Stone, Sr., Joshua Stone, Joshua Clough, Michael Meeks and Thomas Piatek. Four other members have already been released on bond. The court ordered that they be placed on electronic monitors.  In addition to being confined to their homes, outside of time spent away from work (or while seeking employment as per standard federal pretrial release conditions), some additional requirements were placed on individual defendants, for example, alleged leader David Brian Stone Sr. is barred from having any contact with Michigan-based militia activist Mark Koernke.  Prosecutors added charges in June 2012 stating that David Stone Sr., Joshua Stone and Clough illegally possessed automatic rifles and that David Stone Sr., David Stone Jr. and Joshua Stone possessed unregistered firearms, charging them with violations of the National Firearms Act. Clough had earlier entered a guilty plea in December 2011 to a weapons law violation in a plea agreement, with leniency suggested in light of his cooperative testimony in the case. David Stone Sr. and Joshua Stone eventually later entered a guilty pleas in March 2012 to some NFA violations as part of a plea agreement.

Trial.

In February 2011, Judge Victoria A. Roberts set a new trial date of September 13, 2011 after defense attorneys asked for more time to review the hundreds of pages of evidence prosecutors have provided them. Attorneys also cited the complexity of the case in asking for a delay. The case originally was to go to trial on February 28, 2011. Roberts first delayed the trial in December 2010 until April after attorneys made a similar request. Defense attorneys argued that statements made by Hutaree were constitutionally protected free speech and not plans for an attack.  In January 2012, a federal judge issued an order granting the defense attorneys' motion to exclude prosecution testimony by an expert drawing parallels between the defendants' beliefs and various conspiracy theories about Ruby Ridge, the Waco siege, the Oklahoma City bombing, and 9/11, concluding: "It is largely irrelevant to the issues in dispute and what little probative value it might add is substantially outweighed by the risks of undue prejudice, confusion and misleading the jury." On March 27, 2012, a federal judge acquitted seven Hutaree defendants of the most serious charges related to conspiracy and sedition; they were free to go. David Stone Sr. and Joshua Stone continued to be held on weapons-related charges. On August 8, 2012, David Stone Sr., Joshua Stone and Joshua Clough were sentenced to time served on weapons-related charges, to which they pleaded guilty, and placed under supervision for two years.

Return of seized property.

After the acquittal of seven Hutaree members, the property seized during a March 2010 raid was returned to the owners. Items included a wedding ring, firearms and surplus items of military equipment previously owned by Hutaree members. The FBI returned Stone’s 6 guns, including her AR-15 semi-automatic rifle.  Seized items that had been returned included hundreds of thousands of rounds of ammunition, numerous weapons and other material, but several items, including illegal weapons taken as evidence, had been destroyed by the Justice Department.

Hutaree is a militia movement group adhering to the ideology of the Christian Patriot movement, based near Adrian, Michigan, in the United States. The group formed in early 2006. The name "Hutaree" appears to be a neologism; the group's web site says that the name means "Christian warriors", but an investigation by the FBI concluded the word doesn't have a Christian background. The group became widely known in 2010 after the United States FBI prosecuted them in federal court for an alleged plan for violent revolt. The prosecution said they intended to kill a police officer and to attack the funeral with bombs. The presiding judge dismissed these charges. Three members pleaded guilty to possessing a machine gun and were sentenced to time served.


Early years and education.

Edith Kertész-Gabry, born Edith Gáncz in Budapest, Hungary, studied at the Franz Liszt Academy of Music, and made her debut in 1951 at the Budapest National Opera. That same year, she married the conductor, István Kertész. After the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Kertész-Gabry left Hungary and moved to Germany with her husband and young son.

Career.

Kertész-Gabry received an appointment to the Bremen Opera from where she moved on to Cologne in 1960. On 15 February 1965 she distinguished herself as a dramatic coloratura soprano in the lead role of Marie in the premiere of Bernd Alois Zimmermann's opera, "Die Soldaten". Zimmermann's four-act opera commissioned by the Cologne Opera is considered one of the most important and influential operas written in Germany since the second world war." In 1974 she performed this role once again in Zimmermann's shortened concertante version of his opera, the "".  Kertész-Gabry gave guest performances at various opera houses and festivals throughout Germany and abroad. During the earliest years of her singing career, she quickly expanded her repertoire to include Konstanze in the "Die Entführung aus dem Serail", Susanna in "The Marriage of Figaro", Fiordiligi in "Così fan tutte", Pamina in "The Magic Flute", Zerlina in "Don Giovanni", Mrs. Fluth in Otto Nicolai's "The Merry Wives of Windsor", the Baroness in Albert Lortzing's "Der Wildschütz", Sophie in "Der Rosenkavalier", Eva in Wagner's "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg", Desdemona in Verdi's "Otello", Alice Ford in Verdi's "Falstaff", Antonia in Jacques Offenbach's "The Tales of Hoffmann", and Zerline in Daniel Auber's "Fra Diavolo". At the 1967 Salzburg Festival she performed, Silvia in Mozart's, "Ascanio in Alba". By then, her repertoire of operas from the 20th century also included, in addition to Marie in "Die Soldaten", Cardillac's daughter in Paul Hindemith's "Cardillac", and Luise in Hans Werner Henze's "Der junge Lord".  Since 1971, in addition to performing regularly with the Cologne Opera, Kertész-Gabry taught at the Folkwang-Musikschule. Before 1977 she received a teaching appointment at the Cologne University of Music. In 1988, she performed one of her last notable performances at the Schwetzingen Festival. There she sang the role of Berta in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville".

Death.

After a prolonged illness, Kertész-Gabry died in Cologne on February 10, 2012. She is survived by two children and five grandchildren.

References.

Further sources

Edith Kertész-Gabry (18 July 1927 – 10 February 2012) was a Hungarian soprano and professor of opera at the Cologne University of Music.


Geologic occurrence.

Sperrylite is the most common platinum mineral, it generally occurs with a wide array of other unusual minerals, including cooperite [(Pt,Pd,Ni)S], laurite [RuS], kotulskite [Pd(Te,Bi)], merenskyite [(Pd,Pt)(Te,Bi)], iridium-osmium (Ir-Os) alloys, sudburyite [(Pd,Ni)Sb], omeiite [(Os,Ru)As], testibiopalladite [PdTe(Sb,Te)], and niggliite [PtSn], to name a few. It does not readily decompose through normal weathering processes and, consequently, has been reported in widely scattered alluvial deposits.  It was first found as tiny crystals found with rhodolite garnet and corundum during alluvial gem mining in streams draining Mason Mountain, Macon County, North Carolina (Hidden 1898). Sperrylite has been identified in Finland from sulfide deposits generally associated with layered mafic-ultramafic complexes.

Structure.

Sperrylite belongs to the pyrite group of minerals and therefore it shares similar structure and crystal habits with them. Analyses typically show minor amounts of rhodium. Trace copper, iron, and antimony as well as intergrowths with Pt-Fe are reported from some occurrences. Sperrylite crystallizes in Pa3, with a =5.9681(l) A. (Szymański, 1979). It has very similar crystal structure as in platarsite (ideally PtAsS). Sperrylite crystals vary considerably in shape and size and are usually enclosed in a variety of host minerals. They are usually closely associated with basemetal sulfide. They are commonly at the edge and partially enclosed by pentlandite, pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite. Seabrook (2004).  Sperrylite is composed of loose aggregate of bright silver cubes, some with octahedral modifications. The grains are mostly anhedral, but a few euhedral grains could also be encountered. Sperrylite is formed by contact metamorphism, as in indicated by the development of triple point annealing contacts with pyrrhotite grains. The grains of sperrylite are surrounded by later veins of pyrite.  Sperrylite is cubic (2/m3) and is typically seen in well-developed cubes or cuboctahedra, some of which are so highly modified that crystal edges and comers appear rounded. (Nicol and Goldschmidt 1903) identified seventeen crystal forms exhibited by sperrylite, including four different trapezohedra, a trisoctahedron, five pyritohedra, and four diploids. Crystals to 2.5 cm have been reported.

Physical properties.

Sperrylite is a tin-white mineral known for its brilliant metallic luster, with a grey to black streak. It has indistinct cleavage on {001} and a conchoidal fracture and is brittle. Its hardness is between 6 and 7, and it is quite dense with a calculated specific gravity of 10.78. It has an isometric crystal system, Conchoidal fracture, non-magnetic and non-radioactive.

Discovery.

Sperrylite was first described by H. H. Wells in 1889 from material collected at the Vermilion mine in what is now the Sudbury district, Ontario, Canada. He named it for Francis L. Sperry, chief chemist with the Canadian Copper Company of Sudbury, who collected the original material in 1887 (Mitchell 1985). It occurred in weathered material with colorless transparent cassiterite [SnO], which is thought to have been derived from the oxidation of stannite [Cu(Fe,Zn)SnS].

Sperrylite is a platinum arsenide mineral with formula PtAs and is an opaque metallic tin white mineral which crystallizes in the isometric system with the pyrite group structure. It forms cubic, octahedral or pyritohedral crystals in addition to massive and reniform habits. It has a Mohs hardness of 6 - 7 and a very high specific gravity of 10.6.


Biography.

Early life.

Wrathall was born in Lancaster in Lancashire, Great Britain, and went to Lancaster Royal Grammar School. Having qualified as a chartered accountant in 1935, he emigrated to Southern Rhodesia the next year. He worked for the Southern Rhodesian Government in its income tax department for the next ten years.

Rhodesian career.

In 1946 Wrathall set up in private practice as an accountant in Bulawayo and also became involved in politics. In 1949 he was elected to Bulawayo City Council, where he served for a decade. Wrathall was elected to the Legislative Assembly for Bulawayo South in the 1954 general election, as a member of the United Rhodesia Party, then led by Garfield Todd, but stood down after one term in 1958.

Ministerial office.

By 1962 Wrathall was no longer a supporter of the United Federal Party and became a founder member of the Rhodesian Front under Winston Field. He was elected in Bulawayo North in the December 1962 election under the RF banner, defeating the incumbent, Cyril Hatty, by 67 votes. As one of the party's most experienced members, in October 1963 he was made Minister of African Education. A month later he also took on the Ministry of Health, which was being transferred from the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on its demise at the end of 1963.  Wrathall was among the members of the Rhodesian Front who deposed Winston Field and instead installed Ian Smith as Prime Minister in April 1964. Smith promoted him to be Minister of Finance and of Posts and Telecommunications. As such, he was one of the signatories to the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) on 11 November 1965. He was Deputy Prime Minister from 7 September 1966. Known as "the quiet man of Rhodesian politics", he nevertheless was a key figure in the secret struggle against United Nations sanctions imposed after UDI.  As Minister of Finance, Wrathall also oversaw the adoption of a new decimal currency to replace the Rhodesian pound, known as the Rhodesian dollar, a name which he regarded as having international substance.  In July 1973 Wrathall ceded his responsibility as Minister of Posts; during the 1974 general election he stood down from the House of Assembly and transferred to the Senate. In 1975 he presented his 12th (and last) consecutive Budget as Rhodesia's longest serving Finance Minister.

Presidency.

In 1976, Wrathall became the second President of Rhodesia, succeeding Clifford Dupont. On 14 January of that year, he was sworn in as President by the Chief Justice, Sir Hugh Beadle, in a ceremony at Government House witnessed by Prime Minister Ian Smith and his Cabinet ministers. Wrathall served for two and a half years, and died in office of a heart attack.

John James Wrathall GCLM, ID (28 August 1913 – 31 August 1978) was a Rhodesian politician. He was the last white President of Rhodesia (later holders of the post were only acting as such). He formerly worked as a chartered accountant.


History.

Following The Pirate Bay trial, a large surge in Pirate Party interest occurred around the world. After the success of the Swedish Pirate Party in the summer 2009 European elections, there was a sudden growth of Pirate Party organisations across Europe (notably in Germany and France) and beyond. Forum membership soared. The official formation of the Pirate Party in the UK followed shortly after the European elections and the Pirate Party UK was officially registered on 30 July 2009. In August 2009, it was claimed that Pirate Party UK was undergoing rapid growth similar to one the Swedish Pirate Party had enjoyed in early 2009. It was reported that it had been flooded with enquiries and at its peak around 100 people an hour were signing up to become party members. Donations had been coming in so fast that PayPal was concerned it was a fraudulent site.  On 30 March 2010, the party declared its intent to stand ten candidates across England and Scotland. However, to do so, further party funding would be required. On 27 April 2010, the party announced that it had nine official candidates on the ballot papers, as Mark Sims had missed the deadline because of the air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption. Following the resignation of first party leader Andrew Robinson, the composer and lecturer Laurence "Loz" Kaye was elected as the new leader on 26 September 2010. In a message sent to members, Kaye stated his key aim as "building the political structure of the party". Previously, Kaye had been the election agent for candidate Tim Dobson who stood for Pirate Party UK in Manchester Gorton.  In the run-up to the 2015 general election, the Pirate Party crowdsourced its manifesto using Reddit. The process ran until 21 March 2015. The Party stood a total of six candidates in the 2015 General Election, including leader Loz Kaye in Manchester Central, who won the largest share of the vote in his constituency with 0.8%.  Following the 2015 general election in May, Kaye stepped down as leader. With the role of deputy leader also being vacant, George Walkden, the party's nominating officer, was approved by the board of governors to serve as an interim leader until the party elected a new leader. Following the leadership election, Cris Chesha was elected leader of the party and David Elston was elected the first deputy leader. Six new governors were elected, with six governors being re-elected. Rebecca Rae was elected to the role of campaigns officer on the NEC. On 18 June, Andrew Norton stepped down as chair of the board, and was replaced by the deputy chair of the board, Andrew Robinson, the leader of the party from 2009 to 2010. On 29 July 2015, Will Tovey was elected as the next deputy chair of the board to replace Robinson. Will Tovey subsequently became chair of the board, and Adrian Farrel replaced him on 14 December 2016. The party's extended period without an elected NEC caught the attention of larger media outlets in October 2016 where Kaye and Elston gave comment.  In June 2017, when the snap general election was called, the Pirate Party UK was under the acting leadership of deputy leader David Elston, the position of party leader being vacant following Chesha's resignation in November 2015. The party launched its manifesto for the 2017 general election on 17 May 2017 in Vauxhall, the home constituency of its lead candidate Mark Chapman, in front of the MI6 building. A crowdfunding campaign, dubbed "Operation Doubloons", was also launched in June to help the party cover the costs of candidate deposits and election materials.  The party subsequently stood ten candidates in the 2017 election, the highest number in the history of the party. These included Elston in Vale of Glamorgan, Chapman in Vauxhall and the party's nominations officer, Jason Winstanley, in Gower. The largest share of the vote was won by Des Hjerling, standing in New Forest West, who received 1% of the vote. Following the election, Elston wrote in a Leader's Update that "Pirates were one of the few parties to make gains" in the election, highlighting the fact that the party had increased its overall share of the vote and more than doubled the number of votes it gained across all candidates compared with the 2015 general election results.  On 29 October 2019, the Pirate Party UK issued a General Election Statement stating that it would not be fielding candidates in the December 2019 general election because of concern that its candidates could split the vote in a "single-issue election" and thus increase the likelihood of the election of candidates whose opinions regarding the UK's future relationship with the EU were incompatible with the those of the PPUK.

Organisation.

Branches.

The Pirate Party UK has branches in many places around the United Kingdom. These include London, York, Greater Manchester, Sheffield and Bury.

Pirate Party Wales.

Pirate Party Wales () is a branch of the Pirate Party UK that covers the entirety of Wales and was founded in 2014 by David Anthony Elston. Pirate Party Wales supports increased recognition of the Welsh language, including reform of the Welsh Language Act 1993 and free Welsh courses for all Welsh nationals. It also supports further devolution to Wales and increased powers for the Welsh Assembly. The only candidate to have stood in Wales so far is Elston who stood in Bridgend in the 2015 general election.

International affiliation.

On 25 February 2015, the Pirate Party UK announced its withdrawal from its international affiliation, Pirate Party International. This announcement, consolidated by a vote of the board, followed Pirate Party Australia's decision to leave earlier in the same month.

Election results.

It has previously been noted by Robinson, the first Pirate Party UK leader, that the Pirate Party UK's chances of getting a candidate elected to the UK parliament are "pretty much close to zero", because of the first past the post system for electing MPs to Parliament. Instead, its immediate aim is to raise awareness among voters and politicians in the other political parties.  The Pirate Party UK contested its first election in 2010, standing nine candidates in the 2010 general election. The party also stood candidates in the 2011 Oldham East and Saddleworth and 2012 Manchester Central by-elections. The party also contested several local government elections and the 2011 Scottish Parliament election. The party stood six candidates in the 2015 general election, and ten in the 2017 snap general election. In general elections, none of its candidates has ever received more than one percent of the vote.

The Pirate Party UK (often abbreviated PPUK; in ) is a political party in the United Kingdom. The Pirate Party's core policies are to bring about reform to copyright and patent laws, support privacy, reduce surveillance from government and businesses, and support freedom of speech and freedom of expression.


Meetings and membership.

Marc J. Ambinder of ABC News said about the council: "The group wants to be the conservative version of the Council on Foreign Relations." The CNP was founded in 1981. Among its founding members were: Tim LaHaye, then the head of the Moral Majority, Nelson Bunker Hunt, T. Cullen Davis, William Cies, Howard Phillips, and Paul Weyrich.  Members of the CNP have included: General John Singlaub, shipping magnate J. Peter Grace, Edwin J. Feulner Jr of the Heritage Foundation, Rev. Pat Robertson of the Christian Broadcasting Network, Jerry Falwell, U.S. Senator Trent Lott, Southern Baptist Convention activists and retired Texas Court of Appeals Judge Paul Pressler, lawyer and paleoconservative activist Michael Peroutka, Reverend Paige Patterson, Senator Don Nickles, former United States Attorneys General Edwin Meese and John Ashcroft, gun-rights activist Larry Pratt, Col. Oliver North, Steve Bannon, Kellyanne Conway, philanthropist Elsa Prince (mother of Blackwater founder and former CEO Erik Prince and Trump Administration Secretary of Education Betsy Devos), and former California State Assemblyman Steve Baldwin.  Membership is by invitation only. The organization's membership list is considered "strictly confidential". Guests may attend "only with the unanimous approval of the executive committee." Members are instructed not to refer to the organization by name to protect against leaks. "The New York Times" political writer David D. Kirkpatrick suggested that the organization's secrecy since its founding was intended to insulate it "from what its members considered the liberal bias of the news media."  CNP's meetings are closed to the general public, reportedly to allow for a free-flowing exchange of ideas. The group meets three times per year. This policy is said to be similar to the long-held policy of the Council on Foreign Relations, to which the CNP has at times been compared. CNP's 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status was revoked by the IRS in 1992 on grounds that it was not an organization run for the public benefit. The group successfully challenged this ruling in federal court. A quarterly journal aimed at educating the public, promised in the wake of this incident, has not substantially materialized. The organization has a website that contains many policy speeches from past gatherings (covering the years from 2013 up to the present).  While those involved in the organization are almost entirely from the United States, their organizations and influence cover the globe, both religiously and politically. Members include corporate executives, legislators former high ranking government officers, leaders of 'think tanks' dedicated to molding society and those whom many view as "Christian leadership".  In May 2016, the Southern Poverty Law Center released a leaked copy of the membership directory for 2014.

Conferences and political plans.

Leading members of the CNP voted in a meeting at the Grand America Hotel in Salt Lake City, on September 29, 2007, to consider launching a third party candidate if the 2008 Republican nominee were pro-choice. (The candidacy of former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who held liberal opinions on social issues such as abortion, gay rights and gun ownership, had disturbed the Christian right.) The CNP's statement read, "If the Republican Party nominates a pro-abortion candidate, we will consider running a third-party candidate." Attending the meeting were notable social conservatives, including James Dobson, Richard Viguerie, Tony Perkins and Morton Blackwell.  CNP has membership links to the Committee for the Free World, whose many other members included, among others, some members of the Unification Church of the United States, some Republican Party leaders, and counter-revolutionaries in Latin America, particularly during the 1980s. Midge Decter served as Executive Director of its committee. Other members included Jeane Kirkpatrick, Leszek Kołakowski, Irving Kristol, Melvin J. Lasky, Seymour M. Lipset, Donald Rumsfeld, Tom Stoppard and George Will. Eugene V. Rostow, then serving as Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency under President Ronald Reagan, was a speaker at a CFW event on Poland.  CNP's membership also overlaps significantly with that of the Arlington Group, a coalition of conservative Christian organizations which spearheaded ballot initiatives banning gay marriage in thirty-two states in the 2000s; and with the second, third and fourth iterations of the Committee on the Present Danger.  In 1999, a speech given to the CNP by Republican candidate George W. Bush is credited with helping him gain the support of conservatives in his successful bid for the United States Presidency in 2000. The content of the speech has never been released by the CNP or by Bush.  In February 2007, the organization planned to be involved in the 2008 presidential election campaign and actively sought candidate that would represent their views. U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney and former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney spoke at a four-day conference that the Council held in Salt Lake City, Utah during the last week of September 2007. The Council for National Policy scheduled a conference in late October 2007; other than Giuliani, most Republican presidential candidates pledged to appear.  On May 18, 2018 House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, R-CA, gave a speech to the Council for National Policy in which he asserted that the American political climate was "increasingly belittling Christian conservatives for their beliefs" and forcing Christians "'out of the public square'".

Leadership.

CNP was founded in 1981 by Southern Baptist pastor Tim LaHaye, author of "The Battle for the Mind" (1980) and the "Left Behind" series of books. Other early participants have included W. Cleon Skousen, a theologian within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and founder of the Freemen Institute; Paul Weyrich; Phyllis Schlafly; Robert Grant; Howard Phillips, a former Republican affiliated with the Constitution Party; Richard Viguerie, the direct-mail specialist; and Morton Blackwell, a Louisiana and Virginia activist who is considered a specialist on the rules of the Republican Party.  The council's first executive director was Woody Jenkins; later, Morton Blackwell and Bob Reccord served in this role. Organization presidents have included Nelson Bunker Hunt of Dallas, Amway co-founder Richard DeVos of Michigan, Pat Robertson of Virginia Beach, retired Judge Paul Pressler of Houston, former Reagan Cabinet secretaries Edwin Meese and Donald Hodel, former Reagan advisor and President of the Intercollegiate Studies Institute Kenneth Cribb, Family Research Council president Tony Perkins, and current President (as of 2014) Stuart Epperson, founder of the Salem Media Group.

The Council for National Policy (CNP) is an umbrella organization and networking group for conservative activists in the United States. It has been described by "The New York Times" as "a little-known club of a few hundred of the most powerful conservatives in the country," who meet three times yearly behind closed doors at undisclosed locations for a confidential conference. "The Nation" has called it a secretive organization that "networks wealthy right-wing donors together with top conservative operatives to plan long-term movement strategy". It was founded in 1981 by Tim LaHaye as a forum for conservative Christians seeking to strengthen the political right in the United States. The organization has been described as a "pluto-theocracy".


Taxonomy and phylogeny.

Dutch ichthyologist Marinus Boeseman described the sharpsnout stingray in a 1948 issue of the scientific journal "Zoologische Mededelingen", based on a juvenile male caught off Suriname with a disc length of. The whereabouts of this type specimen is unknown. In a 2001 phylogenetic analysis based on morphological characters, Lisa Rosenberger found that the longnose stingray ("D. guttata") is the sister species of the sharpsnout stingray, and that the two form a clade with the pale-edged stingray ("D. zugei"), the pearl stingray ("D. margaritella"), the sharpnose stingray ("Himantura gerrardi"), and the smooth butterfly ray ("Gymnura micrura", included in the study as an outgroup). These results support the growing consensus that neither "Dasyatis" nor "Himantura" are monophyletic.

Distribution and habitat.

One of the less common stingrays within its range, the sharpsnout stingray is found in nearshore, brackish waters along the northeastern coast of South America, from Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago to northern Brazil; many occur in the estuarine area affected by the freshwater discharge of the Amazon River. It favors muddy habitats deep, with low visibility. However, Uyeno "et al." (1983) gave a depth of for this species. The sharpsnout stingray conducts annual movements that are affected by salinity, entering coastal bays such as Marajó Bay during the rainy season and shifting to offshore waters during the rainy season.

Description.

The pectoral fin disc of the sharpsnout stingray is about as wide as long, with strongly concave leading margins and rounded corners. The snout is long and projecting, measuring 39–54% as long as the disc is wide. The eyes are minute and followed by much larger spiracles. There is a flap of skin between the nares, with a finely fringed posterior margin. The line of the mouth is slightly indented at the center. The upper and lower jaws both contain 56–68 tooth rows; the teeth are blunt and arranged with a quincunx pattern. A transverse row of 5 papillae are present on the floor of the mouth.  The pelvic fins are distinctive, being over twice as long as wide with a gently sinuous trailing margin, and tapering to an acute tip that sometimes extends past the disc. The whip-like tail measures over twice the length of the disc and bears 1–2 serrated spines on top. Posterior to the spines are a subtle dorsal keel and a ventral fin fold about half as long as the disc. A band of small tubercles runs along the dorsal midline from behind the eyes to the base of the tail (excluding a posterior portion of the disc), with larger tubercles in a central row and on each "shoulder". More conical tubercles are scattered over the upper surface of the tail past the spines. The coloration is a uniform brown above, and white below darkening towards the disc margin. This species typically attains a disc width of, but individuals up to across have been recorded.

Biology and ecology.

The sharpsnout stingray feeds on small burrowing invertebrates such as worms, crustaceans, and molluscs, excavating them from the substrate and grinding them apart with its pavement-like teeth. Like other stingrays, this species is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to 1–3 young every year. Similarly to the Colares stingray ("D. colarensis"), the annual movements of this ray may relate to reproduction as most females found near the coast are newly impregnated. Younger individuals have proportionately longer tails (measuring up to three times the disc width) than adults.

Human interactions.

The sharp, venomous tail spines of the sharpsnout stingray are potentially hazardous to humans. This species is caught by hook-and-line or in nets; it is used for food by subsistence fishers, but is not favored because its flesh is a dark reddish color. Sharpsnout stingrays also form part of the bycatch of artisanal and commercial fisheries targeting large catfish in the Amazon estuary, while increasing interest in using stingrays for minced fish products may intensify fishing pressure on this species in the future. Because of these threats and the slow reproductive rate of this ray, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed it as Near Threatened.

The sharpsnout stingray or wingfin stingray ("Dasyatis geijskesi") is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found from off Venezuela to northern Brazil. It inhabits shallow, brackish water, shifting towards the coast in the dry season and away from it in the rainy season. Typically measuring across, this dark brown ray is easily identifiable by its long, projecting snout and elongated, acutely pointed pelvic fins. Its diet consists of bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females bearing one to three pups annually. Naturally uncommon and slow-reproducing, the sharpnose stingray is under pressure by both artisanal and commercial fisheries, leading the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to assess it as Near Threatened.


Biography.

Born in Chios, Greece, Trypanis received his education at The Classical Gymnasium, Chios and the Universities of Athens, Berlin and Munich. He received a doctorate from the University of Athens in 1937. From 1939-1945 he taught at the University of Athens and, in 1947, moved to Britain where he began teaching at Exeter College in Oxford as the Bywater and Sotheby professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek. It was also in England that Trypanis' met and befriended the poet Ian Fletcher, whom Trypanis afterwards referred to as "the master," with Trypanis himself "as the pupil". In 1968 Trypanis relocated to Chicago, after acting as a visiting professor at various other American universities, where he taught Classical Literature until 1974. In 1974 he returned to his native Greece, serving as Minister for Culture and Sciences until 1977. He remained in Greece until his death. He died in Athens in 1993.  Though his poetry has since fallen into obscurity, his writings received some critical acclaim in his time, with two of his collections, "The Stones of Troy" and "The Cocks of Hades" receiving, respectively, the choice of the Poetry Book Society and the Heinemann Award of the Royal Society of Literature. His poetry was also acclaimed by the likes of Theodore Roethke, W. H. Auden and John Wain. His poetry was first published while he was living in England, and it was also while in England that he began to develop a poetic circle of his own; he wrote his poetry (at least that portion which was published) in English, his second language, which perhaps opens the door to comparisons to the likes of Joseph Conrad and Vladimir Nabokov, both of whom wrote in English, despite being native speakers of Polish and Russian, respectively. Much of Trypanis' poetic writings were centered on the artifacts, history and mythology of antiquity, especially that of Classical Greece and Rome, though others of his poems centered on aspects and events of his contemporary world.

Constantine Athanasius Trypanis (; 22 January 1909 – 18 January 1993) was a Greek classicist, literary critic, translator and poet.


Background.

The Leyland Lynx (B60) was designed in 1984 as a replacement for the ageing Leyland National, being unveiled at the 1985 International Bus & Coach Exhibition at the Earls Court Exhibition Centre. Although the B60 was the first bus to carry the Lynx brand, Leyland had previously used it on truck chassis between 1936 and 1940, and again between 1968 and 1979. The Lynx name has since been revived by Ashok Leyland for use on a midibus.

History.

Production vehicles began to enter service in 1986, the majority were bodied by Leyland at its Workington factory where the underframe was produced. All have a step entrance, Leyland offered the option of a floor with a step in the middle or one that gently ramped from aft of the front platform to the rear. A plan for offering this bus with a single-piece flat windscreen was considered, but was not carried out. A common feature, therefore, is that the Lynx has two separate windscreens and has the driver's windscreen raked back, resembling 1950s single-decker buses and the Wright Handybus.  Engines offered were the Leyland TL11, Gardner 6HLXCT and Cummins L10, while the Lynx II was also available with the Volvo THD102KF.  In 1990, the updated Lynx Mark II version was introduced. It could be recognised easily by its protruding front dash/grille panel, whilst the original design was flat. Additionally, a select few of the 140 vehicles produced featured Volvo engines, which drastically reduced performance in pursuit of more environmentally friendly engines.  The Mark II was also available as a bus underframe for other coachbuilders to body. Although the large majority of Lynxes carried the Leyland body, seven chassis were bodied by Alexander with N-type bodywork for Citybus (Belfast), including the first prototype. Northern Counties also catalogued bodies for the Lynx but none were built.  The type saw service all over the United Kingdom, with the largest fleet owned by West Midlands Travel. A total of 256 were purchased, including six demonstrators, delivered early in 1986 equipped with Gardner engines and semi-automatic Leyland Hydracyclic gearboxes (which were later converted to ZF automatic). They were gradually withdrawn from 2000 onwards, with the last three withdrawn from passenger service in March 2009, although 10 remained in the driver training fleet until March 2010.  The last two Lynxes to roll off the production line entered service with Halton Transport in August 1992. The Lynx was the core of Halton Transport's fleet for over 10 years. In later life at Halton, they were used on a number of school contracts and the occasional regular service. In October 2010, all of Halton's remaining Lynxes were sold, the last Lynx produced going into preservation, with the penultimate Lynx used to donate spares.  Following the takeover of Leyland by Volvo in March 1988, the Lynx was superseded by the Volvo B10B in 1992. Total production of Lynxes was approximately 1,060 vehicles, including six prototypes (one of which was not bodied) and several development vehicles. About 140 of the total were Lynx Mark IIs.

Exports.

A small number of Lynxes were exported as demonstrators, but no sales ever resulted.  In 1984, a framed chassis was sent to Australia. After being completed by JW Bolton in Perth, it operated for Transperth, ACTION and Hornibrook Bus Lines before being sold to Lever Coachlines in 1987. In 1989, two were bodied by Pressed Metal Corporation as demonstrators for the State Transit Authority, but the trial never occurred and they were sold to John J Hill, Wollongong.  In 1988, Singapore Bus Service took delivery of an Walter Alexander bodied Leyland Lynx. Originally serving feeder bus routes in Ang Mo Kio, it eventually ended up on employee bus services between Ang Mo Kio Bus Depot and Yishun. It was involved in an accident in August 2001 and had its original Lynx-style front replaced with an Alexander PS type style. It was eventually withdrawn and scrapped in 2005. Conversely one Leyland Tiger received a Lynx-style Leyland body for export to New Zealand, initially being operated by Newmans Coach Lines and later Go Bus Transport.  In 1990, three of the order being built for West Midlands Travel were sent to Australia as demonstrators. Two operated with ACTION, while the third was demonstrated to the State Transport Authority and State Transit Authority, before all three were sold to Southtrans.

Preservation.

Several Lynxes have now entered preservation, with some requiring extensive rebuilding to bring them back to original condition, due to body corrosion, as well as reversing modifications made by operators during their history. One such example is the removal of all of the patterned body skirts, combined with the replacement of the square wheel arches with non-patterned round ones. Both of these modifications were made to make it easier to replace such parts in the event of an accident.  In Australia, the JW Bolton bodied demonstrator has been preserved by the Sydney Bus Museum.

The Leyland Lynx was a stepped-entrance single-decker bus manufactured by Leyland in Workington, England between 1986 and 1992. After the takeover by Volvo, it was succeeded by the Volvo B10B.


Distribution.

"Synodontis" is a freshwater catfish that is most commonly found throughout Africa, occurring mostly in Central and West Africa. "Synodontis" is the most widely distributed mochokidae genus, occurring throughout most of the freshwaters of sub-Saharan Africa and the Nile River system. They can live in freshwaters which can be creeks, ponds, streams, lakes, and rivers. Their distribution is similar to that of cichlid fishes, however, unlike cichlids the majority of their diversity occurs in rivers not lakes.

Evolutionary history.

"Synodontis" catfish form a small endemic radiation in Lake Tanganyika, which includes the non-endemic species "S. victoriae". This radiation is thought to have evolved relatively recently (~5.5. Million years ago), having diversified within full lacustrine conditions. This is also the case for other endemic Lake Tanganyika lineages such as mastacembelid eels and platythelphusid crabs for example. Lake Tanganyikan "Synodontis" have also been shown to be Müllerian mimics, and that at least one species ("Synodontis multipunctatus") is a brood parasite.

Fossil record.

The earliest fossils of "Synodontis" in East African are from the Early Miocene. Many "Synodontis" fossils are the spines because they are very sturdy and so they are preserved better. The fossils of spines that are found are used to determine the family or genera of the fish but it cannot determine the species. "Synodontis" species that have survived and are still living can be identified by the shape of their whisker like organs on their heads called barbels, which relate to touch. The can also be identified by the color of their skin, the skull bones, and the number and length of the teeth.

Ecology.

"Synodontis" species are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a wide spectrum of different foods and are largely unspecialized. Insects, crustaceans, mollusks, annelids, seeds, and algae have been found in the stomachs of different species of "Synodontis". They are bottom-feeders and may be detritivores, some species may also be able to adapt to filter feeding. This allows them to cope with seasonal and habitat changes and gives them a better ability to colonize different habitats. Different "Synodontis" species have somewhat different growth rates but most of them are fairly similar. Females of a species are generally larger than the males. There is a great increase in growth the first year in both male and female and then the growth slows down as they become older. The form and structure of these fish are very different compared to other fish. The size and shape of the mouth are distinct because of its ventral mouth and these fish usually are triangular or cylindrical when looking at it from the side. Not much is known about the reproduction in these fish. It has been determined that July to October is when they spawn and that they swim in pairs during this spawning time. Species of "Synodontis" have been noted to reproduce with the flooding period of the rainy season.

Relationship to humans.

Many "Synodontis" species are prized ornamental fish in the fishkeeping hobby. While some of the "Synodontis" species are prized because of their color or behavior, other species are wanted for food. Some of the bigger species in the genus are important food sources for the people in Africa.

Species.

There are currently 131 recognized species in this genus: "Synodontis" accounts for about one-quarter of African catfish species. This genus has more members than any other African teleost genus other than "Barbus" and "Haplochromis".  Newer species are listed with references.

Synodontis is the largest genus of mochokid catfishes. It is the biggest genus within the 10 genera and 190 different species in the family Mochokidae. "Synodontis" has over 131 different species within the genera. "Synodontis" are also known as squeakers, due to their ability to make stridulatory sounds through their pectoral fin spines when handled or disturbed. "Synodontis" make a sound that sounds like squeaking by rubbing their spines together. They do this when they have been frightened or when they become angry. "Synodontis" may also squeak when they are taken out of the water. These catfish are small- to medium-sized fish with many species exhibiting attractive spotted markings. Some species are also known for naturally swimming belly-up, earning the name upside-down catfish. Some of these species are "Synodontis contractus" and "Synodontis nigriventris". While some of these species are known to swim upside down, another species, "Synodontis multipunctatus", is a brood parasitic cuckoo catfish.


Fabrication and construction.

The handle can be made of any material, from wood to ivory, depending on the wealth and opulence of the owner. Contemporary bullhooks which are used for animal handling generally have handles made of fibreglass, metal, plastic, or wood.  The elephant goad is found in armouries and temples all across India, where elephants march in religious processions and perform in various civil capacities. They are often quite ornate, being decorated with gemstones and engravings to be appropriate for the ceremonies in which they are used.

Iconography.

The elephant goad is a polysemic iconographic ritual tool in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, in the inclusive rubric of Dharmic Traditions.  The elephant has appeared in cultures across the world. They are a symbol of wisdom in Asian cultures and are famed for their memory and intelligence, where they are thought to be on par with cetaceans and hominids. Aristotle once said the elephant was "the beast which passeth all others in wit and mind". The word "elephant" has its origins in the Greek, meaning "ivory" or "elephant".  In iconography and ceremonial ritual tools, the elephant goad is often included in a hybridized tool, for example one that includes elements of Vajrakila, 'hooked knife' or'skin flail' (Tibetan: gri-gug, Sanskrit: kartika), Vajra and Axe, as well as the goad functionality for example. Ritual Ankusha were often finely wrought of precious metals and even fabricated from ivory, often encrusted with jewels. In Dharmic Traditions the goad/ankusha and rope 'noose/snare/lasso' (Sanskrit: Pāśa) are traditionally paired as tools of subjugation.

Hinduism.

In the Hinduism, an elephant goad is one of the eight auspicious objects known as Ashtamangala and certain other religions of the Indian subcontinent. A goad is also an attribute of many Hindu gods, especially Tripura Sundari & Ganesha.

Buddhism.

Wallace and Goleman (2006: p. 79) discuss 'śamatha' (Sanskrit), mindfulness and introspection which they tie to metacognition:  Throughout Buddhist literature, the training in shamatha is often likened to training a wild elephant, and the two primary instruments for this are the tether of mindfulness and the goad of introspection.  Rowlands (2001: p. 124) in discussing consciousness and its self-conscious, self-reflexive quality of apperception states that: The most significant aspect of consciousness, I shall try to show, is its structure, its "hybrid" character. Consciousness can be both act and object of experience. Using the somewhat metaphorical notion of "directing", we might say that consciousness is not only the directing of awareness but "can" be that upon which awareness is directed. Consciousness is not only the act of conscious experience, it can be experience's object. "[italics preserved from original]" In the above quotation the metaphor of 'directing' is employed. In 'directing' consciousness or the mind to introspectively apperceive the directive forded by the goad is key.

Tattvasamgraha Tantra.

In the "Tattvasamgraha tantra" (c 7th century), one of the most important tantras of the Buddhist Yoga Tantra Class, the ankusha figures in the visualization of one of the retinue. This tantra explains the process of the visualization of the Vajradhatu Mandala, which is one of the most visually stylized of Buddhist mandalas. The Ankusha is the symbolic attribute for the visualization of the Bodhisattva Vajraraja, an emanation within the retinue of Vajradhatu. This visualization is treated in Tachikawa (c2000: p. 237).

Literature.

In Rudyard Kipling's "Second Jungle Book" story, Mowgli finds the magnificently-jeweled elephant goad of the title in a hidden treasure chamber. Not realizing the value men place on jewels, he later casually discards it in the jungle, unwittingly leading to a chain of greed and murder amongst those who find it after him.

The elephant goad, bullhook, or ankus (from Sanskrit "" or "ankusha") is a tool employed by mahout in the handling and training of elephants. It consists of a hook (usually bronze or steel) which is attached to a handle, ending in a tapered end.


Deregulation and Elimination of Barriers.

Proposal.

In 1984 a proposal to deregulate local bus services was published in the white paper "Buses" and in more detailed consultation papers. The Transport Act of 1985 (part I) brought these proposals into effect.  Deregulation, elimination of barriers, and the transfer to the private sector were some of the major changes the Transport Act of 1985 established. Privatization and bus deregulation came into effect on 26 October 1986. Local authorities were required to transfer their municipally-owned bus services to separate companies. Although most of these companies have since been privatized, with the exception of Lothian Buses in Edinburgh; a few other municipal bus companies remain today. The Transport Act of 1985 also mandated that local governments publish statements of their own policies for bus services deemed socially vital that were not operated by commercial companies.

London.

London faced a different type of deregulation. The standard deregulation that applied to other cities in the United Kingdom was not applied to bus services in Greater London; instead, the Act brought about a system of franchised routes operated by private companies but managed by London Buses Ltd. Meaning that although the bus companies in London were privatized London's government still retained the ability to regulate the companies. At the time the Transport Act of 1985 was put into place London Bus companies were governed by the London Regional Transport Act of 1984.

Transport Act 1985: Deregulation (Part I).

Part I of the Transport Act of 1985 eradicated, excluding London, the need for the required road service licence throughout the United Kingdom. Part I replaced service licensing with a system of registration. This caused licensing authorities losing many of their powers and made it possible for operators to register new routes. For an operator to register a new route the licensed operator had to supply the traffic commissioner with information of the proposed route, the timeline for the trip, stopping arrangements, the vehicles to be used, and the terminal points. In accordance with the Act the traffic commissioner had to received the registration at least 42 days prior to when the route is to be run. It was mandatory for the notice to go through the traffic commissioner for a licence bus operator to operate. After approval the operator was required to run the route according to the specifications provided in the registration.  Deregulation also led to firms being able to charge any fares they wish, run routes, and freely enter and leave the market. This was accomplished by reducing the amount of subsidies local governments could provide for services.

Transport Act 1985: Privatization (Part II).

Privatization proposals were put forth to change the structure of the bus industry. The bus industry was managed mainly by public sector companies in the years prior to 1985. Privatization was introduced by the Conservative government as a way to achieve better access to private capital and more committed management. In order to achieve this goal the Conservative government made it so local governments could only provide subsidies for services and prohibited subsidies that would promote low fares.

Aftermath.

The Transport Act of 1985 changed how bus services were run in the United Kingdom. The Act introduced the largest change in the framework of bus services in over five decades and it replaced the prior publicly owned and highly regulated bus service with a largely competitive commercial system. Additionally, the removal of subsidies made it so different firms had to bid on the right to operate with subsidized services.

The Transport Act of 1985 was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. It introduced privatised and deregulated bus services throughout Great Britain and came into effect in October of 1986.


History.

In August 1914 the command of 5th Army was assigned to Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany, heir to the Hohenzollern throne, with General Schmidt von Knobelsdorf serving as his Chief of Staff, and would remain thus until late 1916. The opening hostilities on the Western Front saw the Crown Prince's 5th Army, along with the neighboring 4th Army (commanded by Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg), acting at the center of the Schlieffen plan attack into Belgium and France. On 21 August 1914, in what became known as the Battle of the Ardennes, 4th and 5th Armies advanced into the Ardennes to counter a thrust by the French 3rd and 4th Armies. Over the next two days 5th Army played a major part in halting the opposing French forces. By 23 August, after taking heavy losses and being outmaneuvered strategically, the two French armies were driven into retreat. Following the German 5th Army's victory in the Battle of the Ardennes it moved to Verdun, where it would remain until 1918. In February 1916 the Crown Prince's 5th Army would launch Operation Gericht, the German offensive that began the Battle of Verdun, one of the bloodiest and longest battles in history. Late in 1916, after suffering terrible losses in its efforts at Verdun, General Max von Gallwitz assumed control of 5th Army. Before the close of the war 5th Army fought in several noteworthy actions, including the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, in September 1918, when it was defeated by the American Expeditionary Force under John J. Pershing. The Fifth Army continued to oppose the AEF's Meuse-Argonne Offensive until the Armistice of 11 November 1918. At the end of the war it was serving as part of "Heeresgruppe Gallwitz".

Order of Battle, 30 October 1918.

By the end of the war, the 5th Army was organised as:

Commanders.

The 5th Army had the following commanders during its existence:

The 5th Army () was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 seemingly from the VII Army Inspection. The army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war.


Opening.

Construction of the line was led by Breslau–Schweidnitz–Freiburger Eisenbahngesellschaft (BSF), which was created in 1841. The first section of the line opened on 1 October 1871 and was from Liegnitz (in Polish: Legnica) to Raudten (Rudna) and Glogau (Głogów). This means that the line originally started in Legnica. From the late 1860s the line was extended as follows:  In August 1874 the line between Wrocław and Rudna, via Brzeg opened.  The final stations to be built were Breslau-Freiburger Bahnhof (Wrocław Świebodzki railway station) and Stettin-Breslauer Bahnhof ("Wrocław Station") in Szczecin (originally under the name of Stettin-Breslau-Freiburger Bahnhof).  In the 1940s the Regalica bridge in Szczecin was destroyed, trains took a detour via Dabie station, where the locomotive had to run around to change direction.  In the years 1945 to 2007, several stations on the route have been closed, with a few new stations opened. Station closed in the 1960s or 1970s are Krzydłowice between Rudna Gwizdanów and Grębocicami, around the same time closing a station near Orzeszków koło Wołowa. In the mid 1970s, after opening the smelter in Glogow, the station Glogow Huta was opened. In the mid 1980s Czerna Mała station was built in the village of Cerna. The end of the communist era brought the closure of the Świebodzki freight yard in Wrocław and Chyrzyno station. In approximately 1991 Będów station was opened between Czerwieński and Rzepin. The last station closed was Szczecin Klucz in 1997. Due to the high popularity of freight traffic, Kostrzyn freight yard has never been a passenger station, despite the construction of the platform. For technical reasons trains were not allowed to handle passengers due to the position of the Overhead Wire masts on the platforms.

Electrification.

In 1979 electrification of the line was started. The dates for electrification are:

Modernisation.

On 29 May 2015, PKP PLK signed an agreement with the company Infra Silesia, in consortium with DB Schenker Rail Polska, on the modernisation of the second track between km 78.509 - 98.642 (Rudna - Głogów).

Usage.

The line is used by the following service(s):

The Wrocław–Szczecin railway is a Polish 356-kilometre long railway line, that connects Wrocław with Zielona Góra, Rzepin, Kostrzyn and Szczecin. The railway was assigned part of the European TEN-T route E59 from Scandinavia to Vienna, Budapest and Prague in 1991.


Property.

The cemetery is a roughly rectangular area surrounded by a slate fence, 3 feet (1 m) high by 21⁄2 feet (76 cm) extending southwest from the south side of Archibald Street. On its south side is farmland. The neighborhood is residential and the houses across the street are small. The surrounding hills can be seen from the cemetery. It is generally flat with some mounds. It is just to the south of the village's historic district.  Outside the main entrance's two wrought iron gates (one for pedestrians and the other for carriages) on granite posts are two signs. One is a two-sided marble obelisk whose inscription honoring the veterans buried here indicates it was placed jointly by the town and state in 1933. It is considered a contributing object to the Register listing. The other sign, a blue-and-yellow historical marker similar to those used by the state, was placed by the village in 1962.  Past the entrance a wide path runs across the cemetery. It passes a cluster of mounded family vaults and then enters the main ground, with many marble headstones. The majority face east, the preferred orientation for graves in the 18th century. Their full number was not known until a Daughters of the American Revolution count in 1954 which put the number at 1,040, dating from 1769 to 1923. A recount in 1998 found 58 more, bringing the total to 1,098. Two more mounded family vaults are located against the rear wall. A fenced-off plot belonging to the Law family is against the north wall.  There are some footstones, and 10 slate table stones, but the majority are headstones. The earliest graves are clustered against the north side, including three in red sandstone, a rare material for 18th-century Washington County graveyards. Many of them have unusual stones with carved funerary art by Zeruabel Collins, a local stonecutter.

History.

The cemetery was founded a few years after Salem was first settled by a combination of migrants from Massachusetts and religious refugees from Ireland. The first known burial is Solomon Barr in 1767, the year the cemetery was formally established. Local legend has it that the next one was an unknown local Indian who wandered into the settlement and died. The earliest existing gravestone is that of Abram Savage, who died in 1769 at the age of 18.  Many of the early burials were people of regional historical significance. James Turner's family owned the Turner Patent, the local land grant. Joshua Conkey and his wife Dinah were both present at the nearby Battle of Bennington. St. John Honeywood was a Yale graduate who was the second principal of the local school. A poet and painter as well, his version of "Darby and Joan" is still anthologized today.  The local men buried in the cemetery who served in the war did so for the most part as members of the White Creek Militia, some later becoming part of the Continental Army. In addition to the nearby battles like Bennington and Saratoga, some saw action further from home at places like Monmouth. There are roughly a hundred known to have served. If the men supposedly buried in a mass grave after Saratoga were to be confirmed as buried here, that number would be doubled, making it one of the largest burial sites of Revolutionary War soldiers in the country.  Local stonecutter Zeruabel Collins is credited with 36 of the cemetery's stones, including Savage's, the first. Those use funerary art similar to that of his father, also a stonecutter. Later ones show his own style, characterized by a deeply cut face with prominent jaw, small wings arising from it, positioned above an intricate twisted scroll-like floral motif.  Also unusual in the cemetery are the sod-covered burial mounds. These were possibly a custom brought from Scotland or Ireland by that group of settlers. They are made of dry laid-up slate with an east-facing Roman arch sealed with stones and an iron gate. An empty one that has been examined suggests the masons took great care with their work.  In 1791 the town created a committee drawn from its two Presbyterian congregations to oversee the cemetery, hire a supervisor and build a fence to deter gravestone theft and illegal burials. It appears that this later task was not accomplished until 1870 when money was made available.  Thirty years later, in 1821, the cemetery received its oldest decedent, when 104-year-old James McNish, father of Lt. Alexander McNish, Esq., died September 18 and was laid to rest. Almost four decades after that, a new rural cemetery was opened west of the villages, and burials at the Revolutionary War Cemetery began to decline. After 1898, only one burial, that of John Gillis in 1923, took place, and then under special permit.  After the Register listing, in 1999, the Salem Cemetery Committee was formed to restore and oversee the Revolutionary War Cemetery as well as two others in the town. It took photographs of the gravestones and found that half of them had either been knocked over or were in danger of falling. Others were buried and overgrown, and a lightning strike later damaged a section of the wall. The committee has put out information brochures, compiled lists of those buried, put American flag holders next to the headstones of veterans, and promulgated regulations for the taking of stone rubbings.

The Revolutionary War Cemetery, also called the Old Salem Burying Ground, is located on Archibald Street, just off state highway NY 22 in the village of Salem, New York, United States. It is a area with over a thousand graves, at least 100 of which are those of Revolutionary War dead or veterans.


History.

Its flagship station, Bombo Radyo Iloilo, based in Iloilo City was founded in July 6, 1966. Since the start of operations, the station's studios were located inside the Florete Building in Mapa Street, until they were relocated to the Bombo Radyo Broadcast Center alongside Luna Street in Lapaz District. The station has been enjoying the prestige honor of consistently being the number one radio station since its inception during the 1970s.  DYFM was then part of the Northern Broadcasting Corporation. Don Marcelino, the grand old man of Bombo Radyo, accepted a joint venture agreement with former Ilocos Sur Governor, Antonio D. Villanueva, enabling the station to begin its broadcasts.  From humble beginnings and starting with a small number of employees, the Florete Group then acquired the operations of NBC with ten stations and two affiliates in the whole archipelago. It also entered an management alliance together with Consolidated Broadcasting Systems, Newsounds Broadcasting Network and People's Broadcasting Service.  In 1976, Dr. Rogelio Florete, through the advice of his mother Doña Salome Florete, had started to helm the day-to-day operations of Bombo Radyo. In the same year, the network launched DYRF 99.5 FM (now known as Star FM Iloilo). From then on, the network continued to grow until they acquired DWXB 102.7 FM from Universal Broadcasting Network in 1987 and became 102.7 WSM The Gentle Wind (now known as Star FM Manila).

Radio Stations.

Bombo Radyo.

Bombo Radyo Philippines AM division, despite the absence of a single radio station in the capital city of Manila (but maintaining a Newscenter In Makati), is consistently strong in ratings particularly in the Visayas and Mindanao regions.  Most of Bombo Radyo AM stations are assigned to licensee People's Broadcasting Service. Stations in the Ilocos Region (except Dagupan) and Cagayan Valley Region, as well as stations in Naga, Tacloban, and Cagayan de Oro are assigned to Newsounds Broadcasting Network.

Star FM.

Bombo Radyo's FM network group, popularly known as Star FM, is equally as strong as its sister AM network group. Its flagship station based in Manila, even with the existence of a substantial number of FM stations operating and stiff competition from both ABS-CBN's, TV5's and GMA Network's own networks as well as from large radio networks (MBC's Love Radio and Yes The Best; RMN's iFM; and BMMC's Brigada News FM), is the number one radio station in Metro Manila. The network's strongest market segment is with the provincial or rural people currently residing in Manila helped by its strong brand name in the provinces. Prior to 1994, Bombo Radyo managed its FM stations locally with each individual unique brand name. However this has all been changed in April 1994 when the network officially re-branded all 17 FM stations to carry the brand name Star FM and now share the same vision and objective. The re-branding proved to be successful as Star FM now enjoys strong ratings all across the country. On occasion, Star FM stations are tapped to do news gathering, especially when covering local and national elections or when severe weather (such as typhoons) or disasters strike an affected area.  Like its AM counterparts, most of Star FM stations are licensed to People's Broadcasting Service, with stations in the Visayas and Mindanao area (excluding Iloilo, Cebu, and Davao) are under licensee Consolidated Broadcasting System.

Bombo Radyo Holdings, Inc. (d/b/a Bombo Radyo Philippines) is a Philippine radio network of the "Florete Group of Companies", which also manages banking and pawnshop operations. Its main office and headquarters are located at Florete Bldg., 2406 Nobel corner Edison Streets, Barangay San Isidro, Makati City. It operates several stations across the country under the Bombo Radyo and Star FM brands through a conglomeration of three separate radio licensees: Newsounds Broadcasting Network, Inc. (NBN), People's Broadcasting Service, Inc. (PBS), and Consolidated Broadcasting System, Inc. (CBS).