Biography.

Burningham was born 27 April 1936, in Farnham, Surrey, England, to Charles and Jessie (Mackintosh) Burningham. He was educated at the alternative school Summerhill. When called up for National Service he registered as a conscientious objector, and served in forestry and housing projects. He entered the Central School of Art when he was 20 and graduated in 1959. After work on posters (for London and British Transport) and animated films, Burningham debuted both as book author and book illustrator in 1963 with the picture book "", published by Jonathan Cape. For that he won the 1963 Kate Greenaway Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book illustration by a British subject. For the 50th anniversary of the Medal (1955–2005), a panel of experts named "Borka" one of the top ten winning works, which composed the ballot for a public election of the nation's favourite.  Cape was soon looking for someone to illustrate a forthcoming children's adventure serial called "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang" that was written by Ian Fleming, its most successful author at the time. Fleming had suggested cartoonist "Trog" (Wally Fawkes) of the "Daily Mail", but the newspaper would not allow the illustrator of their popular "Flook" strip to work for an author whose James Bond stories were adapted as a comic strip for its arch-rival "Daily Express". Fleming consulted his motor engineer friend Charles Amherst Villiers, who produced a sketch based on Fleming's description of the magical car—this drawing was passed to Cape's popular new illustrator John Burningham, who was asked to illustrate the whole series on the strength of his debut story "Borka". "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang" was originally published in three volumes, 1964–1965; the omnibus edition followed in 1968. Burningham's witty and timeless art-work, along with Fleming's imaginative text, led Chitty to become the most famous and best loved car in English-language fiction.  In 1964 Burningham married author-illustrator Helen Gillian Oxenbury, who won the 1969 Greenaway Medal. He won the next year for "Mr Gumpy's Outing" (Cape, 1970), the first illustrator to win twice. Oxenbury was later a highly commended runner up four times, and eventually won a second Medal of her own for an edition of "Alice in Wonderland" (Walker, 1999) that was also named to the anniversary top ten.  Burningham has contributed to more than 60 other books and has received many awards including the 1980 Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, Picture book category, for "Was ist dir lieber..." (), the German-language edition of "Would you rather..." (Cape, 1978, ). Google books calls it 'A series of comical choices such as, "Would you rather eat spider stew or slug dumplings or mashed worms?"'  For both writing and illustrating "Granpa" (1984), he won the "Emil": the Kurt Maschler Award, annually (1982 to 1999) recognising one UK-published "work of imagination for children, in which text and illustration are integrated so that each enhances and balances the other." It was adapted as a 1989 animated film of the same name.  In 2012 Burningham was one of five finalists for the biennial international Hans Christian Andersen Award for Illustration, which recognises a living "illustrator whose complete works have made lasting contributions to children's literature." Thirty national sections of the International Board on Books for Young People had exercised the option to nominate someone. The jury summarised, "John Burningham from the UK uses delicate irony mixed with innocence and high seriousness that with his use of line and colour, creates an intimacy with the reader."  Burningham died in London on 4 January 2019, at the age of 82, after contracting pneumonia.

Selected works.

Burningham both wrote and illustrated almost all of his published books. The exceptions are listed here:

John Burningham (27 April 1936 – 4 January 2019) was an English author and illustrator of children's books, especially picture books for young children. He lived in north London with his wife Helen Oxenbury, another illustrator. His last published work was a husband-and-wife collaboration, "There's Going to Be a New Baby" (Walker Books, September 2011), written by John and illustrated by Helen for "ages 2+".


Disk cleaners.

Disk cleaners are computer programs that find and delete potentially unnecessary or potentially unwanted files from a computer. The purpose of such deletion may be to free up disk space, to eliminate clutter or to protect privacy.  Disk space consuming unnecessary files include temporary files, trash, old backups and web caches made by web browsers. Privacy risks include HTTP cookies, local shared objects, log files or any other trace that may tell which computer program opened which files.  Disk cleaners must not be mistaken with antivirus software (which delete malware), registry cleaners (which clean Microsoft Windows Registry) or data erasure software (which securely delete files), although multifunction software (such as those included below) may fit into all these categories.

Disk compression utilities.

A disk compression utility increases the amount of information that can be stored on a hard disk drive of given size. Unlike a file compression utility which compresses only specified files – and which requires the user designate the files to be compressed – an on-the-fly disk compression utility works automatically without the user needing to be aware of its existence.  When information needs to be stored to the hard disk, the utility will compress the information. When information needs to be read, the utility will decompress the information. A disk compression utility overrides the standard operating system routines. Since all software applications access the hard disk using these routines, they continue to work after disk compression has been installed. The compression/expansion process adds a small amount of overhead to disk access and may complicate error recovery on the affected volume. Also, if the compression utility's device driver was uninstalled or became corrupted, all data on the disk would be lost.  Disk compression utilities were popular especially in the early 1990s, when microcomputer hard disks were still relatively small (20 to 80 megabytes). Hard drives were also rather expensive at the time, costing roughly 10 USD per megabyte. For the users who bought disk compression applications, the software proved to be in the short term a more economic means of acquiring more disk space as opposed to replacing their current drive with a larger one. A good disk compression utility could, on average, double the available space with negligible speed loss. Disk compression fell into disuse by the late 1990s, as advances in hard drive technology and manufacturing led to increased capacities and lower prices.  Some examples of disk compression utilities:

Disk checkers.

A disk checker is a utility program which can scan a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive. This is not to be confused with a disk cleaner, which can find files that are unnecessary for computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space.  Some disk checkers can perform a whole surface scan to attempt to find any possible bad sectors, whereas others scan only the logical structure of files on the hard disk.  Operating systems often include one such tool. For example:

Disk layout tools.

Disk formatting and disk partitioning tools are responsible for generating low level disk layouts and file systems. Operating systems typically supply one or more programs performing these functions as part of their standard install:  In Windows: In Mac OS: In Linux:

Disk space analyzers.

A disk space analyzer (or disk usage analysis software) is a software utility for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub-folders) and files in a folder or drive. Most of these applications analyze this information to generate a graphical chart showing disk usage distribution according to folders or other user defined criteria.  Some disk space analyzers like DiskReport allow analysis of history of size and file count for each folder, to help find growing folders.  Examples:

A disk utility is a utility program that allows a user to perform various functions on a computer disk, such as disk partitioning and logical volume management, as well as multiple smaller tasks such as changing drive letters and other mount points, renaming volumes, disk checking, and disk formatting, which are otherwise handled separately by multiple other built-in commands. Each operating system (OS) has its own basic disk utility, and there are also separate programs which can recognize and adjust the different filesystems of multiple OSes. Types of disk utilities include disk checkers, disk cleaners and disk space analyzers


Early life.

Born in Detroit, Michigan, Dorf was a fan of comic books and comic strips, particularly Chester Gould's work on the daily strip "Dick Tracy".  Dorf studied at Chicago's Art Institute before moving to New York and beginning his career as a freelancer in the field of commercial design. In the 1960s, Dorf had made the acquaintance of a number of creators working in the two fields, among them Jack Kirby, upon whom Dorf would occasionally call.

Career.

Comic-Con.

In 1964 back in Detroit, teenager Robert Brusch organised a convention for fans of the comics medium, which Dorf and Jerry Bails, the "father of comics fandom," attended. The next year Dorf and Bails took over the event, christening it the "Detroit Triple Fan Fair" (referring to fantasy literature, fantasy films, and comic art) and organizing it as an annual event. The Detroit Triple Fan Fair (DTFF) is credited as being the first regularly held convention featuring comic books as a major component. Dorf went on to produce the DTFF in 1967 and 1968 as well.  In 1970, Dorf moved to San Diego, California, to take care of his aging parents. Almost immediately, he organized a one-day convention "as a kind of 'dry run' for the larger convention he hoped to stage," with Forrest J Ackerman as the star attraction.  Dorf's first three-day San Diego comics convention, the Golden State Comic-Con, was held at the U. S. Grant Hotel from August 1–3, 1970. It would eventually grow into the San Diego Comic-Con International, now considered the standard bearer for U.S. comic conventions. The convention moved in subsequent years to the El Cortez Hotel; the University of California, San Diego; and Golden Hall, before settling into the San Diego Convention center in 1991.

Later endeavors.

As "'Founding Father' of San Diego Comic-Con," Dorf received an Inkpot Award at the 1975 San Diego Comic-Con.  In 1984 Dorf began compilation and editing of the "Dick Tracy" comic strips in comic book format for Blackthorne Publishing, "proudly" publishing ninety-nine issues and collecting the material again in twenty-four collections.  Chester Gould's daughter, Jean Gould O'Connell credits Dorf with bringing "Tracy out to another generation." Comics historian Mark Evanier said Caniff "honored Shel by making him into a character. It was a well-meaning football player named "Thud Shelley" who appeared a few times in the Canyon strip. Jack Kirby also made Shel into a character... a father figure named Himon who appeared in "Mister Miracle". In 1990, Dorf was employed as a consultant on Warren Beatty's big-screen adaptation of Dick Tracy.  Dorf would also contribute interviews to the comics press and movie collector magazines (including for "The Buyer's Guide for Comic Fandom" <nowiki>[</nowiki>TBG<nowiki>]</nowiki> and "Film Collector's World"), and his conversations with Milton Caniff and Mort Walker have both been collected in the University Press of Mississippi's "Milton Caniff: Conversations" and "Mort Walker: Conversations" respectively. His interview with Wally Wood (among the few to see print) for "TBG" was reprinted in "Comic Book Artist" #14 (July 2001).

Death and legacy.

Dorf died at age 76 on November 3, 2009, from diabetes-related complications in Sharp Memorial Hospital, San Diego. He was survived by his brother, Michael.  Since 2010, the Shel Dorf Awards have been presented at conventions in Michigan, including Detroit Fanfare and C4 (the Cherry Capital Comic Con).

Sheldon "Shel" Dorf (July 5, 1933 – November 3, 2009) was an American comic book enthusiast and the founder of the San Diego Comic-Con International. Dorf was also a freelance artist and graphic designer, who lettered the "Steve Canyon" comic strip for the last 12 to 14 years of the strip's run.


Treaty of Paris (1763).

On February 10, 1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Cape Breton Island to Great Britain. A

Royal proclamation (1763).

The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, issued on October 7, 1763. The proclamation renamed Canada "The Province of Quebec", redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions. The proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The new governor of the colony was given "the power and direction to summon and call a general assembly of the people's representatives" when the "state and circumstances of the said Colonies will admit thereof".  The governor was also given the mandate to "make, constitute, and ordain Laws, Statutes, and Ordinances for the Public Peace, Welfare, and good Government of our said Colonies, and of the People and Inhabitants thereof" with the consent of the British-appointed councils and representatives of the people. In the meantime, all British subjects in the colony were guaranteed of the protection of the law of England, and the governor was given the power to erect courts of judicature and public justice to hear all causes, civil or public.  The Royal Proclamation contained elements that conflicted with the "Articles of Capitulation of Montreal", which granted Canadians the privilege to maintain their civil laws and practise their religion. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems and legal irregularities. The requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire.  When James Murray was commissioned as captain general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended, and the civil administration of the colony began. Judging the circumstances to be inappropriate to the establishment of British institutions in the colony, Murray was of the opinion that it would be more practical to keep the current civil institutions. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion, and its customs. He officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established. On September 17, 1764, the Courts of the King's Bench and Common Pleas were constituted.  Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray. They were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests and that a house of assembly be created for English-speaking Protestants alone. Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as "licentious fanatics" who would not be satisfied but by "the expulsion of the Canadians".  The conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murray's removal, accusing him of betraying the interests of Great Britain by his defence of the Canadian people's interests. The merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec. In 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act.  Murray called in the representatives of the people in 1765; however, his attempt to constitute a representative assembly failed, as, according to historian Francois-Xavier Garneau, the Canadians were unwilling to renounce their Catholic faith and take the test oath required to hold office.

Quebec Act (1774).

The Quebec Act granted many of the requests of the Canadians. Enacted on June 13, 1774, the act changed the following:  No assembly of representatives was created, which allowed the governor to keep ruling under the advice of his counsellors.  The British merchants of Quebec were not pleased by this new act, which ignored their most important demands. They continued to campaign to abolish the current civil code and establish a house of assembly excluding Catholics and French-speakers.  The Quebec Act was also very negatively received in the British colonies to the south. (See the Intolerable Acts.) This act was in force in the Province of Quebec when the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775.

Letters to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec (1774-1775).

During the revolution, the Continental Congress attempted to rally the Canadian people to its cause. The delegates wrote three letters (Letters to the inhabitants of Canada) inviting them to join in the revolution. The letters circulated in Canada, mostly in the cities of Montreal and Quebec. The first letter was written on October 26, 1774, and signed by the president of the congress, Henry Middleton. It was translated into French by Fleury Mesplet, who printed it in Philadelphia and distributed the copies himself in Montreal.  The letter pleaded the cause of democratic government, the separation of powers,

Resumption of the reform movement (1784).

Soon after the war, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the constitutional question resurfaced.  In July 1784, Pierre du Calvet, a rich French merchant established in Montreal, published a pamphlet entitled "Appel à la justice de l'État" (Call to the Justice of the State) in London. Printed in French, the document is the first plea in favour of a constitutional reform in Canada. Du Calvet, imprisoned at the same time and for the same reasons as Fleury Mesplet and Valentine Jautard, both suspected of sympathizing and collaborating with the American revolutionaries during the war, undertook to have the injustice committed towards him be publicly known by publishing "The Case of Peter

Parliamentary constitution project (1789).

In 1786, the British government appointed Guy Carleton, as "governor-in-chief" and also governor of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and St. John's Island (present-day Prince Edward Island). Carleton, now Lord Dorchester, had been British commander in Canada and governor of Quebec during the American Revolutionary War. When he returned as governor, he was already informed that the arrival of the Loyalists would require changes.  On October 20, 1789, Home Secretary William Wyndham Grenville wrote a private and secret letter to Carleton, informing him of the plans of the king's counsellors to modify Canada's constitution. The letter leaves little doubt as to the influence that American independence and the taking of the Bastille (which had just occurred in July) had on the decision. In the first paragraph, Grenville writes: "I am persuaded that it is a

Constitutional Act (1791).

On June 10, 1791, the Constitutional Act was enacted in London and gave Canada its first parliamentary constitution. Containing 50 articles, the act brought the following changes:  This partition ensured that Loyalists would constitute a majority in Upper Canada and allow for the application of exclusively British laws in this province. As soon as the province was divided, a series of acts were passed to abolish the French civil code in Upper Canada. In Lower Canada, the coexistence of French civil law and English criminal law continued.  Although it solved the immediate problems related to the settlement of the Loyalists in Canada, the new constitution brought a whole new set of political problems which were rooted in the constitution. Some of these problems were common to both provinces, while others were unique to Lower Canada or Upper Canada. The problems that eventually affected both provinces were:  In the two provinces, a movement for constitutional reform took shape within the majority party, the Parti canadien of Lower Canada and the Reformers of Upper Canada. Leader of the Parti Canadien, Pierre-Stanislas Bédard was the first politician of Lower Canada to formulate a project of reform to put an end to the opposition between the elected Legislative Assembly and the Governor and his Council which answered only the Colonial Office in London. Putting forward the idea of ministerial responsibility, he proposed that the members of the Legislative Council be appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the elected House.

Union Bill (1822).

In 1822, the Secretary of Colonial Office Lord Bathurst and his under-secretary Robert John Wilmot-Horton secretly submitted a bill to British House of Commons which projected the legislative union of the two Canadian provinces. Two months after the adjournment of the discussions on the bill, the news arrived in Lower Canada and caused a sharp reaction.  Supported by Governor Dalhousie, anglophone petitioners from the Eastern Townships, Quebec City and Kingston, the bill submitted in London provided, among other things, that each of the two sections of the new united province would have a maximum of 60 representatives, which would have put the French-speaking majority of Lower Canada in a position of minority in the new Parliament.

Report of the Special Committee of the House of Commons (1828).

A Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Civil Government of Canada was appointed on May 2, 1828 "to enquire into the state of the civil government of Canada, as established by the Act 31 Geo.

The Ninety-Two Resolutions of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada (1834).

These constituted a sort of declaration of rights on the part of the patriote party. They were drafted by A. N. Morin, but were inspired by Louis-Joseph Papineau. They demanded the application of the elective principle to the political institutions of the province, after the American model;

Royal Commission for the Investigation of all Grievances Affecting His Majesty's Subjects of Lower Canada (1835).

Following the adoption of the Ninety-Two Resolutions, the Governor Gosford arrived in Lower Canada to replace governor Aylmer. Gosford set up royal commission of inquiry conducted

John Russell's Ten Resolutions (1837).

On March 2, 1837, John Russell, the British Colonial Secretary, submitted ten resolutions to the Parliament in response to the ninety-two resolutions. The Parliament adopted the resolutions on March 6.  Most of the recommendations brought forth by the elected assemblies were systematically ignored by the Executive Councils. This was particularly true in Lower Canada with an assembly consisting mostly of French-Canadian members of the Parti Patriote. This impasse created considerable tensions between the French-Canadian political class and the British government. In 1834 Louis-Joseph Papineau, a French-Canadian political leader, submitted a document entitled the Ninety-Two Resolutions to the Crown. The document requested vast democratic reforms such as the transfer of power to elected representatives. The reply

Suspension of the Constitutional Act (1838).

Approximately four months after having proclaimed martial law in the district of

Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839).

Following the rebellions, in May 1838, the British government sent Governor General Lord Durham to Lower and Upper Canada in order to investigate the uprisings and to bring forth solutions. His recommendations were formulated in what is known as "Lord Durham's Report" and suggested the

Act of Union (1840).

Following the publication of the Report on the Affairs of British North America, the British Parliament adopted, in June 1840, the Act of Union. The new Act, which effected the legislative union of Upper Canada and Lower Canada to form a single province named the Province of Canada, implemented the principal recommendation of John George Lambton's report, but did not grant a "responsible government" to the new political entity. Entering into force as of February 1841, the 62 articles of the Act of Union brought about the following changes:  As a result, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with its enormous debt, were united in 1840, and French was banned in the legislature for about eight years. Eight years later, an elected and responsible government was granted. By this time, the French-speaking majority of Lower Canada had become a political minority in a unified Canada. This, as Lord Durham had recommended in his report, resulted in English political control over the French-speaking part of Canada, and ensured the colony's loyalty to the British crown. On the other hand, continual legislative deadlock between English and French led to a movement to replace unitary government with a federal one. This movement culminated in Canadian Confederation.

Ministerial responsibility (1848).

Ministerial responsibility, the principal object of parliamentary struggles conducted by the Parti Canadien in Lower Canada and the Reformers in Upper Canada, becomes a reality in 1848, when Governor Lord Elgin agreed to let the leaders of the majority parties in Canada-East and the Canada-West, Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and

Confederation projects (1858–1864).

In 1858, Joseph-Charles Taché, doctor and journalist from Quebec City, published a detailed project of federation. It was the first time that a project of this type was presented publicly since the proposal that John A.

British North America Act (1867).

The British North America Act 1867 was the act that established Canada, by the confederation of the North American British colonies of the Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The former subdivisions of Canada were renamed from Canada West and Canada East to the Province of Ontario and Province of Quebec, respectively. Quebec and Ontario were given equal footing with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in the Parliament of Canada. This was done to counter the claims of manifest destiny made by the United States, for the defence of Britain's holdings. American claims are evinced by the invasions of the Canadas during the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.  Prior to the BNA Act of 1867, the British colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, discussed the possibility of a fusion to counter the threat of American annexation, and to reduce the costs of governance. The Province of Canada entered these negotiations at the behest of the British government, and this led to the ambivalence of Prince Edward Island, which delayed joining the new Dominion until 1873. The constitutional conference, ironically, was held on Prince Edward Island, in Charlottetown. Newfoundland also participated (at the Quebec Conference) and likewise declined to join.

Province of Manitoba (1870).

On May 12, 1870, the British Crown proclaimed the "Manitoba Act", enacted by the Parliament of Canada, effectively giving birth to the province of Manitoba. The 36 articles of the Act established the territorial limits, the subjects' right to vote, the representation in the Canadian House

Statute of Westminster (1931).

Canada and the other British dominions achieved full legislative sovereignty with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, but

The Quiet Revolution (1960s).

In the early 1960s, the Quiet Revolution, stemming from a new assertiveness and a heightened sense of national identity among Québécois, dramatically changed the face of Quebec's institutions. The new provincial government headed by Jean Lesage and operating under the slogans ""Il faut que ça change!"" and ""Maître chez nous"" ("It must change!", "Masters in our own house") secularized government institutions, nationalized electricity production and encouraged unionization. The reforms sought to redefine the relations between the vastly working-class francophone Québécois and the mostly anglophone business class. Thus passive Catholic nationalism stylized by Father Lionel Groulx gave way to a more active pursuit of independence, and in 1963 the

Fulton Formula (1961).

The Fulton Formula was named for federal Minister of Justice E. Davie Fulton. It proposed an amending formula that included unanimous consent of Parliament and all provinces for select areas of jurisdiction, the consent of Parliament and of the provinces concerned for provisions affecting one or more, but not all of the provinces, the consent of Parliament and of all

Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963).

For the federal government this demand for an enormous shift in power to a province done under a threat of a possible unilateral declaration of independence, was cause for great alarm. In 1967, on the initiative of Premier John Robarts of Ontario, a provincial first ministers' conference was held in Toronto to discuss the Canadian confederation of the future. From this, a first round of what would become annual constitutional meetings of all provincial premiers and the prime minister of Canada, was held in February 1968. On the initiative of Prime Minister Lester Pearson the conference undertook

Fulton-Favreau Formula (1964).

The Fulton–Favreau formula was a proposed formula of amendment of the Constitution of Canada developed by federal justice minister E. Davie Fulton and Quebec Liberal Guy Favreau in the 1960s and approved at a federal-provincial conference in 1965. The formula would have achieved the patriation of the Constitution. Under the formula, all provinces would have to approve amendments that would be relevant to provincial jurisdiction, including

Victoria Charter (1971).

The 1971 Victoria Conference, a meeting between the federal government and the provinces, brought about the Victoria Charter. This Charter sought to establish a formula for amending the Constitution without requiring the unanimous consent of the provinces. Notably, it would give a veto to any province

Bill C-60, the Constitutional Amendment Bill.

Bill C-60 was tabled in the House of Commons by the Prime Minister It contained a guarantee of "the right of the individual to the use and enjoyment of property, and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with law." This language was contentious, especially in PEI. and as

Referendum on Sovereignty-Association (1980).

In 1976 the Parti Québécois won the provincial election in Quebec with a 41.4 per cent to 33.8 per cent margin over the Parti libéral du Québec, and in the 1980 Quebec referendum the Parti Québécois sought a mandate from the people of Quebec to negotiate new terms of association with the rest of Canada. With an 84-per-cent voter turnout, 60 per cent of Quebec voters rejected the proposal.  After the 1980 referendum was defeated, the government of Quebec passed Resolution 176, which stated, "A lasting solution to the constitutional issue presupposes recognition of the Quebec-Canada duality."  Meeting in Ottawa on June 9, 1980, the newly re-appointed Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau and the provincial premiers set an agenda and gave their ministers responsibility for constitutional issues and a mandate to proceed with exploratory discussions to create a new Canadian constitution. However, given the separatist government of Quebec's position that there be two nations established first in accordance with Resolution 176, approval by Quebec of any changes to the BNA Act was impossible. This assertion of national duality was immediately

Patriation: Canada Act (1982).

Subsequently, an agreement between the federal government and all provincial governments, except that of Quebec, agreed to Canada's assumption of full responsibility for its own constitution in 1982 (formerly the responsibility of the Parliament of the United Kingdom). The agreement was enacted as the Canada Act by the British Parliament, and was proclaimed into law by Queen Elizabeth II on April 17, 1982. In Canada, this was called the patriation of the Constitution.  This action (including the creation of a new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms) came from an initiative by Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau to create a multicultural and bilingual society in all of Canada. Some Canadians saw Trudeau's actions as an attempt to "shove French down their throats" (a common phrase at the time). Many Québécois viewed his compromise as a sell-out and useless: Quebec already had a charter enacted in 1975 and was not interested in imposing French on other provinces; rather, it wished to safeguard it inside Quebec. Many Canadians recognize

Constitutional reform and upheaval (1982 onwards).

Since Canada's constitution was patriated without Quebec's consent, later initiatives would seek to ameliorate the constitutional "status quo", with varying results. Two formal, and unsuccessful, attempts were made to reform the constitution. A subsequent sovereignty referendum in 1995 – only narrowly lost – shook Canada to its core, and would bring about the Clarity Act.

Meech Lake Accord (1989).

In 1987, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to address these concerns and bring the province into an amended constitution. Quebec's provincial government, then controlled by a party that advocated remaining in Canada on certain conditions (the Parti libéral du Québec), endorsed the accord (called the Meech Lake Accord). Premier Robert Bourassa of Quebec referred to it as the "first step" towards gaining

Referendum on Charlottetown Accord (1992).

The federal government, the twelve provincial and territorial governments, and four first peoples' groups then negotiated a second proposed constitutional accord in 1992—the Charlottetown Accord. Despite near-unanimous support from the country's political leaders, this second effort at constitutional reform was rejected in a nationwide October 1992 referendum. Only 32 per cent of British Columbians supported the

Referendum on sovereignty (1995).

A referendum held in Quebec on October 30, 1995

Clarity Act (1998).

Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien referred the matter over whether a province could unilaterally secede from the federation to the Supreme Court of Canada in December 1999. In its Quebec Secession Reference decision, the Court ruled that the Canadian constitution did not give provinces the power to unilaterally secede. However, it also ruled that, in the event that a clear majority of the population voted in favour of a clear referendum question on secession, the democratic principles of the constitution required political leaders to

The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and Quebec. Its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific and the Arctic coasts. Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution (including a new rights charter) patriated in 1982. Canada's constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history.


Weight or clock jacks.

A great majority of the jacks used prior to the 19th century were powered by a descending weight, often made of stone or iron, sometimes of lead. Although most commonly referred to as spit engines or jacks, these were also termed weight or clock jacks (clock jacks was the more common term in North America).  Earlier jacks of this type had a train of two arbors (spindles), later ones had a more efficient three arbor train. In the case of British examples, almost without exception, the governor or flywheel was set above the engine (as opposed to being located within the frame) and to one side; to the right for two train and to the left for three train engines.  European jacks are characterised by a flywheel set centrally and often within the frame; commonly the highest part of the frame has a bell-like arch that the shaft for the flywheel passes through.

Steam jack.

A steam-powered roasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer Taqi al-Din in his "Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya" ("The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines"), in 1551. A steam-driven jack was patented by the American clockmaker John Bailey II in 1792, and steam jacks were later commercially available in the United States.

Smoke jack.

Leonardo da Vinci sketched a smoke-jack in the form of a turbine with four vanes. Smoke-jacks were also illustrated in Vittorio Zonca's book of machines (1607), and in Wilkins's "Mathematical Magick". The 1826 "A Treatise of Mechanics" describes a smoke-jack: Smoke-jack is an engine used for the same purpose as the common jack; and is so called from its being moved by means of the smoke, or rarefied air, ascending the chimney, and striking against the sails of the horizontal wheel AB (plate XXI. fig 1.), which being inclined to the horizon, is moved about the axis of the wheel, together with the pinion C, which carries the wheels D and E; and E carries the chain F, which turns the spit. The wheel AB should be placed in the narrow part of the chimney, where the motion of the smoke is swiftest, and where also the greatest part of it must strike upon the sails.—The force of this machine depends on the draught of the chimney, and the strength of the fire. Smoke-jacks are sometimes moved by means of spiral flyers coiling about a vertical axle; and at other times by a vertical wheel with sails like the float-boards of a mill: but the above is the more customary construction.

Bottle-jack.

A bottle-jack was a clockwork motor in a brass shell, shaped like a bottle; it was introduced in the late 18th Century and in many case replaced the earlier and much more simple dangle spit.

A roasting jack is a machine which rotates meat roasting on a spit. It can also be called a spit jack, a spit engine or a turnspit, although this name can also refer to a human turning the spit, or a turnspit dog. Cooking meat on a spit dates back at least to the 1st century BC, but at first spits were turned by human power. In Britain, starting in the Tudor period, dog-powered turnspits were used; the dog ran in a treadmill linked to the spit by belts and pulleys. Other forms of roasting jacks included the steam jack, driven by steam, the smoke jack, driven by hot gas rising from the fire, and the bottle jack or clock jack, driven by weights or springs.


Organizer.

Audiovisual diffusion of art.

A continuous aspect of his work is the realization of projects devoted to the diffusion of art. Pioneer in audiovisual diffusion of art through film, video and Internet, Natan Karczmar organizes in 1954 a festival of films on art in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa, in Israel. Moving to Montreal, Quebec, She creates the Canadian Museum of Film on Art in 1956 and distributes the programs in 40 Canadian cities. In 1960, he organizes the Mexican Museum of Film on Art (Museo Mexicano de Peliculas sobre Art), and in 1962, the American Institute of Film on Art. In 1963, a meeting of the International Museum of Film on Art was held in Montreal.

Centre Canadien d'Essai – Canadian Workshop Center.

Simultaneously, Natan Karczmar starts in 1957 the theater of the Centre canadien d'Essai or Canadian Workshop Center at the Fine Art School of Montreal. He presents one hundred productions until 1964, combining theater, and mainly one act plays, contemporary dance, poetry and music. In 1958, he organizes the Salon de la Jeune Peinture, sculpture and graphic arts.  In 1983, back in Israel, Natan Karczmar went on with his theatrical activity by creating the Tel Aviv-Jaffa Street Theater showing his play "The Sandclock" (Noa's adventures).

Publishing.

Related to the "Centre Canadien d'Essai", Natan Karczmar publishes several "Cahiers d'Essai" and created the Editions d'Essai. Published were the Young Poetry Award "J'ai choisi la mort" by Guy Lafond as well as "Ballades du temps précieux" by Pierre Perrault illustrated by Anne Treze. Natan Karczmar started also the Editions Graph which published albums by the following sculptors and printmakers from Quebec: Armand Vaillancourt, Albert Roussil, Anne Kahane, Marcel Braitstein, Roland Giguère, Léon Bellefleur, Stanley Lewis and André Montpetit. In 1967, he publishes the first book on Canadian sculpture at the occasion of the World Fair "Terre des Hommes" in Montreal with a presentation by William Withrow and a foreword by Natan Karczmar. The photography was by Bruno Massenet.  Video publishing: "Art Planet", the interactive museum. In 1989, Natan Karczmar created the bimonthly "Art Planet" video magazine which was distributed in one hundred modern and contemporary art museums around the world. In the framework of "Art Planet", he organizes the Interactive Museum with real time visits at distance of museum exhibitions by using amplified telephone, video and slides, prefiguring thus Internet visioconferencing. The first presentation of the Interactive Museum happened in 1989 at the "Art Planet" Pavillon with the collaboration of the French FR3 broadcasting station, at the Grand palais, in Paris, during "L'Europe des Créateurs" event. Interactive Museum events were also held in 1992 at the UNESCO International Council of Museums congress in Quebec. He presented Art Planet in 1989 at the Canadian museums meeting at the Canadian Museum of Civilisation, in Hull, in Canada, and at the American museums meeting in New-Orleans, USA.  Internet Publishing : "Artmag" In April 1996, he founded the first art magazine on Internet http://www.artmag.com/ which presents temporary museum and gallery exhibitions around the world. Anguéliki Garidis is the artistic director and editor.

Art/Communication/New Technologies Seminar (ArtComTec).

From 1992 until 1994, he directs the Art/Communication/New Technologies Seminar at Université Européenne de la Recherche, at the Ministère de la Recherche, 1 rue Descartes, in Paris and invites many lecturers : Philippe Quéau, Jean-Marc Philippe, Jacques Jaffelin, Michel Bret, Pierre Lévy (philosophe), Fred Forest, Edmond Couchot, Stephan Barron, Frank Popper, Jean-Louis Boissier, Monique Nahas, Hervé Huitric, Merkado, Norbert Hillaire, Pierre Restany, Jean-Claude Anglade, Philippe Helary, Christian Sevette, Isabelle Rieusset-Lemarie, Joël Hubaut, Mario Costa, Jacques Monnier-Raball, Roberto Barbanti, Louis Bec, and Hubertus von Amelunxen.  In 2007 ArtComTec Seminars were held at the Chapelle des Recollets in Paris. Fred Forest, Louis-José Lestocart and Maurice Benayoun were lecturers.  In July 2015 he directed ArtComTec videoconferencing seminars in the framework of ArtCamp at the Ladislav Sutnar Faculty of Design and Art University of West Bohemia, Plzen, lecturers were Anat Pick, Annick Bureaud, Delphine Fabbri Lawson, Derrick de Kerckhove, Fernando Bayro-Corrochano, Fred Forest, Gabriel V. Soucheyre, Gilbertto Prado, Katerina Thomadaki, Marie Sylviane Buzin, Maurice Benayoun, Olga Kisseleva, Olivier Auber, Thomas Klinkowstein et Mauricio Dwek.  Journalist : Natan Karczmar was also active as an artistic journalist. He collaborated to the French division of Kol Israel (Israeli broadcasting) in 1953–54. He also worked as a musical critic for the French daily L'Echo d'Israël 1952–54 and as an art critic for the weekly Réalités d'Israël from 1982 to 1984.

Averroès-Maïmonides Center.

With Jean-Pierre Faye, president of L'Université Européenne de la Recherche and the collaboration of Anguéliki Garidis, Natan Karczmar organizes in 2007 the Centre Averroès-Maïmonides devoted to the Judeo-Christian dialog and produces visioconferences between Paris and Israeli institutions having inter-community cultural activities.

Artist.

Painter and photographer.

From 1969, Natan Karczmar devotes himself to painting and shows non-objective works in 1970 at Galerie Entremonde in Paris and at the Center Art Gallery in New-York. His artistic demarche includes also photography and lithography, in particular photomontages. Until 1983, he had shows in Canada, USA, Europe and Israel.

Communication artist.

In 1983, he organized "Installation Contact" (Mivne Maga) on the Kings Square (now Rabin Square), then in Haifa at Beth Rotschild and at the Acco Theater Festival with many games of communication, including 24 telephones in a closed circuit. In 1984, he met Fred Forest who invited him to join the group of Aesthetics of Communication which gathers theoreticians and artists using various technologies to produce communication works, networks, performances and installations. Artists, theoreticians, philosophers, art critics and institutional officials that have contributed to Aesthetics of communication include : Philippe Quéau, Jean-Marc Philippe, Jacques Jaffelin, Michel Bret, Pierre Lévy, and countless others. He also took part in the « L'immaginario tecnologico, Benevento, Museo del Sannio » curated by Mario Costa, and organized the « ARTCOM ISRAEL 1984 » Symposium at Israel Museum, Jerusalem, the Haifa Museum and Tzavta Center in Tel Aviv with Fred Forest and Antonio Muntadas as guest lecturers.

Videocollectives and installations.

He begins his art video activities by organizing in November 1984, in Israel, the first « Collective and Simultaneous Video Event ». The simultaneity occurs thanks to the collaboration of a radio broadcasting station which gives the starting cue to videomakers. In 1985, he organizes a second vidéo event in Salerno, Italy, in the framework of « ARTMEDIA 1 » directed by Prof. Mario Costa at Salerno University. Many videocollectives have been following and among them « VIDEO 6e » in the sixth borough in Paris with the participation of 22 videomakers. In 1986, he takes part to ARTMEDIA II in Salerno with the installation and video action « Investig'Action ». He co-organizes with Fred Forest the international symposium Artcom Paris 1986 at École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts de Paris and assiste Wolfgang Ziemer in the organization of Artcom Cologne 1986. In 1987, a Video twinning between the towns of Lille, Cologne, Liège, Asch-sur-Alzette and Grenoble is organized in the framework of the European Year of Environment with the participation of 60 videomakers. In 1988, he takes part to the "Transinteractifs" with « Transintercaricatures » between Paris and Toronto. That same year, the videocollective event « Vive la Tour » is organized for the preparation to the Centennial of the Tour Eiffel with the collaboration of Antenne 2 Broadcasting station, France Inter and France Info radio stations. He participates to a video installation Paris-Cologne at « Worauf Warten Sie » at Fermate at the Alter Wartesaal in Cologne. In 1990 he participates to "Arttransition" at the Center for advanced visual studies (CAVS) at M.I.T. At Cambridge, Mass. He participates in 1992 to the International Symposium « L'Europe de la Deuxième Renaissance » in Paris. He is also invited in England, Spain, Finlande, Hollande, Italy, USA, Canada and Russia to museums meetings.  Partnership with Vidéoformes : Since 2002, the Videocollectives http://videocollectifs.jimdo.com/ are partners with the International Vidéoformes Festival in Clermont-Ferrand where they are regularly presented and archived. They are produced by many videomakers around the world.

Relationnism.

At the occasion of the launching of "Art Planet" in 1989 at the Grand Palais in Paris during "L'Europe des Créateurs", he publishes a text describing his actions and those of other artists, presenting them as « Relationnism ». He distinguishes it thus from Aesthetics of Communication which privileges the medium, the container, rather than the content of communicational actions and events while Relationnism grants an equal importance to the container and the content. The attention is given as much to the technological medium than to the content in the creation of communicational works and in art of communication.

Funface.

In the framework of the Festival Vidéoformes 2013, Natan Karczmar updated at the Corum Saint-Jean in Clermont-Ferrand the exhibition presented in 1983 at the Installation Contact produced at the Kings of Israel Square in Tel Aviv (now Rabin Square). Portraits on the themes of the smile, the wink, and grimaces were taken, projected and put online on the site http://funface.co/

Actions and theme.

As an artist of communication and organizer of events, his actions include the telephone, video, fax, Internet, radio, installations, symposiums and seminars. His main themes are ubiquity, simultaneity, interactivity, collective actions, events, ephemeral and the trace.

Retrospective.

In, 2004, a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the first festival of film on art held in 1954 is organized at the Tel Aviv and Jerusalem Cinematheques with the collaboration of André Parinaud, founder of the International Festival of Film on Art at UNESCO.  In 2007, a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Centre Canadien d'Essai is organized with the collaboration if six Maisons de la Culture in Montréal. In this framework, 2 visioconferences are held with the cooperation of the Canadian Cultural Center in Paris and la Maison de la Culture of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce in Montréal.  In 2009, a retrospective is organized at the occasion of the 25th anniversary of « Videocollectives » at the International Vidéoformes Festival in Clermont-Ferrand as well as in 5 Israeli cinematheques (Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, Haifa, Rosh-Pina, Sderot). A restrospective of Videocollectives is also presented at the International Traces de Vie festival in Clermont-Ferrand.

Natan Karczmar (born January 3, 1933 in Paris), is a cultural organizer in the fields of theater and the diffusion of art, mainly in France, Canada, and Israel. He is also an artist in the art of communication as well as a painter and photographer.


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

Although most of Roslyn Heights is served by the Roslyn School District, portions of the school-aged population are enrolled in the East Williston school district and attend The Wheatley School from eighth through twelfth grades. Portions of Roslyn Heights also belong to the Herricks School District, as well as the Mineola School District.  At the 2000 census there were 6,295 people, 2,168 households, and 1,773 families in the CDP. The population density was 4,223.6 per square mile (1,631.2/km2). There were 2,226 housing units at an average density of 1,493.5/sq mi (576.8/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 79.03% White, 6.45% African American, 0.11% Native American, 10.01% Asian, 2.00% from other races, and 2.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.45%.  Of the 2,168 households 39.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.2% were non-families. 15.6% of households were one person and 8.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.21.  The age distribution was 26.7% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 25.8% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males.  The median household income was $84,705 and the median family income was $100,474. Males had a median income of $76,812 versus $38,343 for females. The per capita income for the village was $40,132. About 4.5% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 2.7% of those age 65 or over.

Roslyn Heights aka The Heights is both a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in Nassau County, New York, United States. It is considered part of the Greater Roslyn area, which is anchored by the Village of Roslyn. The population was 6,577 at the 2010 census.


High School and College.

Werner graduated from Washington Community High School in 2005. He attended Illinois Central College in 2006 and 2007. He pitched for the University of Indianapolis in 2008 and 2009. On May 16, 2009, in his final game for the University of Indianapolis, Werner struck out 11 University of Southern Indiana batters in relief.

Professional career.

Independent Leagues.

Werner was never drafted. In 2009, Werner pitched for the Evansville Otters of the independent Frontier League. In 2010, Werner worked as the pitching coach for Eureka College, and then pitched for the Otters and the Windy City ThunderBolts, also of the Frontier League.

San Diego Padres.

Werner was signed by the San Diego Padres as an undrafted free agent after the 2010 season. In 2011, Werner pitched for the Fort Wayne TinCaps and the Lake Elsinore Storm. In 2012, he pitched for the San Antonio Missions and the Tucson Padres before being called up to the majors for the first time on August 22, 2012.

Oakland Athletics.

On November 16, 2012, Werner was traded to the Oakland Athletics with Andy Parrino for Tyson Ross and A.J. Kirby-Jones.  On December 4, 2013, Werner was designated for assignment by Oakland, to clear room on the 40-man roster for recently signed pitcher Scott Kazmir. Werner cleared waivers and was outrighted to Triple-A Sacramento.

Ottawa Champions.

Werner signed to play with the Ottawa Champions in the Canadian American Association of Professional Baseball in 2015. He became a free agent after the 2015 season.

Coaching career.

Werner began his coaching career as the head assistant coach at Illinois Central College. In 2017, Werner was the pitching coach at University of South Carolina Aiken. The following year he was named the pitching coach at Young Harris College. On August 16, 2019, Werner was named the pitching coach at Bradley University.

Personal life.

Werner married his wife, Melanie, in February 2012.

Andrew Steven Werner (born February 25, 1987) is an American college baseball coach former professional baseball pitcher. He is the pitching coach at Bradley University. He played college baseball at Illinois Central College in 2006 and 2007 before transferring to the University of Indianapolis in 2008 and 2009. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the San Diego Padres in 2012.


Gameplay.

In Stage 1, the player is in a jungle with a side-scrolling element. The player is able to navigate vertically and horizontally through the screens. The player must also avoid getting hit by enemies, landing on explosive mines, as well as dodge any booby traps in the way. The goal of the first stage is to find the explosives buried deep within the jungle and then navigate out and plant the explosives on the bridge. After planting the explosives, the player will be in a town and must find a torch and a map of the tunnel system for the next level.  In Stage 2, the player is now in a tunnel system and the point of view has changed to a first-person shooter. The player is able to navigate through the tunnel system using the map obtained earlier in stage 1. The player must navigate through the tunnel system and collect flares and a compass along the way. Enemies will continuously appear on the screen and the player must kill them quickly in order to advance through the tunnel system.  In Stage 3, the player is stuck in a bunker overnight that is under constant siege by enemy AI. The player must use flares obtained in the tunnel system in order to see enemy AI outside the bunker to be able to shoot them. The player is still in first-person mode and must navigate the cross-hair onto the enemy players in order to shoot at them. A skilled player could make out the silhouettes of enemies amongst the background without the need for flares. As long as the player survives the siege, the level will be successfully completed by the player.  In Stage 4, the player is now navigating through the jungle in a third-person view. The player has 4 minutes to complete this level and must navigate through the jungle while killing enemies as well as avoiding sniper fire. The compass obtained in the tunnel system is used here to help the player navigate through the jungle. At the end of the jungle is the game's boss, Sergeant Barnes, who is held up in a brick bunker and shooting at the player. The player must be able to land five grenade shots to defeat Sergeant Barnes.

Platoon is an action game developed by Ocean Software and published by Data East for the Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Apple II, Atari ST, Commodore 64, PC DOS and ZX Spectrum in 1987–1988. The NES version was ported and published by Sunsoft in 1988. It was the first video game adaptation of the 1986 war film "Platoon", followed by the 2002 game.


Background.

In mid-April, large protests began in Rastan and the neighboring town of Talbiseh. On 29 April, some 50 members of the ruling Ba'ath Party resigned in Rastan. Soon after, while notice of the resignations was being read out at a large protest, the Military Intelligence allegedly shot and killed 17 demonstrators. A week later, about 100 tanks and troop transporters converged on and encircled the town of Rastan, after anti-government protesters toppled a statue of the late Syrian president Hafez al-Assad and pledged to press ahead with their protests despite sweeping arrests by Bashar al-Assad's government. Throughout May, protests continued in Rastan and the neighboring areas.

The operation.

On Saturday 28 May, the Syrian military entered the towns of Rastan and Talbiseh, a day after their biggest demonstrations so far. The opposition reported shooting in Talbiseh and said that soldiers were breaking into homes and arresting people. The operation started after the security forces cut-off all water supplies, electricity and telecommunications in the area and blocked all roads leading to the two towns. On Sunday, a mortar shell hit a school bus carrying children in Talbiseh, residents told Al Jazeera. An ambulance trying to rescue them was also targeted, but the wounded students were eventually allowed to be transported to the nearest hospital in Deir Balba, they said.  On 30 May, it was reported that residents of Rastan and Talbiseh had fired at the army with assault rifles and rocket-propelled grenades. A resident of Homs said "The army is facing armed resistance and is not able to enter the two towns... The army is still outside the towns and I was told that army vehicles, including armored personnel carriers, were set on fire". Another opposition activist confirmed residents had fought back, but said it involved lone residents protecting themselves rather than an organized armed resistance with an overall command structure. The opposition Local Co-ordination Committees said that the army hit Talbiseh with artillery early on Monday 28 May and that snipers were deployed on the roofs of mosques. Opposition activists reported that at least two people were killed by Syrian Army artillery and machine-gun fire in Rastan on 4 June.

Aftermath.

In late September, there were reports of more army defections in Rastan, and the Free Syrian Army claimed to have destroyed 17 armored vehicles during clashes in Rastan, using RPGs and booby traps. On 1 October, the Syrian Army took control of Rastan, killing 130 civilians and opposition forces according to activist sources and arresting 3,000 suspected opposition members.

The Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh was an operation by the Syrian Army during the Syrian uprising. On 28 May 2011, after protests and armed revolt, the Syrian Army launched an operation in al-Rastan, a city of an estimated 50,000 residents 20 kilometers north of Homs, and the neighboring town of Talbiseh, which resulted in the suppression of the protests and numerous deaths. The Syrian Army met some armed opposition during the operation.


History.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Ardwick was a small village just outside Manchester in open countryside. The principal residents were the Birch family, one of whom was a major general when Oliver Cromwell (briefly) instituted direct military rule.  One Samuel Birch was instrumental in providing a small chapel of ease, dedicated to St. Thomas, and consecrated in 1741. This soon expanded into a Georgian church, to which a brick campanile tower was added in 1836. It contained a very rare Samuel Green organ, installed in 1787 or 1788, the first in which the sharp keys were distinguished in black. When the building ceased to be used as a church in 1978, the organ was rescued by an organ builder called George Sixsmith, and installed in St Paul's Church, Pendleton. There was also a memorial chapel to the dead of the First World War, chiefly men of the local territorial unit. These have been removed, and the building has been used as offices for voluntary organisations. The structure is now Grade II Listed.  Grand terraces of regency houses (some of which still survive) were built either side of the church, and these were fronted by Ardwick Green, a private park for the residents, containing a pond. Similar housing developments to those around the Green took place along Higher Ardwick and the area known as the Polygon.  Early inhabitants included members the family of Sir Robert Peel. Charles Dickens drew many of his characters from life, and was a frequent visitor to Manchester. It is said that Dickens based the character of the crippled Tiny Tim in A Christmas Carol on the invalid son of a friend who owned a cotton mill in Ardwick.  Ardwick Cemetery was established in 1838 as a prestigious place for fashionable burials. By the time the cemetery closed in 1950, around 80,000 people had been buried there. John Dalton, the chemist and physicist best known for his advocacy of atomic theory, was amongst them. It was reported that some 100 coaches followed the funeral cortege to the cemetery on the day of his burial in 1844. Other notable interments, recorded on a plaque when the grounds were turned into a sports field in 1966, included Sir Thomas Potter, the first mayor of Manchester, who died in 1845, the Chartist Ernest Charles Jones, who died in 1869, and Buglar Robert Hawthorne, of the 52nd Light Infantry, who was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1857. Following the closure, the granite top of Dalton's tomb was relocated to the John Dalton building of Manchester Metropolitan University, where it lays beside a statue of the man.  Ardwick once had its own football team, Ardwick AFC, but following a meeting at the Hyde Road Hotel in 1894, it became Manchester City F.C. The Hyde Road ground, close to the maze of railway tracks extending outwards from Manchester Piccadilly station, was extended in a piecemeal fashion until it could hold crowds of 40,000, but the main stand was destroyed by a fire in 1923, and the club moved to a new stadium on Maine Road, Moss Side.

Industrial Revolution.

During the nineteenth century, Ardwick became heavily industrialised and it was characterised by factories, railways and rows of back-to-back terraced houses being juxtaposed. Large numbers of Irish immigrants settled here, as they did throughout Manchester. Ardwick railway station is at a junction where the Manchester and Birmingham Railway, later the London and North Western Railway diverged from the line to Sheffield that became the Great Central Railway. Nicholls Hospital, a neo-gothic building that was later a school, was constructed on Hyde Road in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. More recently it has become the Nicholls Campus of the Manchester College.  The railway bridge across Hyde Road was known by older residents as the "Fenian Arch". On 18 September 1867 it was the scene of an attack upon a prison van carrying two Fenian prisoners to the former Belle Vue gaol (jail). One police officer was shot dead. Three Irishmen involved in the affray were caught, tried and executed. The men are referred to by their supporters as the "Manchester Martyrs".  Close to the bridge, which has been replaced by a modern concrete structure, is a family-run business called Hyde Road Wheels and Tyres. In 2005 they abandoned their premises in the railway arches, which had become run down, and completed the construction of a new glass-fronted building in November 2005. The project was an unexpected recipient of a "Built in Quality" award in February 2006. Twelve awards are given annually, and the garage was awarded the recognition, despite there being over 2,600 other construction projects in Manchester which were considered.

Governance.

Ardwick ward is represented by three councillors, Amna Abdullatif, Bernard Priest, and Tina Hewitson, all members of the Labour Party. Former councillor Mavis Smitheman (2008–09) served as Lord Mayor of Manchester.

Geography and administration.

Civic history.

The village of Ardwick can be traced back to 1282, when it was known as "Atherdwic" and the road between Manchester and Stockport runs through it. From mediaeval times Ardwick was an independent township in the ancient parish of Manchester within the Salford hundred of Lancashire. It became part of the Borough of Manchester on the borough's creation in 1838. The historic boundary between Ardwick and Manchester was the River Medlock.

Transport.

Ardwick railway station is located on the Hope Valley line and has two trains in each direction every weekday to Manchester Piccadilly. It opened in 1842, and was operated by a number of railway companies over the years. There were plans to close it in the 1980s, and its future looked bleak for a long period after that, but closure plans were finally scrapped in 2006. The current service is operated by Northern Rail. The station consists of a waiting shelter on a single island platform between the tracks, access to which requires the use of steps. The station is the site of a memorial to Paul McLaughlin, who died there on 13 December 1997.

Present day.

Ardwick Green Park has recently been refurbished, and though the pond is no more, it still contains an interesting glacial erratic in the form of a boulder. There is also a cenotaph commemorating the Eighth Ardwicks, once a Territorial Army unit of the Manchester Regiment. Ardwick Green Barracks is a fine Victorian castellated structure bearing the old volunteer motto "Defence Not Defiance". It is still in military use today.  The Manchester Apollo, a 1930s Art Deco theatre, is one of Ardwick's most famous landmarks: it was in use as a cinema from 1943 and was renamed the ABC Ardwick in 1962. An independent operator took over in 1977 and staged pop concerts interspersed with the occasional film, until dropping films entirely. The venue now plays host to national and international performing artists.  Extensive demolition of dilapidated Victorian terraces took place around Ardwick during the 1960s. Some residents remained in the area in new council-owned houses and flats, while others were moved to overspill estates such as Hattersley.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Ardwick is a district of Manchester in North West England, one mile south east of the city centre. The population of the Ardwick Ward at the 2011 census was 19,250.


Invasion of Guadeloupe.

In 1793, "Boyne" set sail on 24 November for the West Indies, carrying Lieutenant-general Sir Charles Grey and Vice-admiral Sir John Jervis for an invasion of Guadeloupe. On the way, Yellow fever ravaged the crew. Still, the British managed to get the French to surrender at Fort St. Charles in Guadeloupe on 21 April of the following year. The capture of Fort St. Charles, the batteries, and the town of Basse-Terre cost the British army two men killed, four wounded, and five missing; the navy had no casualties.

Fate.

"Boyne" caught fire and blew up on 1 May 1795 at Spithead. She was lying at anchor while the Royal Marines of the vessel were practicing firing exercises. It is supposed that the funnel of the wardroom stove, which passed through the decks, set fire to papers in the Admiral's cabin. The fire was only discovered when flames burst through the poop, by which time it was too late to do anything. The fire spread rapidly and she was aflame from one end to the other within half an hour.  As soon as the fleet noticed the fire, other vessels sent boats to render assistance. As a result, the death toll on "Boyne" was only eleven men. At the same time, the signal was made for the vessels most at danger from the fire to get under way. Although the tide and wind were not favourable, all the vessels in any danger were able to escape to St Helens.  Because the guns were always left loaded, the cannons began to 'cook off', firing shots at potential rescuers making their way to the ship, resulting in the deaths of two seamen and the injury of another aboard, anchored nearby. Later in the day, the fire burnt the cables and "Boyne" drifted eastward till she grounded on the east end of the Spit, opposite Southsea Castle. There she blew up soon after.

Post-script.

The wreck presented something of a hazard to a navigation and as a result it was blown up on 30 August 1838 in a clearance attempt, and yet again a final attempt on 24 June 1840.  Today the Boyne buoy marks the site of the explosion. A few metal artifacts from the ship remain atop a mound of shingle.

Citations and references.

Citations  References

HMS "Boyne" was a 98-gun Royal Navy second-rate ship of the line launched on 27 June 1790 at Woolwich. She was the flagship of Vice Admiral John Jervis in 1794.


Commission.

Much speculation exists on the exact circumstances under which Marie de' Medici decided to commission Rubens to paint "such a grandiose project, conceived in truly heroic proportions". John Coolidge suggests the cycle may have even been commissioned to rival another famous series of Rubens, "The Constantine Tapestries", which he designed in his studio at the same time as the first several paintings of the Medici Cycle. It has also been suggested that Rubens prepared a number of oil sketches, by the request of Louis XIII, the son of Marie de' Medici and successor to the throne, which may have influenced the Queen's decision to

Marie de' Medici.

Marie de' Medici became the second wife to King Henry IV of France in a marriage by proxy on 5 October 1600 by the power invested in her uncle, Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany. When Henry was assassinated in 1610, Louis XIII, his son and successor to the throne, was only eight years old. Louis' mother, Marie, acted as his regent as commanded by the Frankish Salic law in case of an infant ruler. However, even after Louis came of age at thirteen in 1614, the queen continued ruling in his stead. In 1617, Louis XIII finally decided to take governing matters in his own hands at the age of fifteen and the queen was exiled to Blois.  Louis and his mother were not reconciled for over four years, and finally in 1621 Marie was permitted to return to Paris. Upon her return, Marie focused on building and decorating the Luxembourg Palace, an enormous undertaking in which Peter Paul Rubens played a key role. Rubens, then court painter to the Duchy of Mantua under Vincenzo I Gonzaga, had first met Marie at her proxy wedding in Florence in 1600. In 1621, Marie de' Medici commissioned Rubens to paint two large series depicting the lives of herself and her late husband, Henry IV, to adorn both wings of the first floor of the Luxembourg Palace. The first series of 21 canvases depicts the life of Marie in largely allegorical terms, and was finished by the end of 1624, to coincide with the celebrations

Rubens.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) was a highly influential artist in Northern Europe, widely believed to have played an important role in shaping the style and visual language of his time. The overseer or creator of more than three thousand woodcuts, engravings and paintings in various mediums, Rubens's works include historical, religious and allegorical paintings, altarpieces, portraits and landscapes. He is particularly known for his portrayal of human figures, lush and richly colored fabrics and well-developed themes often derived from both Christian and classical traditions. Rubens's studies of classical, Greek, and Latin texts influenced his career and set him apart from other painters during his time. Early in his career, Rubens studied under Flemish artists such as Otto van Veen, but his most notable influences come from the time he spent in Italy where he studied ancient sculpture and the works of Michelangelo, Raphael, Caravaggio, Titian, and Veronese. It was during his time in Italy

The Paintings.

Originally the paintings were hung clockwise in chronological order, decorating the walls of a waiting room expanding from a royal apartment in Marie de' Medici's Luxembourg Palace. The paintings are now displayed in the same order in the Louvre. There is an additional claim that Marie had envisioned these paintings to be studied alternately, left to right, so the thoughtful viewer would have had to crisscross down the gallery. Coolidge also argues that Marie envisioned the subjects as falling into pairs, and further into groups. Therefore, Marie's visual biography was divided into three main chapters: childhood, life as a married queen, and the regency as a widow. All of the paintings have the same height although they vary in width in order to fit the shape of the room they were intended for. The sixteen paintings that covered the long walls of the gallery measure about four meters tall by three meters wide, the three larger paintings at the end of the room are four meters high by seven meters wide.  Originally the viewer would have entered the gallery from the southeast corner. The most visible works from this angle were "The Coronation in Saint Denis" and "The Death of Henry IV and the Proclamation of the Regency." The cycle began at the entrance wall, featuring images of Marie's childhood years and her marriage to Henry IV. Four of the images are devoted to the marriage, possibly because marriage at Marie's relatively advanced age of twenty-seven was quite rare for a woman at the time. This half ends with a depiction of Marie's coronation. The wall opposite the gallery's entrance presents an image of the assassination and assumption of Henry IV, as well as the proclamation of the widowed Marie's regency. From there, the second half of Rubens' cycle begins addressing the more controversial issues from Marie's reign. For example, both the altercation and reconciliation with her son Louis XIII are subjects Marie de' Medici commissioned Rubens to paint for this gallery.  The historical period that encompassed the subject matter for the paintings was a time of political upheaval in which Rubens sought not to offend the reigning French monarch. Rubens thus turned to mythological allusions, emblematic references, personifications of vices and virtues and religious analogies to veil an often unheroic or ambiguous reality. Within this context Rubens' approach to 'historical truth' may appear selective or, worse, dishonest, but he was neither a historian in the modern sense, nor a journalist; the Medici cycle is not reportage, but rather poetic transformation.  As a narrative source for the Marie de' Medici cycle Rubens used an ancient genera of writing in which ideal kingship, and good government were explored. This genera of writing is called the Panegyric. Panegyric writings were usually written during an important political event, the birth of a prince for example, and were used to exalt the qualities and ancestry of a ruler. A formal chronological structure is followed in Panegyric writings detailing the ancestry, birth, education and life of the individual. Rubens followed this structure in his series of paintings about Marie de' Medici.  The price of Marie de' Medici Cycle was roughly 24,000 guilders for the 292 square meters, which calculates to about 82 guilders, or 1,512 dollars, per square meter.

Henry IV Cycle.

The original commission for the Marie de' Medici cycle included a corresponding gallery illustrating the life of Henry IV that was never completed, although Rubens began work soon after he completed the Marie de' Medici cycle. The Henry cycle called for twenty-four monumental scenes of Henry's life depicting "the encounters he was engaged in, his combats, conquests, and sieges of towns with the Triumphs of said victories." Marie and Henry's separate wings were designed to meet in an arcade that would unite the two galleries. The paintings of each gallery would have been exhibited as an integrated pair, unifying all forty-eight scenes.  It appears that Rubens did not make any sketches for the Henry IV cycle while he was engaged with the first gallery. In one of his letters the artist describes the theme as "so large and magnificent that it would suffice for ten galleries". Judging by another statement of his on January 27, 1628, he did not engage much in sketching before that date. Of the oil sketches executed later by him, only nine survive, along with five large unfinished canvasses. Most of the sketches represent actual battles in which Henry was involved, such as "The Capture of Paris."  It is important to note that the reasons for not completing the Henry IV cycle had to do with the current political events of the time. Marie de' Medici was banished from Paris in 1631 as Cardinal Richelieu gained power over Louis XIII. Consequently, the project was abandoned completely due to approval of the plans for the gallery being repeatedly delayed by the French court. Richelieu, who now had full control of the cycle, refused to speak to Rubens about completing the Henry Gallery based on the falsehood that he was tending to affairs of the state. Richelieu's true motivations were most likely political. During this time, Rubens was in Madrid preparing for a diplomatic mission to London, working towards the rapprochement of Spain and England. The commissioned artist being active in an opposing political parties was cause for Richelieu to object. He was thus actively seeking for an Italian artist to replace Rubens, which resulted in Rubens only sporadically continuing his work. After Marie's banishment in 1631, the project was to be completely abandoned, which seems a travesty seeing as Rubens was very optimistic about the project and its effects on his career; "I have now begun the designs of the other gallery which, in

External links.

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The Marie de' Medici Cycle is a series of twenty-four paintings by Peter Paul Rubens commissioned by Marie de' Medici, widow of Henry IV of France, for the Luxembourg Palace in Paris. Rubens received the commission in the autumn of 1621. After negotiating the terms of the contract in early 1622, the project was to be completed within two years, coinciding with the marriage of Marie's daughter, Henrietta Maria. Twenty-one of the paintings depict Marie's own struggles and triumphs in life. The remaining three are portraits of herself and her parents. The paintings now hang in the Louvre in Paris.


Chemistry.

The chemistry of FLiBe, and other fluoride salts, is unique due to the high temperatures at which the reactions occur, the ionic nature of the salt, and the reversibility of many of the reactions. At the most basic level, FLiBe melts and complexes itself through  This reaction occurs upon initial melting. However, if the components are exposed to air they will absorb moisture. This moisture plays a negative role at high temperature by converting BeF, and to a lesser extent LiF, into an oxide or hydroxide through the reactions  and  While BeF is a very stable chemical compound, the formation of oxides, hydroxides, and hydrogen fluoride reduce the stability and inertness of the salt. This leads to corrosion. Its important to understand that all dissolved species in these two reactions cause the corrosion—not just the hydrogen fluoride. This is because all dissolved components alter the reduction potential or redox potential. The redox potential is an innate and measurable voltage in the salt which is the prime indicator of the corrosion potential in salt. Usually, the reaction  is set at zero volts. This reaction proves convenient in a laboratory setting and can be used to set the salt to zero through bubbling a 1:1 mixture of hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen through the salt. Occasionally the reaction:  is used as a reference. Regardless of where the zero is set, all other reactions which occur in the salt will occur at predictable, known voltages relative to the zero. Therefore, if the redox potential of the salt is close to a specific reaction's voltage, that reaction can be expected to be the predominate reaction. Therefore, it is important to keep a salt's redox potential as far away from reactions which are undesirable. For example, in a container alloy of nickel, iron, and chromium, the reactions of concern would be the fluorination of container and subsequent dissolution of these metal fluorides. The dissolution of the metal fluorides then alters the redox potential. This process continues until an equilibrium between metals and salt is reached. It is essential that a salt's redox potential be kept as far away from fluorination reactions as possible, and that metals in contact with salt be as far away from the salt's redox potential as possible in order to prevent excessive corrosion.  The easiest method to prevent undesirable reactions is to pick materials whose reaction voltages are far from the redox potential of the salt in the salt's worst case. Some of these materials are tungsten, carbon, molybdenum, platinum, iridium, and nickel. Of all these materials, only two are affordable and weldable: nickel and molybdenum. These two elements were chosen as the main portion of Hastelloy-N, the material of the MSRE.  Altering the redox potential of flibe can be done in two ways. First, the salt can be forced by physically applying a voltage to the salt with an inert electrode. The second, more common way, is to perform a chemical reaction in the salt which occurs at the desired voltage. For example, redox potential can be altered by sparging hydrogen and hydrogen fluoride into the salt or by dipping a metal into the salt.

Coolant.

As a molten salt it can serve as a coolant which can be used at high temperatures without reaching a high vapor pressure. Notably, its optical transparency allows easy visual inspection of anything immersed in the coolant as well as any impurities dissolved in it. Unlike sodium or potassium metals, which can also be used as high-temperature coolants, it does not violently react with air or water. FLiBe salt has low hygroscopy and solubility in water.

Nuclear properties.

The low atomic weight of lithium, beryllium and to a lesser extent fluorine make FLiBe an effective neutron moderator. As natural lithium contains ~7.5% lithium-6, which tends to absorb neutrons producing alpha particles and tritium, nearly pure lithium-7 is used to give the FLiBe a small neutron absorption cross section; e.g. the MSRE secondary coolant was 99.993% lithium-7 FLiBe.  Beryllium will occasionally disintegrate into two alpha particles and two neutrons when hit by a fast neutron.

Applications.

In the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) it serves as solvent for the fissile and fertile material fluoride salts, as well as moderator and coolant.  Some other designs (sometimes called molten-salt cooled reactors) use it as coolant, but have conventional solid nuclear fuel instead of dissolving it in the molten salt.  The liquid FLiBe salt was also proposed as a liquid blanket for tritium production and cooling in the ARC fusion reactor, a compact tokamak design by MIT.

FLiBe is a molten salt made from a mixture of lithium fluoride (LiF) and beryllium fluoride (BeF). It is both a nuclear reactor coolant and solvent for fertile or fissile material. It served both purposes in the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.


Youth career.

Born in Roskilde, Albæk began his footballing career started in the small Zealandic club, Gadstrup IF. At the age of 11, he moved to play for Herfølge Boldklub. When playing for Herfølge's youth team, Albæk was on trial at SC Heerenveen from the Netherlands, and later on, he was tested by Tottenham Hotspur from England. His talent was discovered by the Danish Superliga club FC Midtjylland, who brought Albæk through the ranks of their youth academy.

Club career.

FC Midtjylland.

Albæk signed his first professional contract in January 2008, and was permanently promoted in the first team squad. However, he continued playing games for the U19 squad, while training with the first team. In the summer 2008, Albæk suffered from a twist in the knee and that resulted in an operation. Due to the injury, he debuted in February 2009 in a match against Esbjerg fB where he played the whole match. Albæk extended his contract in March 2010 until the summer 2014. He played 28 league matches in this season despite his young age.  Having established himself as a starter in the Midtjylland line-up, and he revealed in January 2013, that he would like to leave the club and take the step up. However, he wasn't sold in this transfer windows. Albæk was named as the player of the year 2012/13. With one year left of his contract, he left the club in the summer windows 2013.

Stade Reims.

Albæk had several interested club, but decided to join French side Stade de Reims in the summer of 2013.  He got his debut for the club on 17 August 2013. Albæk played the whole match and scored a goal in the 7th minute, helping his team win 2-1 against Lille. However, besides his good first match, the rest of the season wasn't so good. He didn't fit in and did only score two goals in 27 league matches.  Albæk suffered from a stomach injury October 2014, that resulted in an operation in December that held him out for some months. He went back from this injury in April 2015.

IFK Göteborg.

In August 2015, Albæk signed a two year-contract with Swedish team IFK Göteborg. He played his first match for the club only 5 days later against BK Häcken.  According to a Swedish media, IFK Göteborg rejected a bid from MLS-club Toronto FC for Albæk in January 2017.

International career.

Albæk has played for various national youth sides, and he was rewarded with the Arla U17 youth prize.

Mads Albæk (born 14 January 1990) is a Danish footballer who plays as a midfielder for SønderjyskE. He has also represented the Danish national under-21 team.


Professional 10K running.

At the professional level, there are many races which offer significant prize money to athletes who achieve a high finishing position in the race. At the highest level, annual prize money can total over US$100,000 at races such as the World's Best 10K, Peachtree Road Race, Apryle Showers Run - Florida's Fastest 10K and World 10K Bangalore.  The 10K road distance has never featured on the event programmes of the Athletics at the Summer Olympics or the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. However, it did briefly have its own individual championship for women in the form of the IAAF World Women's Road Race Championships, which was contested over ten kilometres in 1983 and 1984. As a result, the highest level 10K road competitions occur at individual races run by race promoters, who attract elite international level runners through prize money and appearance fees. These types of races are held in all parts of the world, but the highest calibre races are mainly concentrated in the United States, Canada, Europe and East Asia.  The world records for the 10K road distance are 26:24 minutes for men (Rhonex Kipruto, 2020) and 29:43 minutes for women (Joyciline Jepkosgei, 2017). Performances over ten kilometres on the roads were not recognised as world records by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) until 2003 and instead the fastest times were referred to as "world bests". This changed in August 2003 when the IAAF Congress approved world record status for a number of specified road distances, including the 10 km.  As with other forms of professional long-distance running, East African athletes have been dominant in the 10K distance since the 1990s. As of January 2020, all ten of the fastest male 10K runners are East African (five of them Kenyan), while nine of the top ten female runners are Kenyan.

The 10K run is a long-distance road running competition over a distance of. Also referred to as the 10K road race, 10 km, or simply 10K, it is one of the most common types of road running event, alongside the shorter 5K and longer half marathon and marathon. It is usually distinguished from the 10,000 metres track running event by stating the distance in kilometres, rather than metres.


History.

In 1950, Romania adopted a Soviet-style administrative and territorial division of the country into regions and raions (until then, Romania had been divided into "judeţe" or counties). Two years later, in 1952, under Soviet pressure, the number of regions was reduced and by comprising ten raions from the former Mureș Region and from the Stalin Region (both of them created in 1950), of the territory inhabited by a compact population of Székely Hungarians, a new region called the Magyar Autonomous Region was created. According to the 1956 census, the total population of the region was 731,361, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows: Hungarians (77.3%), Romanians (20.1%), Roma (1.5%), Germans (0.4%) and Jews (0.4%). The official languages of the province were Hungarian and Romanian and the provincial administrative centre was Târgu Mureș ("Marosvásárhely").  Its status laid out in the 1952 Constitution, the region encompassed about a third of Romania's Hungarians, the rest living either in more Romanian areas or along the border with Hungary, where an ethnic-based region might have stoked fears of irredentism and security concerns. In practice, the region's status differed in no way from that of the other seventeen regions and it did not enjoy autonomy of any kind – laws, decisions and directives from the centre were rendered compulsory by the very constitution that created it, and the State Council of the Autonomous Region was merely a façade. The Region's only distinguishing features were that most of its officials were Hungarian, the Hungarian language could be used in administration and the courts, and bilingual signs were put up on public buildings. Moreover, the specifically Hungarian wing of the Romanian Communist Party was abolished in 1953, ending any mechanism for defending of the Hungarian minority's collective rights. In December 1960, a governmental decree modified the boundaries of the Magyar Autonomous Region. Its southern raions were reattached to Braşov Region (former Stalin Region) and in place of this, several raions were joined to it from the Cluj Region. The region was called the Mureș Region-Magyar Autonomous, after the Mureș River. The ratio of Hungarians was thus reduced from 77.3% to 62%. In 1968, the Great National Assembly put an end to the soviet style administrative division of the country into regions and re-introduced the historical "judeţ" (county) system, still used today. This also automatically eliminated the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region and replaced it with counties that are not identified with any nationality. The two new counties formed on the majority of the territory of former Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region are Mureș and Harghita plus one from the former Magyar Autonomous Region until 1960 and part of the Braşov Region in 1968, Covasna.  In two of these counties, Harghita and Covasna, Hungarians form the majority of inhabitants. The Romanian law enables the usage of the language of an ethnic minority which forms at least 20% of the population of a municipality in relation with the administration, and the state provides education and public signage in the language of the respective ethnic minority.  East: Bacău and Bârlad Regions;<br>

Neighbors.

South: Stalin and Ploieşti Regions;
 West: Cluj Region;
 North: Suceava Region  East: Bacău Region;
 South: Braşov Region;
 West: Cluj Region;
 North: Suceava region

Notes.

a. Also informal referred to in some publications as "Hungarian Autonomous Region" or "Mureș-Hungarian Autonomous Region"

The Magyar Autonomous Region (1952–1960) (Romanian: "Regiunea Autonomă Maghiară", Hungarian: "Magyar Autonóm Tartomány") and Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region (1960–1968) were autonomous regions in the People's Republic of Romania (later the Socialist Republic of Romania).


Biography.

Federico Krutwig was born on 15 May 1921 in Getxo, the son of a bourgeois family of German origin. He taught himself the Basque language.  He joined the Basque-Language Academy in 1943, where he favoured the standardisation of Basque around the Labourdine dialect of the first printed books in Basque, and with an etymological orthography. However, the Academy preferred the Guipuscoan dialect as the basis of Standard Basque. Krutwig's Basque language standardisation proposal was not to be applied beyond the members of the "Jakintza Baitha" ("House of Knowledge") Hellenophile society.  In 1952, after rejecting Luis Villasante joining the Basque-Language Academy, and after his criticisms of the position of the Catholic Church in reference to the Basque language, he went into exile in France.  Once in Donibane-Lohitzune he contacted members of the movement Jagi-Jagi. In 1963 he edited the book "Vasconia", in which he questioned part of the traditional Basque nationalism of Sabino Arana and proposed a new Basque nationalism.  Krutwig collaborated with ex-militants of EGI and theorized about the use of violence for political purposes. In 1964 he was expelled from France and moved to Brussels (Belgium). Here he made contact with members of ETA. He elaborated some memoranda for ETA's V at Guethary, and put ETA in contact with the Czech weapon industry. In 1975 he abandoned ETA and established his residency back in Spain in Zarauz, to dedicate himself exclusively to literary production.  His main writings are:  He spoke and read several ancient and modern languages. He translated works of Goethe and Mao Zedong into Basque.  Krutwig died in Bilbao in 1998.

Influence.

The Basque folk group "Oskorri" released an album "Garaldea" featuring collaborations with Canarian musicians.

Federico Krutwig Sagredo (1921–1998) was a Spanish Basque writer, philosopher and politician, author of several books. Along with Felix Likiniano, he tried to create some resistance to the Francoist State after the Spanish Civil War. The thought of both authors, melding Basque nationalism and Anarchism gave birth to a minor political current known as "Anarkoabertzalism" (Anarcho-independentism), which eventually merged within the hybrid of Marxism and Anarchism known as Autonomism.


History.

The temple was built during the reign of Gwanggaeto the Great; it is one of a large number of temples that were built in Pyongyang during this time.  Originally built in 392, it was destroyed by fire in 1700. It was rebuilt and enlarged in 1727. Destroyed again during the Korean War during a bombing of Pyongyang in 1952, it was not rebuilt until 1990. Visiting Buddhist monks are taken for tours here, though some South Koreans claim the residents in the temple are civil servants posing as monks.  In 2007, Buddhists visited the Kwangbopsa Temple as part of a delegation of Catholics, Protestants, Buddhists and Confucians, who are part of the "Korean Conference on Religion and Peace", members being from South Korea. The visit was to celebrate the 10th anniversary of partnership with the North Korean government’s Council of Religionists.

Description.

The temple is composed of the Haethal Gate, the Chonwang Gate, the Taeung Hall, the east and west Buddhist monasteries and an octagonal five-storied pagoda. Its buildings are arranged symmetrically with the pagoda as the centre.  The Taehung Hall is the main building of the temple. On the Haethal Gate we see carvings of young monks on elephants and lions; on the Chonwang Gate are carvings of four heavenly kings. Preserved within the temple are a lotus pond, a monument to the Kwangbop Temple erected in 1727 and another for the extension and painting of the Kwangbop Temple. The epitaph on the monument to the Kwangbop Temple recounts a legend of nine dragons and the 99 ponds of Mt. Kuryong of Taesong. The complex is built in the typical construction of period, having buildings on three sides centering on a pagoda.

The Kwangbop Temple is an historic structure located in Mt. Taesong, Pyongyang, North Korea. Built during the early period of Koguryo during the reign of King Kwanggaetho, it is listed as item 164 on the list of National Treasures of North Korea.