Background.

Sometime around 1663, the Ottawa people were driven westward from the area around Georgian Bay to the area around Lake Superior and Lake Michigan by the Iroquois. Settling around Chequamegon Bay, the Ottawa came into contact with tribes such as the Potawatomi, Sioux, Sauk, Meskwaki, Miami, and Illinois, and informed them of European demand for beaver pelts in exchange for European goods, becoming middlemen between these western peoples and the French in the east. The Ottawa enjoyed this position of middleman in trade until the founding of the English Hudson's Bay Company in 1670; this disrupted the French trading scheme, as instead of relying on overland routes from Québec and Ottawa middlemen, western tribes could trade directly with the English at Hudson Bay, offering more goods at much more favourable rates of exchange.  As the source of the best beaver pelts was the Hudson Bay, the French saw it fit to try and increase their foothold over trade in that region. To that end, Louis de Buade de Frontenac, then Governor-General of New France, dispatched Father Charles Albanel to the Bay in 1674 to both found a Catholic mission and to encourage Groseilliers, then an employee of the HBC, to return to the service of the French. Albanel was unsuccessful in his first goal due to being imprisoned upon his arrival by HBC Governor Charles Bayly, but Groseilliers and Albanel found themselves on the same boat headed for England in the spring of 1675, and the former was successfully persuaded to leave the service of the HBC.  Upon their released from English custody, Albanel and Groseilliers went to France, meeting up with Radisson, also an HBC employee at the time, and First Minister of State Jean-Baptiste Colbert to design plans for French fur exploitation in the Hudson Bay region. After being pardoned by Colbert for working with the English, Radisson went with Groseilliers were sent by Colbert to New France in 1676 to discuss plans for fur trading in the Hudson Bay region with Frontenac, but to their surprise they found little enthusiasm from him for these plans. They soon came to realize that Frontenac had other plans for the expansion of the French fur trade - namely, that he preferred the idea of building forts around the eastern Great Lakes region, trading with western tribes in that manner. Frontenac's policy was detrimental to a sizeable group of Montréal and Québec-based merchants, as these trading posts would be the new centre of profits from fur trading rather than Montréal. Matters worsened in 1678 when Robert de La Salle was granted permission to explore the Mississippi Valley for fur-trading purposes; with this group of Montréal/Québec merchants being forced out of the Great Lakes and what would become Louisiana, they had no choice but to look north to continue making their profits.  La Chesnaye, a member of the anti-Frontenac group of merchants, selected Louis Jolliet to lead an overland expedition to the Hudson Bay in May 1679. Upon his return to Québec that autumn, Jolliet noted that many indigenous peoples that had formerly used the Ottawa as middlemen for trade with the Canadiens now traded directly with the English at the Bay. Combined with increasing hostility from Frontenac after the Governor-General accused La Chesnaye and others of trading with the English, Jolliet's observation served as the impetus for the creation of the Compagnie du Nord. The creation of the Compagnie was ultimately realized after July 1682, when Frontenac was recalled to France and replaced by Joseph-Antoine de La Barre, who was much more supportive of the idea of fur trading in the Hudson Bay.

Pre-charter years, 1682-1685.

The company's early years, between its foundation in 1682 and being granted a royal charter in May 1685, were marked by great informality in structure. The Compagnie was not a corporation, but a partnership, and as a result no minimum investment (such as a minimum amount of shares held) was required in order to become a director of the Compagnie.  In July 1682, Radisson and Groseilliers and a crew of thirty, including Groseilliers' son Jean-Baptiste Chouart, set sail for the Bay, and arrived at the mouth of the Hayes River on August 19, 1682, shortly before the arrival of a New England-based expedition and an HBC expedition, both of which were sent for the purpose of establishing trading posts and consolidating English control of the Bay. Although both expeditions were aware of the French presence, they were not aware of each other's presence, and the French expedition was able to burn both English forts and take prisoners from both expeditions. After wintering at the Bay, Jean-Baptiste Chouart was left to oversee the French fort, while Radisson and Groseilliers returned with prisoners and 2,000 pelts, arriving in Québec on October 20, 1683. Despite nearly running the English out of the Bay entirely and establishing a French foothold in the region, this expedition was of limited success financially, and the Compagnie was not able to pay its crew for the expedition.  To add insult to unexpected injury, the 2,000 pelts gained from this expedition were confiscated by the rival Company of the Farm over a jurisdictional dispute. The Farm held a right to impose a tax of sorts, the "droit du quart", on all beaver pelts moved through colonies, and standard procedure was to take all pelts through the Farm's Québec office so that the "droit" would be paid before allowing the rest to be exported to European markets. The Compagnie du Nord, however, did not view the Hudson Bay to be under the jurisdiction of the Farm. La Chesnaye argued this case in front of La Barre, who settled the case in favour of the Compagnie du Nord on November 8, 1683; however, final jurisdiction over the dispute lay with the Crown, and on April 10, 1684 La Barre's ruling was overturned, forcing the Compagnie to pay the "droit" to the Farm and to watch their already-limited profits from the expedition disappear.  Following this ruling on the "droit", Radisson became disillusioned with serving the French and returned to the service of the Hudson Bay Company, and in August 1684 established two English trading posts, including York Factory on the Nelson River. This was discovered by a Compagnie-funded expedition led by Claude de Bermen de la Martinière, arriving on September 22, 1684 to find not only these new trading posts and the destruction of the old French post, but also that Chouart had been convinced by Radisson to leave the Compagnie in favour of employment by the HBC as well. La Martinière narrowly avoided capture by the English on his return to Québec and even acquired 20,000 livres worth of cargo from an English ship, the expedition ultimately put the Compagnie down to 273,000 livres in debt in total.  The overall failure of these two expeditions led the Compagnie to realize that it could not effectively compete with the Hudson's Bay Company without a royal charter similar to what the HBC enjoyed. Philippe Gaultier de Comporté was tasked to present the Compagnie's petition to the French court, and in 1685 he arrived to do so. Comporté requested royal monetary support and the right for retaliatory military action (allowing the Compagnie to undertake more than mere trading expeditions). Comporté's petition was successful, and a charter was granted on May 20, 1685; in addition, La Barre was recalled to France and replaced by Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, who had been instructed by royal authorities to give full support to the Compagnie.

Peak of the Compagnie, 1686-1693.

With the Compagnie now being able to wage military conflicts in the Hudson Bay region, it outfitted an expedition led by Pierre Chevalier de Troyes with the intent of regaining control of the region surrounding the Nelson and Hayes Rivers. In preparation for this expedition, two forts, Fort St. Joseph and Fort St. Anne, were established on Lake Abitibi and Lake Timiskaming, respectively, and Troyes was to stop at each fort for resupplying purposes if necessary. Due to the presence of a large number of "voyageurs" who were strongly familiar with the terrain, the expedition made good progress despite agonizing travel conditions overland, and between June 19 and July 26, 1686, three English forts were surrendered to the French. However, Troyes did not recapture the English posts in the Nelson-Hayes region, so despite the profit earned by the Compagnie, the loss incurred to the HBC, and near-total control of the Bay, the Compagnie (and Denonville as well) were displeased.  Due to the intense difficulty associated with traversing an overland route to these three newly-acquired forts, the Compagnie found itself in a difficult situation. Still determined to control the Nelson-Hayes region, the Compagnie took strongly to the ideas of Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, who recommended a naval approach to restocking the forts and, above all, controlling the Nelson-Hayes even at the expense of the three forts in the Lower Bay. Iberville led a naval expedition with royal support in the spring of 1688, and following the successful capture of two HBC ships and an overwintering on the Bay, he sailed to La Rochelle in France in the spring of 1689. He was promptly arrested by agents of the Farm for failing to pay the "droit du quart" in Québec, but was ultimately released and returned to Québec, where the Compagnie ultimately recorded profits of 40,000 livres for the expedition. As a result of the expedition, the Compagnie's hold on the Lower Bay region had also been confirmed.  Following the Glorious Revolution in England in 1689, the English joined the Grand Alliance against the French in the Nine Years' War. Following this outbreak of hostilities, French authorities encouraged Frontenac, who had been re-appointed as Governor-General in place of Denonville, to support the Compagnie's plans to plan a direct attack on Fort Bourbon (now York Factory), but the Compagnie was frustrated by a lack of military support from France in this endeavour. Iberville set sail in June 1690 to capture Fort Bourbon, but the poorly-outfitted expedition was met by three heavily armed HBC ships in the Nelson-Hayes region. Iberville retreated to find that an English post on the Severn River had been preemptively burned by the HBC in anticipation of a French assault. The expedition was entirely funded by the Compagnie, and as such was an absolute financial disaster.  Pressed financially and for time against the threat of English encroachment, the Compagnie petitioned the Crown for royal support for an expedition to capture Fort Bourbon and to run the HBC out of the Bay altogether. Support for this was granted on April 7, 1691, sending the heavily armed war vessel "Hazardeux" and offering to bankroll much of the expedition. However, the "Hazardeux" arrived in Québec on July 13, and the ship's commander François du Tast refused to set sail on account of the advancing season and the threat of ice. On February 27, 1692, the French court tried to get the expedition off earlier, but equipping merchant ships led to yet another delay; the "Poly", a thirty-six gun man-of-war with a 130-strong crew, finally set sail on May 14, but did not arrive until August 19 due to more difficult crossing conditions than normal, and again the expedition was far too late to be sent that year. However, the "Poly" was sent out from La Rochelle in early April 1693, but treacherous conditions again delayed its arrival at Québec until July 23. These delays all gave the English ample time to resupply their forts and to capture French forts, and by 1693 the Compagnie found itself without a single fort on the Bay, the same situation that the Compagnie had found itself in back in 1686.

Twilight years, 1694-1700.

The successive failures to send an expedition to capture Fort Bourbon caused a rift between the Compagnie's metropolitan French directors and its Canadien directors. In a 1693 memoir, the French proposed that the Compagnie should be controlled from La Rochelle, arguing that, not only was forcing Québec as a port of call responsible for the delays in sending out the expeditions, but that the cost for outfitting these expeditions was much cheaper in France than in Canada. This left the Canadiens in a difficult situation when trying to convince the French directors to contribute additional funds for a 1694 expedition.  On account of this impasse, the French royal authorities saw it fit to go through Iberville directly in order to create a new expedition. The costs were to be shared by the Crown and Iberville, and Iberville would have the "Poly" and another man-of-war, the "Salamandre", at his disposal. The Compagnie was expressly excluded from any profits that would be earned in this expedition; furthermore, if the expedition were profitable enough, Iberville would be given direct trading rights in the Bay at least until July 1697. Because of this, the French authorities gave the Compagnie a chance to confirm their re-involvement in the Hudson Bay trade at this time, but internal disputes forced the Compagnie to recuse themselves at least until 1697, although they ended up contributing 15,000 livres to Iberville's expedition at his urging.  Iberville, accompanied by his brother Joseph Le Moyne de Sérigny, set sail from Québec on August 10, 1694 and arrived at Fort Bourbon on September 24, forcing a surrender of the fort on October 14. Iberville overwintered at the Bay and ended up profiting 160,000 livres for his efforts, which were not subject to the "droit du quart" levied by the Farm. However, French possession of the fort was short-lived, as it was retaken by the English on September 6, 1695.  Iberville was tasked to recapture Fort Bourbon in 1697, and once again the Compagnie du Nord was intentionally excluded from making plans for this expedition. Due to it being an entirely royal venture, the expedition set out directly from La Rochelle on July 8. It reached the Nelson-Hayes region on September 4, and after nine days of fighting with English warships, the English surrendered Fort Bourbon on September 13. However, despite now having firm control of Fort Bourbon, the Compagnie was still unable to commit to managing the trade from the region, due to a lack of necessary funding for the exorbitant cost of outfitting expeditions, which could run anywhere from 100,000 to 180,000 livres.

Dissolution and legacy.

As the Compagnie was clearly in no position to retake the mantle of handling the Hudson Bay trade, the French royal authorities saw it fit to establish an entirely new company for that purpose. As part of this establishment, the Company of the Farm accepted an offer to have the surplus of beaver bought out by a group of Canadian merchants separate from the Compagnie, while the Compagnie du Nord's charter was formally revoked on January 10, 1700. With both of the main players in the Canadian fur trade now no longer possessing trading rights, the Crown established the Compagnie de la Colonie on October 10, 1700, taking over the trading rights from both the Farm and the Compagnie.  Although the Compagnie had, at multiple points, the ability to completely remove the English from the Hudson Bay, the Compagnie's main legacy is its impressive financial failure, although this is not necessarily true of its directors or other people involved with it. La Chesnaye was not bankrupted, and in fact became the primary shareholder in the Compagnie de la Colonie upon its establishment in 1700. Not much is known of Groseilliers after his early service with the Compagnie, and even his date of death is disputed, although the "Canadian Dictionary of Bibliography" holds him to have died around 1696; a similar lack of known fate is true of Radisson, although he is known to have died in England in 1710. Iberville, for his part, died in 1706 in Havana, after escapades in Louisiana and the Caribbean.

The Compagnie du Nord (also referred to as the Northern Company) was a French colonial fur-trading company, founded in Québec City 1682 by a group of Canadien financiers with the express intent of competing with the English Hudson's Bay Company. It was founded by Charles Aubert de La Chesnaye with the assistance of Pierre-Esprit Radisson and his brother-in-law Médard Chouart des Groseilliers.


Development.

Origins and acquisition.

The Su-30MKI was designed by Russia's Sukhoi Corporation beginning in 1995 and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). The Su-30MKI is derived from the Sukhoi Su-27 and has a fusion of technology from the Su-37 demonstrator and Su-30 program, being more advanced than the Su-30MK and the Chinese Su-30MKK/MK2. Russia's Defence Ministry was impressed with the type's performance envelope and ordered 30 Su-30SMs, a localised Su-30MKI, for the Russian Air Force. It features state of the art avionics developed by Russia, India and Israel for display, navigation, targeting and electronic warfare; France and South Africa provided other avionics.  After two years of evaluation and negotiations, on 30 November 1996, India signed a US$1.462 billion deal with Sukhoi for 50 Russian-produced Su-30MKIs in five batches. The first batch were eight Su-30MKs, the basic version of Su-30. The second batch were to be 10 Su-30Ks with French and Israeli avionics. The third batch were to be 10 Su-30MKIs featuring canard foreplanes. The fourth batch of 12 Su-30MKIs and final batch of 10 Su-30MKIs were to have the AL-31FP turbofans.  In October 2000, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) was signed for Indian licence-production of 140 Su-30MKIs; in December 2000, a deal was sealed at Russia's Irkutsk aircraft plant for full technology transfer. The first Nasik-built Su-30MKIs were to be delivered by 2004, with staggered production until 2017–18. In November 2002, the delivery schedule was expedited with production to be completed by 2015. An estimated 920 AL-31FP turbofans are to be manufactured at HAL's Koraput Division, while the mainframe and other accessories are to be manufactured at HAL's Lucknow and Hyderabad divisions. Final integration and test flights of the aircraft are carried out at HAL's Nasik Division. Four manufacturing phases were outlined with progressively increasing Indian content: Phase I, II, III and IV. In phase I, HAL manufactured the Su-30MKIs from knocked-down kits, transitioning to semi knocked-down kits in phase II and III; in phase IV, HAL produced aircraft from scratch from 2013 onwards. In 2007, another order of 40 Su-30MKIs was placed. In 2009, the planned fleet strength was to be 230 aircraft. In 2008, Samtel HAL Display Systems (SHDS), a joint venture between Samtel Display Systems and HAL, won a contract to develop and manufacture multi-function avionics displays for the MKI. A helmet mounted display, Topsight-I, based on technology from Thales and developed by SHDS will be integrated on the Su-30MKI in the next upgrade. In March 2010, it was reported that India and Russia were discussing a contract for 42 more Su-30MKIs. In June 2010, it was reported that the Cabinet Committee on Security had cleared the deal and that the 42 aircraft would be in service by 2018.  By August 2010, the cost increased to $4.3 billion or $102 million each. This increased unit cost compared to the previous unit cost of $40 million in 2007, has led to the rumours that these latest order of 42 Su-30MKIs are for the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) and these aircraft will be optimised and hardwired for nuclear weapons delivery. The SFC had previously submitted a proposal to the Indian Defence Ministry for setting up two dedicated squadrons of fighters consisting of 40 aircraft capable of delivering nuclear weapons.  HAL expected that indigenisation of the Su-30MKI programme would be completed by 2010; V. Balakrishnan, general manager of the Aircraft Manufacturing Division stated that "HAL will achieve 100 per cent indigenisation of the Sukhoi aircraft – from the production of raw materials to the final plane assembly". As of 2017, HAL manufactures more than 80% of the aircraft. On 11 October 2012, the Indian Government confirmed plans to buy another 42 Su-30MKI aircraft. On 24 December 2012, India ordered assembly kits for 42 Su-30MKIs by signing a deal during President Putin's visit to India. This increases India's order total to 272 Su-30MKIs.  In June 2018, India has reportedly decided not order any further Su-30s as they feel its cost of maintenance is very high compared to Western aircraft.

Upgrades.

In 2004, India signed a deal with Russia to domestically produce the Novator K-100 missile, designed to shoot down airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) and C4ISTAR aircraft, for the Su-30MKI. Although not initially designed to carry nuclear or strategic weapons, India has considered integrating an air-launched version of the nuclear-capable Nirbhay.  In May 2010, India Today reported that Russia had won a contract to upgrade 40 Su-30MKIs with new radars, onboard computers, electronic warfare systems and the ability to carry the BrahMos cruise missile. The first two prototypes with the "Super-30" upgrade will be delivered to the IAF in 2012, after which the upgrades will be performed on the last batch of 40 production aircraft. The Brahmos missile integrated on the Su-30MKI will provide the capability to attack ground targets from stand-off ranges of around 300 km. On 25 June 2016, HAL conducted the first test flight of a Su-30MKI fitted with a BrahMos-A missile from Nashik, India. The first air launch of BrahMos from a Su-30MKI was successfully carried out on 22 November 2017.  India is planning to upgrade its Su-30MKI fighters with Russian Phazotron Zhuk-AE Active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars. The X band radar can track 30 aerial targets in the track-while-scan mode and engage six targets simultaneously in attack mode. AESA technology offers improved performance and reliability compared with traditional mechanically scanned array radars. On 18 August 2010, India's Minister of Defence A K Antony stated the current estimated cost for the upgrade was and the aircraft are likely to be upgraded in phases beginning in 2012.  The Indian Defence Ministry proposed several upgrades for the Su-30MKI to the Indian Parliament, including the fitting of Russian Phazotron Zhuk-AE AESA radars starting in 2012. During MMRCA trials the Zhuk-AE AESA radar demonstrated significant capabilities, including ground-mapping modes and the ability to detect and track aerial targets. At the 2011 MAKS air-show, Irkut chairman Alexy Fedorov offered an upgrade package with an improved radar, and reduced radar signature to the Indian fleet to make them "Super Sukhois".  In 2012, upgrades of the earlier 80 Su-30MKIs involves equipping them with stand-off missiles with a range of 300 km; a request for information (ROI) was issued for such weapons. In 2011, India issued a request for information to MBDA for the integration of the Brimstone ground attack missile and the long-range Meteor air-to-air missile.  In February 2017, it was reported that the planes would be upgraded with AL-41F turbofan engines, same as the ones on Sukhoi Su-35. In August 2017, the Indian government cleared a proposal of Rs. 30,000 crore to equip the planes with new reconnaissance pods.  India is planning to increase Su-30MKIs BVR engagement capability by arming its entire fleet with the indigenous Astra BVR missile having a range of over 100 km and Israeli Derby after it was found that the R-77 active-radar homing BVR missile has inadequate performance. In September 2019, the Astra was in multiple user-trials by Indian Air Force to validate its lethality for the Su-30MKI.

Design.

Characteristics.

The Su-30MKI is a highly integrated twin-finned aircraft. The airframe is constructed of titanium and high-strength aluminium alloys. The engine intake ramps and nacelles are fitted with trouser fairings to provide a continuous streamlined profile between the nacelles and the tail beams. The fins and horizontal tail consoles are attached to tail beams. The central beam section between the engine nacelles consists of the equipment compartment, fuel tank and the brake parachute container. The fuselage head is of semi-monocoque construction and includes the cockpit, radar compartments and the avionics bay.  Su-30MKI aerodynamic configuration is a longitudinal triplane with relaxed stability. The canard increases the aircraft lift ability and deflects automatically to allow high angle of attack (AoA) flights allowing it to perform Pugachev's Cobra. The integral aerodynamic configuration combined with thrust vectoring results in extremely capable manoeuvrability, taking off and landing characteristics. This high agility allows rapid deployment of weapons in any direction as desired by the crew. The canard notably assists in controlling the aircraft at large angles-of-attack and bringing it to a level flight condition. The aircraft has a fly-by-wire (FBW) with quadruple redundancy. Dependent on flight conditions, signals from the control stick position transmitter or the FCS may be coupled to remote control amplifiers and combined with feedback signals from acceleration sensors and rate gyros. The resultant control signals are coupled to the high-speed electro-hydraulic actuators of the elevators, rudders and the canard. The output signals are compared and, if the difference is significant, the faulty channel is disconnected. FBW is based on a stall warning and barrier mechanism which prevents stalls through dramatic increases of control stick pressure, allowing a pilot to effectively control the aircraft without exceeding the angle of attack and acceleration limitations. Although the maximum angle of attack is limited by the canards, the FBW acts as an additional safety mechanism.  The Su-30MKI has a range of 3,000 km with internal fuel which ensures a 3.75 hour combat mission. Also, it has an in-flight refueling (IFR) probe that retracts beside the cockpit during normal operation. The air refueling system increases the flight duration up to 10 hours with a range of 8,000 km at a cruise height of 11 to 13 km. Su-30MKIs can also use the Cobham 754 buddy refueling pods.  The Su-30MKI's radar cross-section (RCS) is reportedly from 4 to 20 square metres.

Cockpit.

The displays include a customised version of the Israeli Elbit Su 967 head-up display (HUD) consisting of bi-cubic phase conjugated holographic displays and seven multifunction liquid-crystal displays, six 127 mm × 127 mm and one 152 mm × 152 mm. Flight information is displayed on four LCD displays which include one for piloting and navigation, a tactical situation indicator, and two for display systems information including operating modes and overall status. Variants of this HUD have also been chosen for the IAF's Mikoyan MiG-27 and SEPECAT Jaguar upgrades for standardisation. The rear cockpit has a larger monochrome display for air-to-surface missile guidance.  The Su-30MKI on-board health and usage monitoring system (HUMS) monitors almost every aircraft system and sub-system, and can also act as an engineering data recorder. From 2010, indigenously designed and built HUDs and Multi-Function Displays (MFD) were produced by the Delhi-based Samtel Group Display Systems.  The crew are provided with zero-zero NPP Zvezda K-36DM ejection seats. The rear seat is raised for better visibility. The cockpit is provided with containers to store food and water reserves, a waste disposal system and extra oxygen bottles. The K-36DM ejection seat is inclined at 30°, to help the pilot resist aircraft accelerations in air combat.

Avionics.

The forward-facing NIIP N011M Bars (Panther) is a powerful integrated passive electronically scanned array radar. The N011M is a digital multi-mode dual frequency band radar. The N011M can function in air-to-air and air-to-land/sea mode simultaneously while being tied into a high-precision laser-inertial or GPS navigation system. It is equipped with a modern digital weapons control system as well as anti-jamming features. N011M has a 400 km search range and a maximum 200 km tracking range, and 60 km in the rear hemisphere. The radar can track 15 air targets and engage 4 simultaneously. These targets can even include cruise missiles and motionless helicopters. The Su-30MKI can function as a "mini-AWACS" as a director or command post for other aircraft. The target co-ordinates can be transferred automatically to at least four other aircraft. The radar can detect ground targets such as tanks at 40–50 km. The Bars radar will be replaced by Zhuk-AESA in all Su-30MKI aircraft.  OLS-30 laser-optical Infra-red search and track includes a day and night FLIR capability and is used in conjunction with the helmet mounted sighting system. The OLS-30 is a combined IRST/LR device using a cooled, broad waveband sensor. Detection range is up to 90 km, while the laser ranger is effective to 3.5 km. Targets are displayed on the same LCD display as the radar. Israeli LITENING targeting pod is used to target laser guided munitions. The original Litening pod includes a long range FLIR, a TV camera, laser spot tracker to pick up target designated by other aircraft or ground forces, and an electro-optical point and inertial tracker, which enables engagement of the target even when partly obscured by clouds or countermeasures; it also integrates a laser range-finder and flash-lamp powered laser designator for the delivery of laser-guided bombs, cluster and general-purpose bomb.  The aircraft is fitted with a satellite navigation system (A-737 GPS compatible), which permits it to make flights in all weather, day and night. The navigation complex includes the high accuracy SAGEM Sigma-95 integrated global positioning system and ring laser gyroscope inertial navigation system. Phase 3 of further development of the MKI, will integrate avionic systems being developed for the Indo-Russian Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft programme.  Sukhoi Su-30MKI has electronic counter-measure systems. The RWR system is of Indian design, developed by India's DRDO, called "Tarang", ("Wave" in English). It has direction finding capability and is known to have a programmable threat library. The RWR is derived from work done on an earlier system for India's MiG-23BNs known as the Tranquil, which is now superseded by the more advanced Tarang series. Elta EL/M-8222 a self-protection jammer developed by Israel Aircraft Industries is the MKI's standard EW pod, which the Israeli Air Force uses on its F-15s. The ELTA El/M-8222 Self Protection Pod is a power-managed jammer, air-cooled system with an ESM receiver integrated into the pod. The pod contains an antenna on the forward and aft ends, which receive the hostile RF signal and after processing deliver the appropriate response.

Propulsion.

The Su-30MKI is powered by two Lyulka-Saturn AL-31FP turbofans, each rated at 12,500 kgf (27,550 lbf) of full after-burning thrust, which enable speeds of up to Mach 2 in horizontal flight and a rate of climb of 230 m/s. The mean time between overhaul is reportedly 1,000 hours with a full-life span of 3,000 hours; the titanium nozzle has a mean time between overhaul of 500 hours. In early 2015, Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated before Parliament that the AL-31FP had suffered numerous failures, between the end of 2012 and early 2015, a total of 69 Su-30MKI engine-related failures had occurred; commons causes were bearing failures due to metal fatigue and low oil pressure, in response several engine modifications were made to improve lubrication, as well as the use of higher quality oil and adjustments to the fitting of bearings.  The Su-30MKI's AL-31FP powerplant built on the earlier AL-31FU, adding two-plane thrust vectoring nozzles are mounted 32 degrees outward to longitudinal engine axis (i.e. in the horizontal plane) and can be deflected ±15 degrees in one plane. The canting allows the aircraft to produce both roll and yaw by vectoring each engine nozzle differently; this allows the aircraft to create thrust vectoring moments about all three rotational axes, pitch, yaw and roll. Engine thrust is adjusted via a conventional engine throttle lever as opposed to a strain-gauge engine control stick. The aircraft is controlled by a standard control stick. The pilot can activate a switch for performing difficult maneuvers; while this is enabled, the computer automatically determines the deflection angles of the swiveling nozzles and aerodynamic surfaces.

Operational history.

The Sukhoi Su-30MKI is the most potent fighter jet in service with the Indian Air Force in the late 2000s. The MKIs are often fielded by the IAF in bilateral and multilateral air exercises. India exercised its Su-30MKIs against the Royal Air Force's Tornado ADVs in October 2006. This was the first large-scale bilateral aerial exercise with any foreign air force during which the IAF used its Su-30MKIs extensively. This exercise was also the first in 43 years with the RAF. During the exercise, the RAF Air Chief Marshal Glenn Torpy was given permission by the IAF to fly the MKI. RAF's Air Vice Marshal, Christopher Harper, praised the MKI's dogfight ability, calling it "absolutely masterful in dogfights".  In July 2007, the Indian Air Force fielded the MKI during the "Indra-Dhanush" exercise with Royal Air Force's Eurofighter Typhoon. This was the first time that the two jets had taken part in such an exercise. The IAF did not allow their pilots to use the radar of the MKIs during the exercise so as to protect the highly classified N011M Bars. Also in the exercise were RAF Tornado F3s and a Hawk. RAF Tornado pilots were candid in their admission of the Su-30MKI's superior manoeuvring in the air, and the IAF pilots were impressed by the Typhoon's agility.  In 2004, India sent Su-30MKs, an earlier variant of the Su-30MKI, to take part in war games with the United States Air Force (USAF) during "Cope India 04". The results have been widely publicised, with the Indians winning "90% of the mock combat missions" against the USAF's F-15C. The parameters of the exercise heavily favored the IAF; none of the six 3rd Wing F-15Cs were equipped with the newer long-range, active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars and, at India's request, the U.S. agreed to mock combat at 3-to-1 odds and without the use of simulated long-range, radar-guided AIM-120 AMRAAMs for beyond-visual-range kills. In Cope India 05, the Su-30MKIs reportedly beat the USAF's F-16s.  In July 2008, the IAF sent 6 Su-30MKIs and 2 Il-78MKI aerial-refueling tankers, to participate in the Red Flag exercise. The IAF again did not allow their pilots to use the radar of the MKIs during the exercise so as to protect the highly classified N011M Bars. In October 2008, a video surfaced on the internet which featured a USAF colonel, Terrence Fornof, criticising Su-30MKI's performance against the F-15C, engine serviceability issues, and high friendly kill rate during the Red Flag exercise. Several of his claims were later rebutted by the Indian side and the USAF also distanced itself from his remarks.  In June 2010, India and France began the fourth round of their joint air exercises, "Garuda", at the Istres Air Base in France. During Garuda, the IAF and the French Air Force were engaged in various missions ranging from close combat engagement of large forces, slow mover protection, protecting and engaging high value aerial assets. This exercise marked the first time the Su-30MKI took part in a military exercise in France.  The Indian Air Force first took part in the United States Air Force's Red Flag exercise in 2008. Participating in Red Flag costs the IAF 100 crore (US$17.5 million) each time. To reduce costs, the IAF decided to take part once every five years. The IAF is taking part in the Red Flag exercise in July 2013, at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, United States. For the exercise, it is dispatching eight Su-30MKIs, two Lockheed C-130J Hercules tactical aircraft, two Ilyushin Il-78 (NATO reporting name "Midas") mid-air refueling tankers, one Ilyushin Il-76 (NATO reporting name "Candid") heavy-lift aircraft, and over 150 personnel.  The IAF again fielded its MKIs in the Garuda-V exercise with France in June 2014, where they manoeuvred in mixed groups with other IAF aircraft and French Rafales. On 21 July 2015, India and UK began the bilateral exercise named "Indradhanush" with aircraft operating from three Royal Air Force bases. The exercises included both Beyond Visual Range (BVR) and Within Visual Range (WVR) exercises between the Su-30MKI and Eurofighter Typhoon. Indian media reported the results were in favour of the IAF with a score of 12-0 at WVR engagements. They also claim that the IAF Su-30MKIs held an edge over the Typhoons in BVR engagements though not in as dominating a manner. The RAF issued a statement that the results being reported by the Indian media did not reflect the results of the exercise. According to Aviation International News "In close combat, thrust vector control on the Flankers more than compensated for the greater thrust-to-weight ratio of the Typhoon".  On 27 February 2019, next day after 2019 Balakot airstrike, two Su-30MKI on Combat air patrol were attacked by multiple Pakistani F-16 using AMRAAM missiles. All of the missiles were successfully evaded. In the aftermath, Pakistani Air Force stated that it had downed an Indian Sukhoi Su-30MKI in the aerial skirmish. The Indian Air Force said this statement was a cover up for the loss of a Pakistani F-16 fighter, stating that all dispatched Sukhoi aircraft returned safely. The only confirmed loss from the engagement was the MiG-21. On 8 October 2019, during the Indian Air Force Day celebrations, in a bid to prove its claim, IAF flew the same Su-30MKI that Pakistan claimed had been shot down.  On 4 March 2019, an Indian Su-30MKI shot down a Pakistani drone in Indian airspace, according to local media reports.

Accidents.

On 30 April 2009, a Su-30MKI crashed in the Pokhran region of Rajasthan, around 170 km from Jaisalmer, killing one of its two pilots. An investigation found that the crash was caused by inadvertent toggling of critical switches positioned behind the pilots and outside their field of view, which disabled the flight control system. Critical switches identified by investigators were inhibited.  On 30th November 2009,a Su-30MKI crashed during routine training sortie at Jetha Ki Dhani near Pokhran firing ranges in Rajasthan.The two pilots, Wing Commander Srivastava and Flight Lieutenant Arora, bailed out safely.  On 13 December 2011, a Su-30MKI crashed, with both the pilots ejecting safely. The aircraft had taken off from the Lohegaon Indian Air Force Base near Pune, crashing at Wade-Bholai village, 20 kilometres from Pune. Preliminary reports said that the crash was due to a malfunction in the fly-by-wire system. Wing Commander Gurkirat Singh Sohal, the pilot of the plane, was conferred with the Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry).  On 19 February 2013, a Su-30MKI crashed in Rajasthan's Jaisalmer district and both pilots bailing out safely. There was no loss of life on ground.  On 14 October 2014, a Su-30MKI crashed in Theoor near Pune in a grassy patch of land. The pilot and co-pilot were safe and there was no deaths at ground.  On 19 May 2015, a Su-30MKI crashed at Assam's Nagaon district in Laokhowa. The aircraft developed a technical problem that forced the pilot to abandon the aircraft. The pilot and copilot ejected safely and the aircraft crashed in dense forest.

The Sukhoi Su-30MKI (NATO reporting name: Flanker-H) is a twinjet multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russia's Sukhoi and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force (IAF). A variant of the Sukhoi Su-30, it is a heavy, all-weather, long-range fighter.


Biography.

Rahder was born in Lubuk Begalung, the Dutch East Indies, now a subdistrict of Padang, where his father was governor of the west coast of Sumatra. The fact that he requested as a birthday present a library when he was five years old suggests that he was a precocious child.  He earned his doctorate at the University of Utrecht for an edition of the text of Daśabhûmikasûtra (1926). Because of his interest in Buddhism and linguistics, he not only studied Sanskrit and Pali, but also Chinese, Japanese and many other languages. After working for several years on the Buddhist Dictionary Hôbôgirin (published by the Maison Franco-Japonaise in Tokyo), he was appointed Professor of Sanskrit, Avestan, Old Persian and principles of Indo-Germanic linguistics at the University of Utrecht (1930).  In 1933, during one of his many visits to the Far East, Rahder shared a trip on the Trans-Siberian Railway with poet Langston Hughes who characterized Rahder as "a famous authority on obscure Oriental languages," who, having lost his luggage, "had nothing with him but paper and pencils, not even a change of clothing for the trip across the Soviet Union." ("I Wonder as I Wander," Langston Hughes, Hill and Wang Publishers,pages 233-4, 1956  Barely a year later, he exchanged the chair for that in Japanese language and literature at Leiden University. In 1946 he resigned from his post at Leiden, and joined the faculty at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where he had been a visiting professor during 1937–1938. The following year he went to Yale University, where he was Professor of Japanese from 1947 until his retirement in 1965.

Johannes Rahder (December 27, 1898 – March 3, 1988), Dutch Orientalist, professor of Japanese at the University of Leiden (1931–1946) and Yale University (1947–1965).


History.

The Valdarno chicken takes its name from the Valdarno, the valley of the Arno river. It was in the past extensively raised in the lower part of the valley between Florence and the Tyrrhenian Sea and in the plains surrounding Pisa, in the areas of comuni such as Cerreto Guidi, Pontedera, Empoli, Poggibonsi and San Miniato.  The first description of the Valdarno chicken is that given by Pochini, who recommends it above all others as suitable for both small- and large-scale rearing, for its rapid growth and the maternal instinct of the hens, but who notes that it requires space and does not adapt well to close confinement. He illustrates four colour varieties, black, white, buff, and cuckoo, and notes that the black and the white are the most common. The first breed standard was presented by Maggi at a conference in Mantua in 1905; the author believed the breed to date from before 1848 and noted the predominance of the black variety, as evidenced by the local saying ""pollo nero, pollo vero"", or "black chicken, real chicken". The breed was described by both Pascal and Faelli in the same year.  In the following years the Valdarno then became the subject of extended and heated discussion of its authenticity, and of whether it should be considered a variety of the Livornese. Although its authenticity was eventually recognised, its numbers declined owing to competition from the White Leghorn, and despite various attempts by breeders to preserve it, continued to decline through most of the 20th century until it had virtually disappeared. Recent reconstitution and recovery of the breed was based on a small number of autochthonous birds found in the Sienese countryside, with out-crossing to Bresse and Castellana Negra. The first results were presented at Reggio Emilia in 1998, and were well received. Although numbers remain low, the Valdarno is bred to the 1905 standard, and is included in the official standard of the Federazione Italiana Associazioni Avicole, the federation of Italian poultry associations, which is the authority governing poultry breeding in Italy.  Breed numbers remain low. A study published in 2007 used a figure of approximately 200 for the total breeding stock, of which approximately 50 were cocks.

Characteristics.

The Valdarno is black, with dark green lights. The legs are a dark slate colour, and the beak is black. The skin is white. The comb is medium-large, with 5–6 points. The wattles are medium-long and red, the ear-lobes oval and porcelain white. Average weight is for cocks, for hens. The eggs are white and weigh at least 55 g. Ring size is 18 mm for cocks, 16 mm for hens.

The Valdarno is a breed of black dual-purpose chicken from the lower part of the Valdarno, the valley of the Arno river, in Tuscany, central Italy. It became virtually extinct in the 20th century, but the population is recovering. It is a quite different breed from the Valdarnese, which originates in the upper Valdarno, and is white.


Early life and education.

Brownlee was born in Youngstown, Ohio. He grew up without much exposure to classical music, but had an extremely musical childhood, playing trumpet, guitar and drums, and singing Gospel music in church. His first gigs were at an amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio, singing pop and show tunes. Brownlee attended Anderson University in Indiana for his undergraduate degree and Indiana University Jacobs School of Music for graduate studies. He studied with soprano Costanza Cuccaro, David Starkey, and Fritz Robertson. While a graduate student, he became a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, his desire to become a member was due in large part to his association with members of its Alpha chapter, founded at Indiana University Bloomington in January 1911. He was officially initiated into the Indianapolis Alumni Chapter in the fall of 1999, but considers himself close to the founding chapter and was involved in many of its activities while a student. He became a life member in 2008.  Brownlee participated in young artist programs at the Seattle Opera and the Wolf Trap Opera Company.

Career.

Brownlee's professional stage debut took place in 2002 as Almaviva in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville" with Virginia Opera. Brownlee made his Metropolitan Opera debut in a new production of "Il Barbiere di Siviglia" in 2007. The role has since become one of his most recognizable and famous. He has subsequently appeared in "Il Barbiere" in Vienna, Milan, Berlin, Madrid, Dresden, Munich, Baden-Baden, Hamburg, Tokyo, New York, Washington, San Diego, Seattle, and Boston. Brownlee's career highlights include performances of "The Barber of Seville" at the Vienna State Opera, the Boston Lyric Opera and Madrid's Teatro Real. He has appeared in Rossini's "L'italiana in Algeri" and "La Cenerentola" at Milan's La Scala, as Belfiore in Rossini's "Il viaggio a Reims" in Brussels, and as Tonio in Donizetti's "La fille du régiment" at the Cincinnati Opera. He has also received acclaim in Rossini's "Armida", alongside Renée Fleming, in the famously challenging role of Tonio in "La fille du régiment", and as Arturo in "I puritani" at the Metropolitan Opera. In 2014 Brownlee, Juan Diego Flórez, and Javier Camarena were called "The Three Tenors," and said to "represent a new golden age in high male voices and in the singular thrill of their top notes."  In concert, Brownlee has performed in Handel's "Messiah" with the Houston Symphony and the San Francisco Symphony. He has given recitals under the auspices of the Marilyn Horne Foundation, and was featured in one of that Foundation's Gala Concerts at Lincoln Center. In May 2010, Brownlee performed a concert with mezzo-soprano Denyce Graves in the United States Supreme Court Building for the Supreme Court justices. He also gives recitals with selections from his "Spiritual Sketches" album with Damien Sneed, new arrangements of traditional music, including for an NPR "Tiny Desk Concert".  In a departure from his usual repertoire, he created the role of Syme in Lorin Maazel's opera "1984" in its world premiere at London's Royal Opera House on May 3, 2005. In 2015 he will play Charlie Parker in the premiere of Daniel Schnyder's opera "Yardbird" at Opera Philadelphia.

Personal life.

Brownlee lives in Atlanta with his wife, Kendra, and their two children. He is a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers. He also likes photography and playing table tennis, and is an avid salsa dancer. He sang the national anthem at Heinz Field on November 15, 2015 when the Steelers played the Cleveland Browns.

Lawrence Brownlee (born 1972) is an American operatic tenor particularly associated with the bel canto repertoire. Describing his voice, Speight Jenkins, general director of the Seattle Opera, said: "There are other singers that sing this repertory very well, but I don't think anyone else has quite as beautiful a sound and as rounded a tone," and praise his "incredible top notes", adding about his high F (F) in "Credeasi, misera": "With him it's not a scream, it's a beautiful sound." Mezzo-soprano Joyce DiDonato adds: "He is always in service of the music. His natural instrument is just incredibly beautiful. The word 'honey' comes to mind. He also has technical prowess and agility."


Etymology.

"Ad" is a Latin preposition expressing direction toward in space or time (e.g. "ad nauseam", "ad infinitum", "ad hoc", "ad libidem", "ad valorem", "ad hominem"). It is also used as a prefix in Latin word formation.  "Astra" is the accusative plural form of the Latin word "astrum",'star' (from Greek "astron" 'a star', derived from PIE root "ster-").

Mottos.

"Ad astra" is used as, or as part of, the motto of many organizations, most prominently, air forces. It has also been adopted as a proper name for various unrelated things (publications, bands, games, etc.). It likewise sees general use as a popular Latin tag.

"Ad astra per alas porci".

"To the stars on the wings of a pig"

"Ad astra per aspera".

"To the stars through difficulties;" "a rough road leads to the stars;" or "Through hardships, to the stars."

"De profundis ad astra".

"From the depths to the stars."

"Per ardua ad astra".

"Through adversity to the stars" or "Through struggle to the stars."

"Per aspera ad astra".

"Through hardships to the stars" or "To the stars through difficulties."

"Per audacia ad astra".

"Through boldness to the stars."

"Quam celerrime ad astra".

"speedily to the stars."

"Sic itur ad astra".

"Thus one goes to the stars."  "Such is the pathway to the stars."  "Reach for the stars."

Ad astra is a Latin phrase meaning "to the stars". The phrase has origins with Virgil, who wrote in his "Aeneid": ""sic itur ad astra"" ('thus one journeys to the stars') and ""opta ardua pennis astra sequi"" ('desire to pursue the high[/hard to reach] stars on wings'). Another origin is Seneca the Younger, who wrote in "Hercules": ""non est ad astra mollis e terris via"" ('there is no easy way from the earth to the stars').


Life.

Born in Temerin on 26 November 1857 into the Hungarian nobility as son of Anton Graf Szécsen von Temerin (1819–1896), an Austro-Hungarian government minister. In 1896, he married Johanna Gräfin Mikes von Zabola (1866–1930) in Vienna.  Count Szécsen joined the Austro-Hungarian foreign service and served inter alia in Rome. In November 1895, he was appointed Second Section Chief at the Foreign Ministry in Vienna and was promoted to First Section Chief in January 1900. At the insistence of Count Tisza, he was appointed despite his relatively limited experience to serve as the Dual Monarchy's ambassador to the Holy See in November 1901, a prominent posting given the close connections between the House of Habsburg and the papacy.  Count Szécsen, considered an able diplomat with a "solid, practical mind and a masterful grasp of the workings of diplomacy", apparently turned down an offer to succeed Count von Aehrenthal as ambassador to St. Petersburg upon the latter's appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1906.  In early January 1911, Count Szécsen was appointed as ambassador to France, considered one of the most prestigious ambassadorships at the time, and presented his credentials on 21 March. In that capacity, he played a key role during the July Crisis in 1914. After returning to Vienna, he became a member of the Upper House ("Herrenhaus") in 1916 and served as a Hofmarschall in Hungary from 1916 to 1918.  Count Szécsen had been invested as a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1908.  His son Nikolaus was executed by Russian soldiers at Mór, Hungary, on 28 March 1945.  Count Szécsen died in Gyöngyösszentkereszt on 18 May 1926.

Nikolaus (Anton) Graf Szécsen von Temerin () (26 November 1857 – 18 May 1926), was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat of Hungarian origin serving as ambassador at Paris at the outbreak of World War I.


Early life.

Winward was born in Bolton, Greater Manchester, England. She attended Turton High School Media Arts College in Bromley Cross, South Turton, England.

Personal life.

Winward was engaged to footballer David Dunn. Their daughter Mia was born at home in Edgworth, Lancashire. England on 12 June 2005. Winward and Dunn split in September of that year.

Career.

In January 2006, Winward appeared and participated on the ITV show "Soapstar Superstar".  In late 2006, she was voted number 73 in the FHM's "100 Sexiest Women in the World".  Winward first appeared as Katie Sugden in the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale" in July 2001 at the age of 16. In 2002, Winward was nominated for "Most Popular Newcomer" award at the National Television Awards for the role of Katie Sugden in "Emmerdale". In November 2014, Winward announced that she would leave "Emmerdale" in February 2015 after 13 years to pursue other interests, projects and acting roles. On 5 February, Katie died due to a fall at Wylie's Farm after falling through rotten floorboards after being pushed to the ground by her ex-lover and brother-in-law Robert Sugden (previously Karl Davies/now Ryan Hawley).  In May 2015, it was announced that Winward was to appear in the second series of the ITV drama "Prey". Winward will play and take on the role of Lucy a heavily pregnant daughter of prison officer David Murdoch (Philip Glenister) who is threatened, leaving her father on the run after finding himself on the wrong side of the law. The second series aired in December 2015.

Samantha Kate Winward (born 12 October 1985) is an English actress, singer and model. She is best known for playing the role of Katie Sugden in the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale" from 2001 to 2015.


Playing career.

Mitten signed with Manchester United in 1936, and was in the junior side with future colleagues Stan Pearson and Johnny Carey. However, due to the suspension of league football owing to the outbreak of war, his first professional appearance did not come until 1946.  During the war, Mitten served in the Royal Air Force, guesting for whatever club was nearest his station. He had two seasons playing for Chelsea and made 22 guest appearances for Southampton, scoring five goals.  After the war, Mitten rejoined Manchester United and proved himself as an excellent winger during the early years of Matt Busby's time at the club. He was part of a talented forward line alongside Jimmy Delaney, Stan Pearson, Jack Rowley and Johnny Morris, which became known as the 'Famous Five' of Old Trafford.  In his four years at United, he helped the club finish as runners-up in the league three times and in fourth place once. He also played in the 4–2 win over Blackpool in the 1948 FA Cup Final. Over the course of his United career, he made 152 appearances in total, scoring 61 goals.

The "Bogota Bandit".

In 1950, United went on a 12-game tour of America, where they played in front of massive, sell-out crowds. It was at this point that Mitten questioned the small amount of money footballers received – the maximum wage in Britain was £12 a week – compared to their evident global popularity. This point was underlined when two other British footballers, Neil Franklin and George Mountford signed for the same Independiente Santa Fe in Colombia, where the league had broken away from FIFA control, which meant that clubs did not have to pay transfer fees to foreign clubs, resulting in many top players from abroad playing in Colombia in a period nicknamed El Dorado. During the tour, Mitten was approached by a wealthy Colombian businessmen to play for Independiente Santa Fe in Bogotá. Mitten's signing-on fee was reputedly £5,000 plus a weekly wage of at least £40. For this, he was given the nickname "The Bogotá Bandit", which later became the title of his autobiography. He played in Colombia for a year, scoring fifteen times in 34 games, and United's form suffered in his absence.  At the end of his first year Colombia joined FIFA and became subject to FIFA regulations. As Manchester United still held his registration, Mitten was unable to play for anyone but them and had to return to England. He was, however, offered a contract by Santiago Bernabéu, the manager of Real Madrid, who was in the process of forming the all-conquering team that would feature Alfredo Di Stéfano, Francisco Gento and Héctor Rial. He turned down this offer, and later stated his regret at not being able to be a part of the successful Real side.

Return to England.

Upon his return, Mitten was subject to a ban by The Football Association, who fined him six months' wages and banned him from playing for the same period. He was also ostracised by Busby, who sold him to Fulham for £22,000 in December 1951. Now aged 31, Mitten made 16 appearances and scored six goals in his first season at Craven Cottage, but could not save the club from relegation to the Second Division. The next season, he played 40 times for another six goals, forming a pair with the young Johnny Haynes. During his time at Fulham, he was picked for the London XI in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup.

International career.

Mitten made one appearance for England in an unofficial charity match against Scotland in 1946.

Management.

While still a player, Mitten was appointed player-coach of Mansfield Town. Mitten joined the club in February 1956 and remained there for over two years until June 1958. He played 100 league games, scoring 25 league goals. His reign was a success and Mitten's side was praised for their entertaining football. In the 1957–58 season, his side scored 100 goals in League. In his biography, Mitten stated: "The Mansfield job was the best I ever had in football". At Mansfield, he also gave a debut his 16-year-old son, John, who later went on to play for a number of clubs, including Coventry City.  In June 1958, Mitten left Mansfield and joined Newcastle United. Initially, he enjoyed success at the club and steered the club to a pair of solid mid-table finishes, despite an ongoing power struggle between chairman William McKeag (who had installed Mitten and gave him full control over the team) and director and former manager Stan Seymour (who felt the board should be able to veto Mitten's tactics and team selections). Newcastle gained a reputation for free-scoring football under Mitten, but they also proved to be defensively frail, and they ultimately paid the price for this in 1961, when they were relegated after a season in which they scored 86 goals but conceded 109. Mitten was allowed to remain in charge and attempt to steer the club back into the First Division, but instead they found themselves fighting relegation to the Third Division, eventually resulting in Mitten's dismissal a few months into the season. While at Newcastle, he was also involved in the George Eastham affair, which involved another player who challenged the authorities on player's rights.  Subsequent to this, he made a brief playing comeback, serving as player-manager at non-league Altrincham before retiring to the sport of greyhound racing, taking up the position of Assistant Racing Manager at White City Stadium in 1977.

Personal and family.

Several of Mitten's brothers also played professional football, and many male members of his extended family, into the next generation or two, were at least semi-professional.  Mitten died in January 2002, two weeks before what would have been his 81st birthday.  His nephew Albert Scanlon (1935–2009), signed for Manchester United soon after Mitten's departure in the early 1950s and remained with the club until 1960. He was a survivor of the Munich air disaster.  His great-nephew Andy Mitten is a football journalist and has been an editor of the Manchester United fanzine "United We Stand" since the late 1980s, while another great nephew, Sam Mitten, is on the books at Stockport County.

Charles Mitten (17 January 1921 – 2 January 2002) was an English football player and manager who came through the junior ranks at Manchester United. Over his career, Mitten played for Fulham, Mansfield Town and Altrincham in England, and for Independiente Santa Fe in Colombia, where he had a notable stint, and where he and a number of other players left to escape the maximum wage that was imposed for footballers in England at the time. After his playing career finished, he was involved in football management.


History.

Boreham is listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Borham", thought to mean 'village on a hill'.  Local legend holds that highwayman Dick Turpin rode down the route than now forms part of the A12 on his famous ride from London to York, although historians now believe the ride never occurred. In the 1930s Boreham House and its surrounding land of was bought by car magnate Henry Ford. In addition to using the house as a school for training Ford tractor mechanics, the company's British chairman, Lord Perry, established Fordson Estates Limited there, and founded the Henry Ford Institute of Agricultural Engineering, an agricultural college. The house also served as the temporary home for the National College of Agricultural Engineering in 1962. This moved to Silsoe, Bedfordshire as Silsoe College later joining with Cranfield University. The Silsoe campus closed at the end of 2007.  In 1952 a Ham class minesweeper, HMS "Boreham", was named after the village.  Boreham remained relatively small until the mid-1970s when a programme of house and shop building increased its size significantly.  Boreham contains one of England's few remaining independent family-run gunsmiths, which was established in 1795.

Geography and administration.

In addition to being a village, Boreham is a civil parish which has a parish council  The parish is bounded at its south by the River Chelmer. The village, which lies on a Roman road (now a modern trunk road, the A12), has a Norman church, and a public house (The Cock Inn) that dates from the 15th century. The surrounding countryside is slightly hilly and is used to grow crops such as wheat, sugar beet and peas.  The Great Eastern Main Line from Chelmsford to Colchester runs past the village. In the 1970s a bypass was built along the northern edge of the village, along the same route as the A12 and the nearby railway line.  The parish includes the hamlet of Russell Green at the north.  Boreham parish has a population of approximately 4,000 people, and covers about of land.

Landmarks.

New Hall School.

One mile to the northwest of the village is New Hall School, once a palace of Henry VIII known as The Palace of Beaulieu. The estate on which it was built – the manor of Walhfare in Boreham – was granted to the Canons of Waltham Abbey in 1062. After a number of changes of possession, in 1491 it was granted by the Crown to the Earl of Ormond. By this time it had a house called New Hall.  In 1517 New Hall was sold by Thomas Boleyn to Henry VIII of England. The king rebuilt the house in brick at a cost of £17,000. He gave his new palace the name 'Beaulieu', though the name change did not outlast the century. New Hall was later the estate of the Tyrell family and latterly the Hoare banking family. In 1727, Benjamin Hoare commissioned architect Henry Flitcroft to build a new home nearby known as Boreham House, a stately home; the early Georgian mansion is now a Grade I listed building.

Boreham airfield and circuit.

A forest near the village was felled in 1943 to build a military airfield, and the three runways of RAF Boreham opened in 1944. It hosted elements of the US Army Air Forces 394th Medium Bomb Group (flying B-26 Marauder bombers) and later the 315th Troop Carrier Group flying C-47s. After the Second World War the three runways were adapted into a roughly triangular motor racing circuit Boreham Circuit, which held competitive meetings between 1949 and 1952. It was bought by Ford in 1955 for use as a development test track. Ford Motorsport moved to Boreham in 1963, and although some of the track was removed for gravel quarrying in 1996 the remaining track surface continues to be used for testing. Essex Police Air Support Unit have been based at the airfield and in 1990 began using Boreham airfield as a control centre for its fleet of helicopters. From 1997 to 2010, Essex Air Ambulance was also based at the site.

Boreham Interchange.

To the west of Boreham lies the A12 Boreham Interchange, at which is a service facility with a BP petrol station, a McDonald's restaurant, and a Premier Inn motel. On the opposite side of the A12 is another Premier Inn and The Grange public house.

Boreham is a village and civil parish, in Essex, England. The parish is in the City of Chelmsford and Chelmsford Parliament constituency. The village is approximately northeast from the county town of Chelmsford.


Biography.

The early life of Amatore is mostly unknown. The name of Michele Amatore was not given when he was born (probably) in the Nuba mountains of the Sudan. Later he came to be known as "Sulayman al-Nubi". Much later in his life, Amatore said that he remembered that his father's name was "Bolingia" and that his name was Quetto. He recounted that he had been captured when Egyptian slave traders raided their family's village. They killed many old people and took away mostly women and children. Those captured were marched without food to Khartoum where a slave market was still acceptable.  Amatore first came to notice when he was bought as a slave by Dr. Luigi Castagnone when he was about six years old. This doctor was the physician employed by Mohammed Ali Pasha and it was he who devised the name of "Michele Amatore". In Castagnone's employ, Amatore received a basic education and became a Christian. Eventually he left for Italy, accompanied by a friend of the doctor's.

Italy.

Amatore established himself in Italy and took on Italian nationality. He enrolled as a soldier and marksman in the specialised Bersaglieri regiment of the Piedmontese army in 1848, when Amatore would have been about eighteen. In 1848 and 1849 he and his regiment from northwest Italy were involved in a campaign against Austria during the first unrest that led to Italian unification. Ten years later he was again involved in a campaign against Austria; 1859 also saw him promoted to corporal. By 1863 he had attained the rank of captain. Amatore served with distinction during the cholera outbreak in Sicily and was decorated by King Victor Emmanuel II, the first King of Italy.  Amatore retired because of problems with his eyesight in 1880. He died at Rosignano Monferrato in the Piedmont region of northern Italy on 7 July 1883.

Captain Michele Amatore or "Sulayman al-Nubi" (1826 - July 7, 1883) was a Sudanese slave who became a captain in the Bersaglieri of the Italian army. He was decorated for unselfish acts during a cholera outbreak in Sicily.


Description.

The preserve is located at the southern end of the Flint Hills, also known as the Osage Hills. The rocky, rolling prairie stretches from northern Kansas into Oklahoma. Exposed limestone formations make cultivation difficult, and thus the Flint Hills have survived much as they were when they were a hunting ground for area tribes such as the Wichita, Osage, and Kaw. The region is called “The Osage” by Oklahomans, referring to the name of the Native American tribe that occupied this territory and to the county named for them. Pilots call The Osage the “Black Hole” when flying over it at night because it is so lightly populated. Prior to its purchase by the Nature Conservancy in 1989, much of the preserve was within the boundaries of the Barnard Ranch; it had been part of the Chapman-Barnard ranch of. The foreman of the Chapman-Barnard ranch, Ben Johnson, Sr. was a rodeo champion. His son, also a rodeo champion, was Ben Johnson, Jr., an actor who appeared in more than 300 movies and won an Oscar for his role in "The Last Picture Show".  The preserve is bisected by the well-timbered Salt Creek and its tributaries. The eastern portion of the preserve is in the Cross Timbers, a north-south running belt of tangled oak forests that were a major impediment to early travelers heading west. About 10 percent of the preserve is forested and the remainder is tallgrass prairie; the grasses of several species here can grow tall.  The tallgrass prairie owes its existence to fire, whether caused by lightning or manmade. Without fire, the prairie quickly becomes brushland. The Native Americans were aware of this and burned the prairie regularly to nurture new growth of succulent grasses and to kill intrusive trees and shrubs. The Nature Conservancy has continued this practice with a process called “patch burning,” in which about one-third of the prairie is burned each year. This process has proven beneficial not only in providing grazing for bison and cattle, but also for the habitat of the threatened greater prairie chickens, which also inhabit the preserve in small numbers.  Bison are the most prominent attraction of the preserve. In 1993, Oklahoma oilman Kenneth Adams donated 300 bison to the preserve. By 2000, the herd had increased to 1,200. The herd now numbers more than 2,500 and grazes of mostly open range. Bison are rounded up each fall and the excess numbers sold. Cattle are grazed on. The preserve supports 755 plant species, many unique to the tallgrass prairie, and more than 300 bird species. Forest trees include several species of oak, cottonwoods, ash, red cedar, elm, sycamore, and others.  The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve is on what used to be the Osage Indian Reservation. When forced to agree to household allotments of communal land, the Osage retained sub-surface mineral rights on all their former lands. Members of the nation have had what are known as headrights to a portion of this communal resource and are paid a portion of leasing revenues for mineral production. In the early 20th century, the discovery of petroleum on their land made the Osage the richest people per capita in the world in the 1920s and 1930s. But they were subject to harassment, manipulation, fraud and murder in what was known as a 'Reign of Terror' as whites tried to gain control of family members' headrights. While oil production has declined, there are still more than 100 producing oil wells on the preserve, among which the bison graze.  The preserve is home to numerous interesting invertebrates species. In addition to the many species of butterflies and moths that feed and host on the flowering plant biodiversity found there, the prairie mole cricket ("Gryllotalpa major") is a rare insect species found on the preserve. Males congregate in leks in large numbers in the spring months (April–May) to produce loud choruses from calling burrows to attract flying females. In the summer months, the preserve serves as habitat for the endangered American burying beetle ("Nicrophorus americanus"), which plays an important role in nutrient cycling.

Visiting and recreation.

Pawhuska, Oklahoma, is the nearest large town. The Osage Nation has its headquarters here. The preserve may also be entered near Foraker, Oklahoma, and Hewins, Kansas. The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve is open every day from dawn to dusk. There is no admission charge.  The headquarters of the Chapman-Barnard ranch has been converted into a visitor center with restrooms, a gift shop, and the restored bunkhouse in which the cowboys lived. The main building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NR 01000208). The gift shop is open from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m from March to mid-November. Oklahoma State University has a research station at the visitor center.  Near Salt Creek are two hiking trails. One is a short nature trail; the other is a 2-mile (3 km) trail that climbs to overlooks over the creek and through the riparian forest. Frequently, bison are seen just across the fence that separates the hiking area from grazing areas. White-tailed deer are abundant in the wooded areas.  The principal activity for the 10,000 visitors who annually come to the preserve is driving the many dirt roads to observe the numerous bison. Often hundreds of bison may be seen near – and sometimes blocking – the roads. Scenic turnouts along the roads provide broad vistas of the rolling prairie, emerald green in spring, tall and brown in fall, and dotted with wildflowers in the summer.  Noted Osage author John Joseph Mathews had a small cabin in the Osage Hills, where he did much of his writing. At his request, he was buried near his cabin. About 2014 the Nature Conservancy of Oklahoma bought the plot including his cabin and gravesite, and have added it to the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve. The cabin will be preserved and the public will be allowed limited access.

The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve, located in Osage County, Oklahoma near Foraker, Oklahoma, is owned and managed by The Nature Conservancy. It is protected as the largest tract of remaining tallgrass prairie in the world. The preserve contains owned by the Conservancy and another leased in what was the original tallgrass region of the Great Plains that stretched from Texas to Manitoba.


In film and television.

In film, coming of age is a genre of teen films. Coming-of-age films focus on the psychological and moral growth or transition of a protagonist from youth to adulthood. Personal growth and change is an important characteristic of this genre, which relies on dialogue and emotional responses, rather than action. The story is sometimes told in the form of a flashback. Historically, coming-of-age films usually centred on young boys, although coming-of-age films focusing on girls have become more common in the early 21st century.  Films in this subgenre include "Pinocchio" (1940), "Bambi" (1942), " Rebel Without a Cause" (1955), "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–59), "Sleeping Beauty" (1959), "The 400 Blows" (1959), "Oliver!" (1968), "Walkabout" (1971), "Summer of '42" (1971), "American Graffiti" (1973), the original "Star Wars" Trilogy (1977-1983), "Breaking Away" (1979), "Over the Edge" (1979), "The Last American Virgin" (1982), "The Outsiders" (1983), "Rumble Fish" (1983), "Fandango" (1985), "Mischief" (1985), "The Breakfast Club" (1985), "Vision Quest" (1985), "Stand by Me" (1986), "Empire of the Sun" (1987), "Stealing Home" (1988), "Mermaids" (1990), "Flirting" (1991), "Dazed and Confused" (1993), "The Lion King" (1994), "Girl, Interrupted" (1999), "Almost Famous" (2000), "Y Tu Mamá También" (2001), "Spirited Away" (2001), "Dil Chahta Hai" (2001), the "Harry Potter" series (2001–11), "The Motorcycle Diaries" (2003), "Lakshya" (2004), "Happy Days" (2007), "Juno" (2007), "Gamyam" (2008), "Kotha Bangaru Lokam" (2008), "The Reader" (2008), "Moonrise Kingdom" (2012), "The Perks of Being a Wallflower" (2012), "The Spectacular Now", "Fukrey" (2012), (2013), "The Kings of Summer" (2013), "Boyhood" (2014), which was filmed with the same cast over a period of twelve years, "Me and Earl and the Dying Girl" (2015), "Kerintha" (2015), "Sleeping Giant" (2015), "Yevade Subramanyam" (2015), "Moonlight" (2016), "The Edge of Seventeen" (2016), "" (2017), "It" (2017), "2 Cool 2 Be 4gotten" (2017), "Call Me by Your Name" (2017), "Lady Bird" (2017), "Vunnadhi Okate Zindagi" (2017), "Love, Simon" (2018), "Eighth Grade" (2018), "To All the Boys I've Loved Before" (2018), "" (2018), "Bumblebee" (2018), "Mid90s" (2018), "Booksmart" (2019), and "Little Women" (2019).  Films featuring protagonists in particular age groups, such as pre-teens, are "My Girl" (1991), "The Sandlot" (1993), and "Now and Then" (1995) or high school graduates and college students, in films such as "With Honors" (1994), "Can't Hardly Wait" (1998), "American Pie" (1999), "Spider-Man 2" (2004), "Superbad" (2007), "An Education" (2009) and "3 Idiots" (2009).  Coming-of-age television series include "Happy Days" (1974–84), the "Degrassi" franchise (1979–2017), "The Wonder Years" (1988–93), "Boy Meets World" (1993–2000), "Daria" (1997–2001), "Freaks and Geeks" (1999–2000), "Skins" (2007–13), "Glee" (2009–15), "Ano Hi Mita Hana no Namae o Bokutachi wa Mada Shiranai" (2011), "Teen Wolf" (2011–17), Adventure Time (2010-2018) "Steven Universe" (2013–20), "Over the Garden Wall" (2014), "Girl Meets World" (2014–17), "Skam" (2015–17), "Stranger Things" (2016–present), "13 Reasons Why" (2017–2020), "One Day at a Time" (2017–present), "On My Block" (2018–present), "SKAM Austin" (2018–present), and "Sex Education" (2019–present).

In video games.

While not represented as often as in other mediums, coming-of-age stories can also be found in video games such as "Life Is Strange", "Night in the Woods" and the "Persona" series.

In genre studies, a coming-of-age story is a genre of literature, film, and video that focuses on the growth of a protagonist from youth to adulthood ("coming of age"). Coming-of-age stories tend to emphasize dialogue or internal monologue over action, and are often set in the past. The subjects of coming-of-age stories are typically teenagers. The Bildungsroman is a specific subgenre of coming-of-age story.


Early life and education.

Bunny was the third son of Brice Frederick Bunny, a British Victorian county court judge, and his German mother, Marie Hedwig Dorothea Wulston. He was born in St Kilda, Melbourne. He had an affluent and privileged upbringing.  During his childhood, Bunny had an extended trip in Europe, which lasted two years. He returned to Australia trilingual, in English, French and German.  In early 1881, Bunny was enrolled into the University of Melbourne, intending to study civil engineering. Instead, Bunny began his artistic training in 1881 to 1883 in Melbourne at the National Gallery School of Design under O.R. Campbell and George Folingsby. He studied alongside artists such as Fred McCubbin, Aby Altson and John Longstaff. In 1884, at age 20, he moved to London to continue his artistic education. He studied under Phillip Calderon at St Johns Wood Art School for 18 months. Upon meeting the French academic history painter Jean-Paul Laurens in London, Bunny enrolled in Laurens' atelier in Paris, where he studied for 2 years until 1886. Finishing his artistic training, he studied under Pierre Paul Léon Glaize at the Académie Colarossi in 1890.  Critics give responsibility to his cosmopolitan childhood for his ability to assimilate easily into Parisian society and its artistic circles, unlike many other expatriates. He was well respected in Paris, where he remained until 1932.

Career.

Bunny had a traditional and academic education in the arts under Calderon and Laurens. Despite this, Bunny's artistic practice was heavily influenced by, and imitated, his contemporaries. Whilst he was not an avant gardist, Bunny was a modern artist. His early works, before the turn of the century, are described as 'neo-classical style touched with Pre-Raphaelitism' or as symbolist. Mythology, both Christian and classical, provided the subjects for these paintings, seen in the paintings (circa 1890) and "The Descent From the Cross" (circa 1898). The paintings showed an amalgamation of his traditional training, through the technicality, with the more experimental style of the Europeans at the time, seen in the sensibility.  Meeting his wife, Jeanne Heloise Morel, in 1895, his style shifted to a Pre-Raphaelite depiction of romantic, indolent female figures. Morel was continually depicted in these paintings, and has been referred to as Bunny's "eternal muse", such as in the works "" (1906) and "" (1902). These depictions of angelic women suggested the influence of British Pre-Raphaelites John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti.  In 1901 he left the Salon de la Société des Artistes Français for the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. This saw a change in Bunny's style. With growing critical and financial success, Bunny began exploring modernity in his works such as "" (circa 1909). The leisure and languor of the belle-epoque pervaded his paintings, which almost exclusively depicted beautiful women. Bunny married More in 1902, and, in both style and sensibility, his works became distinctively more French. Continually adjusting his oeuvre to reflect the changing styles seen in Europe, especially Paris during the early 20th century, Bunny's artistic style changed again. As art critic John McDonald stated, "He was not a painter of timeless masterpieces, but a versatile professional, ever alert to the changing currents of art fashion." Particularly influenced by Matisse and Sergei Diaghilev's Ballet Russes", "Bunny's works developed into compositions with "heightened colour and abstracted, rhythmical forms". This is seen in many works including "Salomé" (circa 1919)", " (circa 1920) and" " (circa 1921)"." His painting " ("circa 1913) was described by artist and critic George Bell as "a glorious riot of colour from the finest imaginative Australia has produced". Towards the 1920s, Bunny revisited mythology as his subject, this time in a modernist style.  In the late 1920s, Bunny painted many landscapes, including "" (1929) and "Cemetery, South of France" (1920s).  Music was a significant influence over Bunny's art. His mother was a "talented" piano player, and friend of Clara Schumann and Bunny has been described as an "exceptional" piano player himself. In his career, he painted many portraits of notable musicians, including Nellie Melba, Percy Grainger and Ada Crossley. He also produced works such as "Nocturne [The Distant Song]" (circa 1908), "" (circa 1910), and "" (circa 1907), with obvious allusions to music.  Bunny's art continually spoke to a cosmopolitan, cultured audience. His subject matter which portrays mythology, musical and literary allusions and modern dance are suited to "a leisured class of viewers". This was a meditated choice, and is evidence of Bunny's understanding of the market his artworks targeted, namely the middle and upper classes.  Like many artists living and working in Paris during the early 20th century, Bunny had an interest in the Orient. He painted a portrait of Japanese actress Madame Sadayakko, titled "Madame Sada Yakko as Kesa" (circa 1900), which depicted the actress in character from "Kesa," an adaptation of a Kabuki play entitled "Endo Musha." The portrait was praised by "Le Figaro"'s critic for its accurate tone. "By employing a lexicon of orientalism and Japonisme, Bunny tapped into a timeless, borderless belle époque mood".

Later life.

In 1895, Bunny met his wife Jeanne Morel, a fellow art student, who he married in 1902, at age 38. Deborah Edwards states that Bunny was a homosexual, however, as she explicates, "the fin de siecle's two most famous homosexual men, Oscar Wilde and Marcel Proust, demonstrated liaisons with and love of women do not exclude homosexuality." The happiness of his relationship with his wife is unknown. "Some say it was terrible, others are highly romantic."  Bunny led a cosmopolitan lifestyle in Paris, mixing with artists and musicians such as Claude Debussy, Auguste Rodin, Nellie Melba, and Sarah Bernhardt. Sharing his studio with Alastair Cary-Elwes, the grandson of an English baronet, Bunny was continually networking. Whilst still studying under Laurens, Bunny continually attended his teacher's open studios, which allowed him to meet many 'high-society figures'. Additionally, he attended the salons of the well connected artist Jacques-Émile Blanche, Emmi de Némethy and her grandmother the Countess Schärffenberg, the Hungarian poet József Kiss' wife and Madame Ayem, a collector of Gustave Moreau. Thus, Bunny was well connected and supported in Paris. In 1911, Bunny visited Australia with his wife. For many years afterwards, Bunny travelled back and forth between Australia and France. Morel died in 1933. Following almost 50 years living overseas, Bunny moved back to Australia permanently in 1933. He lived on Toorak Road in South Yarra, Victoria. The Depression, his own economic hardship and his wife's death were factors in his relocation to Australia.  Bunny assimilated into the art scene in Melbourne easily, and continued to show his work. This included an annual exhibition in the Macquarie Gallery. He rejected the invitation to join the Australian Academy of Art from Robert Menzies in 1939. Instead he became the Vice President of the Contemporary Art Society established in 1939 in Melbourne.  Bunny died in a private hospital on 25 May 1947, at age 82.

Accolades and achievements.

Deborah Edwards, curator of "Rupert Bunny: Artist in Paris", said Bunny is "unquestionably the most successful artist we (Australia) had in Paris". He regularly exhibited works in Parisian salons. Incomparable to other expatriates, he had a deep intimacy and familiarity with the Parisian art scene. As Australian art critic John McDonald stated, "It is no exaggeration to say that Bunny had the greatest international reputation of any Australian-born painter". He began exhibiting works in the Salon de la Société des Artistes Français in 1888. Bunny also exhibited in the New Salon, the Old Salon and the Salon D'Automne. He was the first Australian to receive an honourable mention in 1890 at the Salon de la Société des Artistes Français for the painting "The Tritons" (circa 1890)"." He also exhibited works internationally, including in Australia, America and England. "Sea Idlyll", exhibited in the Royal Academy, was bought by Alfred Felton, who gave it to the National Gallery of Victoria in 1892. This was to be the first painting of Bunny's that an Australian gallery obtained.  In 1894 Bunny became a member of the Royal Society of British Artists. Engaging in many 'transnational' relationships with other expatriates and cosmopolitans, Bunny extensively networked, particularly with Americans, who formed the majority of expatriates in Paris. Thus, in 1900, he became a member of the American Art Association of Paris. He also frequented the American Club. Also in 1900, his work "Burial of St Catherine of Alexandria" was awarded a bronze medal in the Exposition Universelle, Paris. In 1901, Bunny exhibited two paintings in the Victorian Gold Jubilee Exhibition 1851–1901 in Bendigo, in which he was awarded the gold medal for Best Painting. In 1904 the French government bought his work titled "Aprés" "le Bain" from the New Salon exhibition for the Musee de Luxembourg, Paris. He was the first Australian artist to have works acquired by the French government. Throughout his career, the government acquired 13 of his works, the most acquired from a foreign artist living in Paris by the government. This included "Endormies" (circa 1904), now exhibited in the National Gallery of Victoria, "Summertime" (circa 1907) and "A Summer Morning" (circa 1908), both now exhibited in the Art Gallery of New South Wales.  In 1905 he became a "membre associe" of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. In 1906, the French government purchased its second painting, "Endormies". In 1910, he was on the jury of the Salon d'Automne, which accepted Matisse's "Danse and Musique." Major art critic Gustave Geffroy was a 'prestigious critical admirer' of Bunny's work. In 1939 he became Artist Vice President of the Contemporary Art Society in Melbourne. The National Gallery of Victoria held a retrospective exhibition of Bunny's works, curated by Mary Eagle, which was the first exhibition to honour a living artist in this way. Since his death, there have been several major retrospectives of Bunny's work including "Rupert Bunny: Artist in Paris," curated by Deborah Edwards, which travelled from the Art Gallery of New South Wales to many galleries including the National Gallery of Victoria and the Art Gallery of South Australia in 2010. It showed over 100 of Bunny's works, including monotypes, paintings and drawings. Some of which had never been exhibited in Australia before. "Rupert Bunny: Last Fine Days, A focus exhibition" was curated to compliment Edwards’ "Rupert Bunny: Artist in Paris" in the regional Newcastle Art Gallery.

Rupert Charles Wulsten Bunny (29 September 186425 May 1947) was an Australian painter. Born and raised in Melbourne, Victoria, he achieved success and critical acclaim as an expatriate in "fin-de-siècle" Paris. He gained an honourable mention at the Paris Salon of 1890 with his painting "" and a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition Universelle in 1900 with his "Burial of St Catherine of Alexandria". The French state acquired 13 of his works for the Musée du Luxembourg and regional collections. He was a "sumptuous colourist and splendidly erudite painter of ideal themes, and the creator of the most ambitious Salon paintings produced by an Australian."